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LIBRARY 



OF 



BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL 



LITERATURE. 



EDITED BY 

/ 
GEORGE R. CROOKS, D.D., 



AND 



JOHJS^ F. HURST, D.D. 



^^f 



VOL. III.-THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA AND 

METHODOLOGY. 



NEW YORK: 
PHILLIPS & HUNT. 

CINCINNATI: 

WALDEN & STOWE. 

1884. 




PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT. 



rilHE design of tlie Editors and Publishers of the 
-L Biblical and Theological Libraky is to furnish 
ministers and laymen with a series of works, which, in 
connection with the Commentaries now issuing, shall 
make a compendious apparatus for study. While the 
theology of the volumes will be in harmony with the 
doctrinal standards of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
the aim will be to make the entire Library acceptable 
to all evangelical Christians. 

The following writers will co-operate in the author- 
ship of the series : Dr. Harman, on the Introduction 
to the Stud}^ of the Holy Scriptures ; Dr. Terry, on 
Biblical Hermeneutics ; Drs. Bennett and Whitney, 
on Biblical and Christian Arclipeoloo^v ; Dr. Latimer, 
on Systematic Theology ; the Editors, on Theological 
Encyclopaedia and Methodology ; Dr. Ridgaway, on 
Evidences of Christianity ; Prof. Little, on Christian 
Theism and Modern Speculative Thought; Dr. Crooks, 



6y 



iv PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT. 

on the History of Christian Doctrine ; and Bishop 
Hurst, on the History of the Christian Church. 

In the case of every treatise the latest literature will 
be consulted, and its results incorporated. The works 
comprised in the series will be printed in full octavo 
size, and finished in the best style of typography and 
binding. A copious index will accompany each volume. 
All the volumes are in process of preparation. 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 



AND 



METHODOLOGY. 

OT^ THE B^SIS OF- m?L O^E NB ^ C H. 



BY 



GEORGE R. CROOKS, D.D., 



AND 



JOHN F. HUEST, D.D. 



-»* * ■ >< 



NEW YORK: 
PHILLIPS & HUNT 

CINCINNATI : 

WALDEN & STOWE. 

1884. 







Copyright 1884, by 
New York. 



PREFACE. 



■■»•»■ 



Oim American and English theology has been singnlarly desti- 
tute of a general introductoiy work to the theological sci- 
ences. The following Encyclopaedia and Methodology is designed 
to supply this lack. It aims to give an outline of the importance, 
nature, and history of the four great divisions of theological 
study, together with a bibliography of the Continental and 
Anglo-Saxon literature. The volume on this subject b}^ the 
Eev. Dr. Karl Ilagenbacli, vrlio taught Historical Tlieology 
many years in Basel University, has been so highly esteemed 
that we have made it tlie basis of our work. We have greatly 
enlarged the bibliography by adding tlie titles of English and 
American books in each department. To meet the wants of 
students, we have also placed, in an appendix, a selection of the 
Eno;lish and American literature of the relations of reliction and 
science, and a list of histories of Christian Churches in the 
United States. We have endeavoured, by utilizing the rich ma- 
terial of ITagenbach, to make a handbook for the theological stu- 
dent; a guide to show him the right path of inquiry; a plan or 
draft of the science, so that by the help here afforded he can see 
its exterior lines, the boundaries of its subdivisions, and can take 
the whole into the compass of a complete survey. 

Geoege E. Crooks, 
John F. Huest. 

New York, March 1, 1884. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Idea and Scope of Encyclopaedia, 7. 

Idea and Scope of Methodology, 11. 

Theological Science and Theological Em- 
piricism, 12. 

The Choice of Theology as a Vocation, 15. 

Importance of the Teaching Order to So- 
ciety, 18. 

Superiority of Religious Teaching to Law 
and Art, 20. 

Religion, 25. 



The Religious Community— Christianity, 

42. 
The Church and Theology, 44. 
Theological Schools and the Spiritual Or- 

der, 46. 
Relation of the Spiritual Order to the 

School and the Church, 50. 
The University, 52. 
The Formation of Character, 55. 
1 Doubt and Belief, 56. 



PAET I. 

GENERAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



Theology considered as a Positive Science, 
58. 
As an Art Theory, 61. 
In its Historical Development, 62. 
As Related to Preparatory Stud- 
ies, 66. 

Philology the First of the Preparatory 
Studies, 68. 

Uses of Mathematical and Natural Science 
to the Theologian, 11. 

Theology as Related to the Arts and Gen- 
eral Culture, 72. 
As Related to Philosophy, 74, 

Brief History of the Relations of Philos- 
ophy and Theology, 74. 

The Leading Object of the Study of Phi- 
losophy, 79. 

Philosophy Incapable of Originating Theo- 
logical Doctrine, 81. 

No Objection to Philosophy from the Va- 
riety of Systems, 82. 



Unchristian Systems of Philosophy, 84. 

Sense in which a Philosophy must be 
Christian, 86. 

Relations of Ethics, Psychology, and Logic 
to Theology, 87. 

The Leading Tendencies of Theological 
Thought in the Early Church, 98. 
In the Middle Ages, 99. 
Among the Reformers, 99, 
In the Seventeenth Century, 100. 
In the Eighteenth Century — Ration- 
alism, 100. 

The New Direction given to Theology, 101. 

Pietism, Mysticism, and Confessional- 
ism, 103. 

Theological Tendencies in England and 
the United States, 105. 

Relation of the Student to these Tenden- 
cies, 107, 

App^endix — History and Literature of The- 
ological Encyclopaedia, 118. 



CONTENTS. 



PAET II. 

SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



Division into Departments, 139. 
Arfangement of the four Departments, 143. 

CHAPTER I. 
Ex-egetical Theology. 

Idea and Scope of Exegetical Theology, 

146. 
The Holy Scriptures as the Subject of 

J^jxegesis, 147. 
Division of the Canonical Scriptures, 151. 
The Old and the New Testaments, 154, 156. 
Value of the Old Testament, 155. 
Influence of the Old Testament on the form 

of New Testament Thought, 154. 
Classification of Old Testament Books, 155. 
Scope of the New Testament, 15*7. 
Subdivisions of the New Testament, 158. 
Sciences Auxiliary to Exegesis, 159. 
The Original Languages of the Bible, 160. 
The Hebrew Language and other Shemitic 

Dialects, 161. 
History of the Study of the Hebrew, 163. 
The Hellenistic Greek, 169. 
Brief Sketch of the Study of Hellenistic 

Greek, 171. 
Biblical Archseology, 175. 
The Material of Biblical Archaeology, 176. 
History of Biblical Archaeology, 179. 
Isagogics, 191. 
Limits of Isagogics, 191. 
Formation of the Canon, 194. 
Biblical Criticism, 202. 
Conditions of Canonicity, 204. 
Critical Procedure, 208. 
Positive and Negative Criticism, 210. 
The Relation of Criticism to Exegesis, 212. 
History of Criticism 213. 
Biblical Hermeneutics, 228. 
A Branch of General Hermeneutics, 230. 
The Science of Hermeneutics a Gradual 

Growth, 231. 
Exegesis as the Product of Hermeneutics, 

238. 
The Application of Exegesis, 241. 



The Method of Exegetical Theology, 243. 
History of Interpretation, 245. 

CHAPTER 11. 
Historical Theology. 

Sacred History, 262. 

History of the Hebrew People, 263. 

Periods of Hebrew History, 263. 

Life of Christ, 271. 

The Life of Jesus Self -interpreting, 274. 

History of the Biographies of Jesus, 276. 

Strauss and Renan and the Replies, 278, 
279. 

Lives of the Apostles and of the Found- 
ers of the Church, 283. 

Biblical Dogmatics, 286. 

Relations of Life and Doctrine, 288. 

History of Biblical Dogmatics, 289. 

Church History, 294. 

Historical Development of the Church, 296. 

External and Internal History of the 
Church, 296. 

Periods of Church History, 299. 

Proper treatment of Church History, 302. 
Criticism of Sources, 302.. 
Mediate and Immediate Causation, 

303. 
Deistic, Pantheistic, and Theistic 

Methods of History, 305. 
The Moral and Religious Disposition 
of the Church Historian, 307. 

Method of Church History, 309. 

Monographs and Parallels, 312. 

History of Church History, 313. 

Sciences Auxiliary to Church History, 343. 

Separate Branches of Historical Theology, 
354. 

The History of Doctrines, 358. 

Definition of the History of Doctrine, 359. 

The Task and Province of Doctrinal His- 
tory, 359. 

General and Special Doctrinal History, 361. 

Division of Doctrinal History, 363. 

Method of Treating Doctrinal History, 365. 



CONTENTS. 



Patristics and Symbolics, 3*70. 

The Church Fathers, 370. 

The terra Classic, 3*72. 

History of Patristics, 3*73. 

Definition of Symbolics, 380. 

Scope of Symbolics, 382. 

Relation of to History of Doctrine, 
382. 

History of Symbolics, 383. 
Archaeology, 388. 
History of Archaeology, 390. 
Statistics, 390. 

History must furnish Statistics, 391. 

Best Source of Statistics, 391. 

CHAPTER in. 
Systematic Theology. 

Definition and Scope of Systematic Theol- 
ogy, 394. 

Christian Docti^ne Ethical, 396. 

Dogmatics and Ethics distinguished, 397. 

Dogmatics, the Center of all Theology, 399. 

Apologetics — Its Relation to Dogmatics, 
403. 

The Task of Apologetics, 406. 

The History of Apologetics, 408. 

Polemics and Irenics, 413. 

The History of Polemics and Irenics, 417. 

The Method of Dogmatic Theology, 420. 

Outline of a Dogmatic Rystem, 423. 

Theology (Doctrine of God), 424. 

Anthropology, 427. 

Christology, 429. 

Soteriology, 431. 

The Church and the Sacraments, 434. 

Eschatology, 436. 

The Trinity and Predestination, 438. 

Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy, 440. 

History of Dogmatics, 442. 

Christian Ethics, 453. 

Christ's Work the Basis of Ethics, 457. 

Division of Ethics, 459. 

The History of Ethics, 462. 



The Methodology of Systematic Theology, 
468. 

CHAPTER IV. 
Practical Theology. 

Province of Practical Theology, 472. 
Practical Side of Clerical Life, 475. 
Method of Treating Practical Theology, 

478. 
History of Practical Theology, 482. 
Catechetics, 486. 
Catechetical Methods, 488. 
The Mental and Spiritual Endowment of a 

Cateehist, 492. 
History of Catechetics, 493. 
Theory of Worship — Liturgies, 498. 
Roman Catholic and Protestant Liturgies, 

502. 
Forms of Worship and their Relation to 

Art, 506. 
The Methodology of Liturgies, 513. 
History and Literature of Liturgies, 515. 
Homiletics, 519. 
Homiletical Arrangement and Material, 

525. 
The Method of Homiletics, 532. 
History of Homiletics, 

I. History of the Christian Sermon, 
535. 

II. History of the Theory of Preach- 
ing, 540. 

The Literature of Homiletics, 543. 

Pastoral Theology in its Limited Meaning, 
544. 

The Pastor's Relation to Church and Peo- 
ple, 547. 

Practical Sciences Auxiliary to Pastoral 
Theology, 550. 

The Method of Pastoral Theology, 551. 

History of Pastoral Theology, 553. 

The Further Cultivation of Theological 
Studies, 555. 

Literature of Pastoral Theology, 556. 



INTRODUCTION. 



SECTION I. 

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA is a survey of all the de- 

-*- partments of theology, with a statement of what has been 

accomplished in each. It is a branch of Universal En- ^ ^ , . 

^ , . ... Definition of 

cyclopaedia. It does not aim, however, to unite within Theological En- 
itself the substance of aU that deserves to be known, ^yc^°P®<^^- 
but rather to comprehend the further development of the science 
as conditioned by its historical character; and, also, to describe its 
form and extent in their inward and outward relations by correctly 
indicating its limits.^ 

The position of Theological Encyclopaedia is outside the organism 
of theological science, since its office is to describe that organism 
and open the way into it for the student. On the other hand, how- 
ever, it forms a part of the larger, universal organism 
of science, and in the character of theological encyclo- 
paedia constitutes a fragment of encyclopaedia in general. Every 
student should endeavour, at the outset, to gain a general idea of 
the range of human knowledge, not for the purpose of superficially 
determining every question, but that he may recognise his true 
place upon the orhis doctrinoe.^ 

* With regard to the force of kyKVKltog iraiSeia, kyKVKkia (la&rinaTa (orbis docirince^ 
QuinctiL, i, 16), see Lobeck, Aglaophamus, torn, i, p. 54; Philo, comp, Diihue, Alex. 
Rlgsphil., i, 90; Clem. Alex., Strom., i, pp. 333, 373 (ed. Potter); vi, 781, 787 (in 
opposition to Philosophy in the proper sense); vii, 839. The compound form, kyKv- 
KXoTraiSeta, is first (?) found in Gralen(f A. D. 201); comp. Staudenmaier, Theol. En- 
cj'-kl., p. 3, sqq. ; Pelt, Theol. Encykl., p. 6, sqq. ; Pauly, Realencykl. der klass. Alter- 
thumswiss., s. v. Educatio, p. 39 ; and my article, Encyklopsedie, in Herzog's Real- 
encykl., iv, p. 9, sqq. 

^ " The recognition of the organic whole of the sciences must precede the definite 
pursuit of a specialty. The scholar who devotes liimself to a particular study must 
become acquainted with the position it occupies with relation to this whole, and the 
particular spirit that pervades it, as well as the mode of development by which it 
enters into the harmonious union of the whole — hence the method by which he is 
himself to estimate his science, in order that he may not regard it in a slavish spirit, 
but independently, and in the spirit of the whole." — Schelling, Method., p. 7. " Phi- 
losophy is substantially encyclopaedia, inasmuch as truth can only be a totality, and 
it is only by observing and determining its differences that the necessity for them. 



8 HISTORY OF ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Both general and special (theological) Encyclopaedia aim to con- 
centrate rather than to dissipate the mental faculties. Encyclo- 
paedia should not degenerate into a pattern-card, but rather resemble 
a map — a comparison that demonstrates itself. But few works of 
recent times fulfil the required object/ While German resolution 
and thoroughness, in a form that is no longer adequate to the needs 
History of En- ^^ science, appear in Ernesti (Initia Doctrinse Solidioris, 
cyclopedia. ^^st ed., 1736, and often), the so-called French encyclo- 
pedists brought the science of encyclopaedia into bad odour, '^ so that 
an encyclopedist, like a philosopher, became synonymous with a 
freethinker. The lexical method followed by those writers, which 
now became popular, and was adopted also by the German encyclo- 
pedists,^ suffered from the additional disadvantage of being limited 
to the discussion of subject-matter only, and might as readily be 
made to serve the superficial mind for destructive purposes, as to 
aid the cautious scholar in referring to matters that deserve to be 
known. 

As the material deficiencies of the science became apparent, there 
arose also a demand for its organic and comprehensive treatment; 
that is, for a proper science of encyclopgedia. Eschenburg was the 
first to employ the title of Wissenschaftskunde (Introduction to the 
Sciences, third ed., Berlin, 1809), and Jaesche (Prof, at Dorpat) 
wrote an Architektonik der Wissenschaften in 1816.* Large and far- 
reaching views into the organism of the sciences were opened by 
Schelling's Vorlesungen tiber die Methode des akademischen Stu- 

and the freedom of the whole, can be made to coexist. Hence it follows that an en- 
cyclopaedic treatment of science is not to present it in the thorough development of 
its particulars, but must be confined to the beginning and fundamental ideas of the 
particular science." — Hegel, Bncykl. der phil. "Wiss., sees. 7 and 9. 

^Concerning the older works — Martianus Capelia (about A. D. 460), Cassiodorus 
(f after 562), Isidore of Seville (f 686), Hugo de St. Victor (f 1141, see Liebner's Mo- 
nographie, p. 96, sqq.), Vincent of Beauvais (f about 1264), Louis de Vivos (f 1540), 
Gerh. Job. Voss (f 1649), Grotius (f 1645), Lord Bacon (f 1626), J. G. Alsted (f 1638), 
D. G. Morhof (f 1691, Polyhistor., fourth ed., Liibeck, 1732), Joh. Matth. Gessuer 
(f 1756, Isagoge, see Herder's Sophrou., "Werke zur Phil, und Gesch., x, p. 253) — 
see Pelt, I c. 

^ (Diderot et d'Alembert) Encyclopedie ou dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des 
arts, et des metiers, etc., Paris, 1751-1772, 28 vols. Comp. Herzog's Encykl, iv, p. 1, 
and M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclop., s. v. Encyclopaedia, French, etc. 

^ Deutsche Encykl. od. allg. Realworterbuch aller Kiinste u. Wissenschaften, etc. 
Frankfurt, 1778-1804, (A-Ky), and other works of that day, which have been sup- 
planted by later productions; e. g.^ H. A. Pierer, Univers.-lex. od. vollst. Encykl. 
Worterbuch. Altenburg, 1822-1836, 26 vols., 8vo., fourth ed. ; ibid., 1857-1864. A 
fifth edition was begun at the close of 1867 ; and especially the (not yet completed) 
Allgera. Encykl. d. Wissenschaften u. Kiinste, by Ersch and Gruber. 

See Pelt, pp. 12, 13, where additional works are cited; Scheidler, Hodegetik, p. 51. 



AND METHODOLOGY. 9 

diums (seconded., Tilb., 1813) ; and still earlier Fichte had consid- 
ered the "Vocation of the Scholar" (Bestimmung des Gelehrten, 
Berlin, 1794) and his Character (Wesen des Gelelirten, 1806) in an 
ideal light. The works by Heidenreich,^ Tittmann," Beneke,^ Schei- 
dler,* Mussmann,^ Leutbecher," Kirchner,^ von Schaden,® and others, 
are better adapted to practical requirements, and are of a more 
methodological character. 

With reference to the nature of the encyclopaedia of theology it 
should be observed that the real encyclopaedia, or dictionary, which 
contains the subject-matter of theological knowledge, 
is distinct from the encyclopaedia in our sense. The ttjeiSaiE^nc^ 
value of the former consists in the completeness of the ciopaedia, or 
matter to be imparted,® while the latter seeks to avoid 
crushing the mind beneath the weight of a mass of knowledge, and 
confusing the vision by the number of objects to be presented. It 
confines itself, instead, to the work of pointing out the road to be 
pursued. The aims of encyclopaedia are not the objects sought by 
the different branches of theology, but those hranches themselves." 
It is, of course, impossible to separate a study from its object, or 
the form from its matter, for the one conditions the other ; and, 
therefore, encyclopaedia will be compelled to put on flesh, unless it 
is to become a naked skeleton. The matter, however, which it con- 

'Ueber die zweckmassige Anwendung der Universitatsjahre. Leipsig, 1804. 

TTeber die Bestimm. des Gelehrten u. seine Bildung durch Schule u. Universitat. 
Berlin, 1833. (The Vocation of the Scholar: The Nature of the Scholar, and its 
Manifestations. Both translated by Dr. Wm. Smith. London, John Chapman, 1848.) 

^Einl. ins akad, Studium. Gottingen, 1826. 

* Grundriss der Hodegetik od. Methodik des akad. Studiums. Jena, 1832 ; second ed., 
1839 ; third ed., 1847. 

" Vorlesungen iib. d. Studium d. Wissenschaften u. Kiinste, etc. Halle, 1832. 

® Abriss d. Methodologie d. akad. Studiums. Erlangen, 1834 (p. 15, sqq. — the older 
and more recent literature in this field). The same author has translated Yan Heusde, 
Socrat. Schule, parts 1 and 2, Encyklopadie. Erlangen, 1840. 

■^ Akad. Propadeutik od. Yorbereitungswissensch. zum akad. Studium. Leipsig, 1842. 
Hodegetik od. Wegweiser zur Universitat fiir Studierende. Leipsig, 1852. Compare, 
also, Fritz, Yers. ub. die zu d. Studien erforderlichen Eigenschaften. Strasburg, 1833. 

^Ueber akad. Leben u. Studium. Marburg, 1845. 

' Real-encyklopadie fiir protestant. Theologie u. Kirche, by J. J. Herzog, assisted by 
other Protestant scholars and theologians. 22 vols. Gotha, 1854-1868. Partially 
translated by Bomberger, of Philadelphia, 1856, sqq. Of Roman Catholic works : Jos. 
Ashbach, Allgem. Kirchen-lexikon. Frankfurt, 1846-50, 4 vols., 8vo. Wetzer and 
Welte, Kirchen-lexikon, od. Encykl. der kath. Theologie u. ihrer Hiilfswissenschaften. 
Freiburg, 1846-1860. 12 vols., 8vo., with index. 

"In other words, "The object of encyclopaedia is the organism of science rather 
than its subject-matter, since it aims to discover the relations existing between the 
manifold branches of knowledge." — Harless, p. 2. 



10 RELATION OF ENCYCLOPEDIA 

nects with its descriptions is only designed to aid in comprehend- 
ing the form. But inasmuch as the science is not definitely com- 
plete, being rather in process of growth, it becomes a matter of pri- 
mary importance that its ideal object should be brought into view, 
by the clear pointing out of the goal it strives to reach. This like- 
wise requires a substantial foothold, a 66g fioL ttov otg)^ without 
which the entire structure will be a castle in the air. Care must, 
however, be taken that the footstool be not regarded as the top- 
most round in the heavenly ladder, beyond which lies an infinite 
perspective. Encyclopaedia thus becomes not merely "a descrip- 
tion of the circle of human knowledge as it should be, nor yet a dis- 
cussion of the character of that circle as it is . . . it is the under- 
standing of what has come into being, through the recognition of 
its end" (Harless, Theol. Ency., etc., p. 459.) 

SECTION IL 

The relation of theological encyclopaedia to the body of theolog- 
ical science is twofold ; it stands at the threshold of the course as 
an introductory science, and it serves a complementary 
cyciopajdia to purpose for him who has arrived at its end, by collect- 
Theoiogy. ^^^ together the results obtained. Upon this distinction 

in the relations it sustains to the whole course of study will, in great 
measure, depend its treatment. In the former aspect it is predom- 
inantly stimulating, methodological, working toward its object, 
which in the latter case has been attained and passed. The proof 
of every truly scientific method consists in this — that the beginning 
and the end correspond; and that what proceeds from a living con- 
ception of things and their relations, shall again lead to a deeper 
spiritual apprehension and insight of the object sought. 

This distinction has generally received too little attention in con- 
nexion with the teaching of Encyclopaedia.^ Most of the recent 
encyclopaedias have not only attempted to introduce the student 
into the field of theology, but also to develop the science itself. In 
this regard the whole of theology is greatly indebted to Schleier- 
macher's little book.'^ But all men are not Schleiermachers. He, 
like all reforming spirits, closed an old, and at the same time opened 
a new, era. And yet that very book presents insurmountable diffi- 
culties to the beginner. An encyclopaedia for the learned (virtuosos 
was Schleiermacher's term) should certainly exist, for the study of 

^ See Harless, § 4, p. 2. 

'Kurze Darstellung des theol. Studiums, etc. 2d ed., Berlin, 1830. (Comp. th« 
history of encycl. at the end of Part I.) (Brief Outline of the Study of Theology 
Translated by William Farrer. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.) 



TO THEOLOGY. 11 

encyclopaedia, like that of the catechism, can never be pertains both 
exhausted: and as exponents change with varying^ mas;- ^ ^^^ be^n- 

. , ' ^, -,.1 .;*. * nins? and the 

nitudes, so does encyclopaedia keep pace with science, end of theoiog- 
It forms the dial-plate to the mechanism of the clock, if'a.i study. 
But to introduce the pupil into the deliberations of the masters, and 
allow him to participate in forecasting the future before he has 
comprehended the present, would be to reap where we should sow. 
It might, therefore, be wise to recommend that every student should 
give attention to encyclopaedia twice, provided that it be presented 
from these two points of view — the beginning and the end of the 
course. The present encyclopaedia professes to belong to the intro- 
ductory class.* 

SECTION m. 

Methodology (Hodegetics) is applied encyclopaedia ; for a true 
conception of the nature and combinations of the sci- Definition (rf 
ence will lead to its correct treatment; and as an ency- Methodology. 
clopaedic comprehension is the necessary condition of a correct 
method, so the latter demonstrates the former. 

In other words. Methodology contains " the regulative conclusions 
from the principles and historical character of a science, which are 
requisite for the process of appropriation."' These conclusions 
might be properly regarded as self-evident, were it not that many 
unpractised persons whom introductory encyclopaedia is designed 
to aid require some guidance. Introductory encyclopaedia will, 
therefore, in proportion as it has comprehended its task, of neces- 
sity assume a methodological character, without finding it requisite 
to tow methodology in its wake as a supplementary and distinct 
study. For works on General Methodology (Hodegetics) see on 
Section I. 

SECTION IV. 

Two dangers are to be avoided in connection with Methodology: 

first, that of failinpf, by reason of the numerous obiects ^ , ^^ 

' to' J ^ J Dangers In the 

presented from without, to attain to a connected view treatment of 
and an intellectual control of the subject-matter (a false ^®^^o^°^°^y- 

* This distinction does not imply, however, that introductory encyclopaedia differs 
materially from the complementary. The relation is, rather, that of the germ to the 
fruit, of the school-grammar to the fully-rounded system of instruction in language. 
It furnishes the first lines toward an art which must be perfected by study. Nov 
does it imply that the masters are in the possession of an esoteric learning, while the 
pupils are obliged to content themselves with mere exoteric knowledge. The lowest 
round upon the ladder conducts toward the highest, but no round may be overleaped. 
In science, as elsewhere, intermediate stages have their value ; and a view from be- 
neath creates a different impression from that obtained by a view in perspective from 
above. " Harless, p. 6, 



12 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE HAS 

empiricism); and second, that of being puffed up with the conceit 
of idealistic wisdom, which loses sight of actual life and its condi- 
tions, as ordered of God, and consequently mistakes and fails to 
realize the true object of science, and, more than all, the life-object 
of the theologian. 

Lord Bacon makes use of a suggestive figure upon this point, 
when he compares the raw empiric to an ant, the idealistic dreamer 
to a spider, and the true devotee of science to a bee. The previous 
age suffered more from the first ailment, the present languishes 
under the influence of the second. 

"N'on scholae sedvitte discendum," is an old maxim. ^ The school 
and actual life are not, however, to form a contrast; for life is itself 
Life the object ^ school, and the school is designed to prepare for life, 
of all study. to impart life, to beget and promote life. What do we 
understand by life ? If it be explained to denote the multiplicity 
and diversity of objects among which we are placed and with which 
we are interwoven, without understanding our experience, life cer- 
tainly forms a contrast with science, whose office it is to unify this 
very multiplicity of diversity, and to seek an inward comprehension 
of the objects presented from without. But while penetrating their 
nature, it first vivifies them, and not until this has been done can 
we realize that we have hitherto been employed upon dead matter. 
Science, however, can only give life by entering into things, not by 
taking its stand, as an abstract theory, over against them. In the 
latter character it is itself dead, and its corpse-like pallor is more 
repulsive to the mind than even the diversified and fluctuating play 
of life. If the life is to assume a scientific character, it will be 
necessary that science should also live; they must react upon each 
other. Kant strikingly observes, "Ideas without observation are 
einpty, and observation without ideas is hlindP 

The maxim that " theory has become gray " has often been abused 
in the service of a lazy empiricism. Among medical men empirics 
Theological ^^'^ contrasted with " rational physicians," and the term 
empiricism, jg applied especially to persons who are entirely governed 
by the accidental circumstances of a particular disease presented to 
their notice, and the accidental possession of remedies which, by a 
sort of mechanical routine, they have become accustomed to employ, 
and who lack the ability to rise into a higher and more legitimate 
method of treatment based on scientific diagnosis. But empirics are 
also found in theology; and their empiricism is manifested in two 

' Comp. Herder, in the Sopliron. "Werke zur Philos., x, p. 207, sqq. Ceteros enira 
pudeat, qui se ita litteris abdiderunt, ut nihil possint ex his neque ad communem 
affere fructum neque in aspectum lueemque proferre. Cic. Orat. pro Archia poeta, c. 6. . 



LIFE FOR ITS OBJECT. 18 

different directions, and from two thoroughly opposite religious 
points of view. The one is ciscetically pious, and imagines that 
practical piety will be all-sufficient; perhaps defending itself witJi 
the plea that the apostles themselves were unlearned men, thus mis- 
interpreting the connexion between primitive Christianity and the 
requirements of the present age. This tendency has always found 
supporters among persons who are too indolent to study or think, or 
has been ironically advocated by the class w^hich occupies the stand- 
point of extreme idealism, and despairs of the scientific character of 
theology.^ The other is the philcmthropic, cosmopolitan view (allied 
to the older rationalism), which restricts the duty of the clergyman 
to lecturing and enlightening the public, and, therefore, regards an 
encyclopaedic training in a normal school as possessing the highest 
value. Theological knowledge and dogmatic proficiency are thrown 
overboard. It calls for practical men. Its idea of practical Chris- 
tianity differs from that of pious empiricism, however — a proof that 
even the most trivial schemes cannot be sustained without a previ- 
ous scientific explanation. 

The bad repute into which science has been brought 
with both these classes is not, however, the fault of tween^'scienS 
science itself, but of its caricature, which constitutes and learned 
the most wretched of all empiricisms, because it is 
thoroughly impracticable in its nature. We refer to that dry 
learning which simply heaps up lumber, and smothers itself with 
the dust of books, without attaining to a clear consciousness of 
what it is doing, or of the object towards which study is direct- 
ed.*^ Learnedness and scholarship are unlike. There may be 
very learned persons who are unable to appreciate science; and 
although science cannot exist apart from learning, it is yet possible 

* Strauss, Glaubensl., ii, p. 625. "Theological study, formerly the means employed 
to prepare for the service of the Church, now forms the most direct road to unfitness 
for that service. The cobbler's bench, the writing-room, and any other place that is 
secure against the entrance of science, now constitute better places for preparatory 
practice for the ministry than the universities and seminaries. Religious idiots and 
self-taught theologians, the leaders and speakers of pietistic gatherings — these con- 
stitute the clergy of the future." 

'^Kant (Anthropologic, p. 164) says: "There is a gigantic ei'udition which is yet 
Cyclopean, in that it lacks an eye with which to comprehend rationally, and for a pur- 
pose, this mass of historic knowledge, the burden of a hundred camels, viz., the eye 
of a true philosophy." With reference to this mechanical knowledge, in which the 
memory does not operate as the " energy of mental retention," but simply as a store- 
house of perceptions, compare Carblom also (Das Gefiihl, etc., p. 4,^^sqq.): "The most 
repulsive exhibition of this kind is afforded by the spiritual office, when simply the 
tongue, hand, and foot of the clei'gyman are engaged in it, but not his spirit, to say 
nothing of the Spirit of God." 



14 THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE 

to display the scientific spirit in a high degree, in cases where the 
learning is confined within very narrow limits (as with a youthful 
student). Learning without scientific culture commonly wears the 
garb of school-boy pedantry, except when it simply has the appear- 
ance of a superficial acquaintance with many studies; it at once 
dries up and inflates the mind, and, being confined within the nar- 
row boundaries of its specialty, its estimate of other branches of 
knowledge is often coarse and contemptuous. 

While, however, it is admitted that a false empiricism exists, 
whose unscientific character is manifest, even when it appears in 
the garb of learning, there is also a falsely vaunted science (1 Tim. 
vi, 20), which superciliously spreads itself under that usurped name, 
but in the end dissolves into empty vapour. The present gene- 
True method of ration should be warned against both errors, with an 

making theo- emphasis increasing: with the separation which exists 

logical science ■•■ ° , ^ , 

practical. between the school and actual life, and in proportion as 

the contrast between scientific theology and the practical perform- 
ance of clerical duties threatens to become irreconcilable.^ If it be 
true, that every science which lacks sufiicient support from observa- 
tion and experience resembles the soap-bubble, in which the colours 
of the light are, indeed, magnificently displayed, but which bursts 
at the slightest breath of air, it is especially true of theological sci- 
ence, which can only lay claim to the name and character of a dis- 
tinct science by reason of its living relations to religion and the 
Church. It should accordingly be required, in the interests of gen- 
uine science, that the study of theology be made practical^ but 
practical in the sense that the science itself is to become action, 
that the indwelling word of life is to be made flesh, and the inhe- 
ring germ of life to produce appropriate fruit. Science must be- 
come a salt that shall penetrate the entire mass; "but if the salt 
have lost its savour, wherewith may we salt ? " 

"The letter is not science!" True; but the mind cannot dispense 
even with the letter. It must achieve its results through the 
Word, the firm, clear, living Word, not by means of idle words; 
but without the letter there can be no words, and no Word. Gen- 
uine science is as far removed from a dead materialism as from a 
dead formalism and an empty idealism. It deals with the nature 
of mind and the nature of things, and in this light it becomes at 
once both realism and idealism. The idea of science is conditioned 

^ " Is, then, the historical knot to be so solved, as that Christianity must take sides 
with barbarism, and science with unbelief?" was the question of Schleiermacher, 
thirty years ago. Compare the preface to the Prot. Kirchenzeitung fiir das evang. 
Deutschland, 1854. 



MUST BE PRACTICAL. 15 

by thoroughness, clearness, depth, free activity, and originality of 
thought,^ in connexion with caution and soberness of judgment, as 
opposed to superficial and confused thinking, shallowness, dullness, 
servile subjection to prejudices old and new, pedantic dryness, and 
boorish narrowness. It will, moreover, maintain a steady regard 
for the purely human while pressing toward the divine. It certainly 
seems as if clearness at times detracted from depth, or depth from 
clearness; but dullness and a fluid-like transparency carried to the 
verge of shallowness, should no more be confounded with clearness, 
than a darkly -brooding, shadow-loving stupidity should be identi- 
fied with depth. Shallow-headedness finds every thing obscure that 
is beyond its comprehension, while wi'ong-headedness attributes the 
profoundest depth to the very thing it fails to understand. 

It is no doubt true that he who would be eminent in science must 
confine himself to a single branch (a specialty) ; but devotion to a 
specialty should not beg^in too early. The p:eneral cul- ^ , ^ . 

^ •' . . ° •', ° . General train- 

ture, which itself involves progressive gradations, must ing should pre- 
precede the special. Elementary schools call the desire ^^*^® special. 
to know into being; the gymnasial training strengthens and intensi- 
fies its character. The training, whose method was conditioned by 
the study of languages and mathematics, realizes its higher object 
in the departments of history and the natural sciences. The univer- 
sity training follows, not only to bring the whole field of science 
within the range of vision, but also to concentrate the efforts of the 
student by assigning to him a definite field of learning. ISTot until 
the university studies are ended is the practical preparation for 
active life in place, whether for the pastorate, or for independent 
scholarly investigations with a view to carrying forward the theo- 
retical development of science by means of authorship or academ- 
ical instruction. 

SECTION V. 

CHOICE OF THE THEOLOGICAL VOCATION". 

Dan. Schenkel, Die Bedeutung des gelstllclien Berufs, etc., in Stud. u. BMt., 1852, p. 205, sqq. ; 
Hagenbach, Ueber die Abnalime des theol. Studiums, in Kirclienbl. f iir die ref. Scbweiz, 1856, 
Nos. 6 and 7 ; Ibid., 1862, and Gelzer's Monatsbl., 1863, January ; Dieckboff (Rom. Oath.), Ueber 
den Benif u. d. Vorbereitung zum geistl. Stande, Paderborn, 1859. 

Although the study of encyclopaedia is necessary to the theologian 
for a clear understanding of the nature of his work, it is yet proper 
to require that every person who enters thereon should have 
reached a general conception of the position he expects to occupy 

* No absolute originality is intended, but simply independent repi'oduction. " To 
accept and submit to authority," says Marheineke, " is not unworthy of an indepen- 
dent spirit. But the mind must reserve to itself, especially in scientific matters, the 
right to know and understand the authority in the principle of its necessity." 



16 THEOLOGICAL STUDY NOT 

in human society, and tliat he should have formed a clear and satis- 
factory idea of the nature of the calling to which he gives himself 
in the exercise of his own independent choice. 

We begin with the concrete, with the individual and his relation 
to the science. What urges you to the study of theology ? Die 
Worldly mo- ^^1' ^'^^^ ^^ inquire of every candidate who is an- 
tives for tbe nounced. Dat Galenus opes, dat Justinianus honores. 

study of theol- -^-r . , , f ,^ • . .• ■, /i. ^ 

ogy not suffl- -Neither of these can come into question here (Matt, x, 
cient. 8^ sqq.), even less in our day than heretofore. Is it 

matter for complaint, that the time is over in which persons stud- 
ied theology in the expectation that they would soon receive an 
assured provision for their wants, and be able to lead a life devoid 
of care ? ^ l!^or is it a misfortune that theology is no longer the 
outer court through which the scholar engaged in the pursuit of 
other objects must pass in order to secure official position in the 
schools. None are co7npelled to become theologians, unless they 
choose. The apostle's words, "Let a man examine himself," and 
"he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh 
damnation to himself," are not without significance in this connex- 
ion also, where no mere hread-and-hutter science in the usual sense 
is involved,^ but the dispensing of the bread and drawing of the 
water of life itself.' 

* We recommend to persons who still entertain such desires, the perusal of Valen- 
tin Andrea's glorious poem, Das gute Leben eines rechtsehaffenen. Dieners Gottes, in 
Herder's Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie (No, 49), lately published by Lau- 
rent (1865); and also the twenty-fourth of Herder's own letters. 

'^Hoc intelligamus, hominum duo essa genera, alterum indoctum et agreste, quod 
anteferat semper utilitatem honestati, alterum humanum et politum, quod rebus om- 
nibus dignitatem anteponat. Cicero Orat. part. c. 25. Comp. Ancillon, Vermittlung 
der Extreme, i, 47 ; Herder, 1. c. : " There is scarcely one among the learned classes 
that contains so many cripples as does the clergy; necessities, poverty, ignoble am- 
bition, hundreds of miserable motives, urge people to that work, so that God is fre- 
quently obliged to accept the refuse instead of the firstlings of its kind." — The twenty- 
fifth letter : " Perhaps no study has in all ages had so few to serve it with entire faith- 
fulness, as theology ; precisely, however, for the reason that it is an almost superhuman, 
divine — the most difficult study." " He who devotes himself to the Church," says 
Daub, " and to that end studies theology, will miss his aim, if he simply desires a 
church office that he may have life, sustenance, comforts, ease, honour, etc. ; foi* 
while he considers the office as a means, and himself or the gratification of his desires 
as an end, he can never become a church officer, but must remain a hireling." See 
Daub and Creuzer, Studien, ii, p. 6*7. 

^ Archbishop Leighton speaks, in like manner, of " men ministering the doctrine of 
salvation to others, and not to themselves ; carrying it all in their heads and tongues, 
and none of it in their hearts ; not hearing it, even while they preach it ; reaching the 
bread of life to others, and eating none of it themselves." — Commentary on 1 Peter, 
ch. i pp. 10-12. 



A WORLDLY PURSUIT. 17 

SECTION VL 

The resolution to study theology will be inspired more especially 

either by the influence of practical religion, or by the love of study, 

in accordance with the varying^ peculiarities of natural 

. "^ ^ \ . A desire for 

endowment, and of previous training and culture. It both religion 

will be sufficient in the beginning that a disposition and needfurto^the 

desire for both religion and learning should exist, to- study of tneoi- 

gether with a general conviction that piety without ^^* 

learning is as incapable of forming a theologian, as is learning 

without piety. 

Young men who approach the study of theology do not invaria- 
bly bring from their homes an assured religious consciousness, so as 
to be able to say, with Schleiermacher, " Piety was the maternal 
womb, in whose sacred darkness my young life was nourished and 
prepared for entrance on the as yet inaccessible world." Not all 
of them are Timothies, of whom it may be said that they have 
"known the Holy Scriptures" from their childhood (2 Tim. iii, 15), 
although such characters are not, upon the whole, very uncommon. 
It is, after all, the correct principle, that the desire to study theol- 
ogy should spring from religious impulses, even though much that 
is confused and sickly be in particular instances involved. It is the 
office of study to clear up the uncertain, and to correct the sickly tone 
of the mind. Experience has shown that an unconquerable religious 
impulse to become a minister of God whether as pastor or as mis- 
sionary has enabled many, even in advanced years, to suraiount the 
difficulties which opposed their resolution; and, however supercil- 
iously the fact may be criticised (comp. § 4, note 2), it is true that 
the writer's desk, the cobbler's or the tailor's bench, have contrib- 
uted servants to the Church of whom she has no cause to be 
ashamed, while the same boast will not apply to all who have simply 
stepped from the schoolroom into theology. 

Such, however, are exceptional cases. The rule probably is, that 
with a majority of persons who have received a proper preparatory 
education, the resolution to study is formed before they come to de- 
cide upon the particular course in which they will engage. Prac- 
tical considerations have less effect upon their determination than 
theoretical; and this again is proper, provided the religious factor 
be not reduced to zero in making the decision. When religious 
motives are not ignored in such a case, a real study of theology 
serves naturally to increase their power; for scientific interest is 
as certainly conditioned by religious interest, as the religious by 
the scientific. Each must increase with, and be nourished by, 

the other. 
2 



18 THE EXALTED POSITION 

Within the circle of the sciences persons may, moreover, be de- 
termined to theology by a variety of endowments. So philology 

^ .^. becomes for some the bridare into theolosrv, while others 

Premonitions . ® °' ' 

of a vocation come to it through philosophy, oratorical, or artistic 
to theology. gifts, or a talent for teaching. The future theologian 
may be suspected in the person who at school displays readiness in 
the acquisition or use of languages, just as a mind turned toward 
the natural sciences indicates the future physician, political econo- 
mist, or technicist.' 

As a preliminary qualification, the existence of a genuinely scien- 
tific spirit must be considered important. The more a religious 
mind is in earnest about the determination to study, the less will it 
yield to the vagary that piety can take the place of learning ; and 
the more thoroughly the studious disposition enters into science, the 
more powerful will be its conviction that a sound theology cannot 
exist without piety, since all theological truth becomes intelligible 
only in the light of religion. The sharp contrast between " pious " 
and "scientific" students can be obviated on no other principle. 

SECTION YII. 
Without anticipating the discussion of the special place belong- 
ing to the clergy (§ 17), we now include them in the category of 
teachers, whose high importance demands recognition 
Sher?^the ^^"^^ ^^ ^- ^® therefore remark that the order of 
highest in so- teachers stands first among the cultivators of man's 
spiritual nature, and is superior, in this regard, to the 
legislative and artist classes. 

This exaltation of the teaching order is, however, in no wise in- 
tended to excite learned or spiritual pride. The agriculturist and 
the soldier are likewise of great importance to the organism of 
society ; and they, too, may, in the hand of God, become an element 
of culture and development. The cultivation of the soil was the 
most ancient teaching of mankind, and the sword of the warrior 

^ Great importance should be attached to such natural indications ; nothing is more 
hurtful than a human predestination to any study, and especially that of theology. 
The days when it was believed important to dedicate children in the cradle to God by 
devoting them to the pulpit, are probably over. But how many sons of clergymen 
adopt the paternal calling in obedience to family custom, without being inwardly 
moved thereto either by religious or scientific considerations ! The inclinations of a 
child or youth are not, of course, to be held decisive in every case ; but Goethe is 
probably correct when he says, *' Our desires are premonitions of the abilities that lie 
in us, intimations of what we shall be able to perform. The things we can and wish 
to accomplish present themselves to our imagination from without and as future ; we 
feel a longing for that which we already secretly possess." Autobiography, vol. i, 
pp. 331, 332. 



OF THE WORLD'S TEACHERS. 19 

opened the earliest furrows into which the seed of culture might 
fall. Commerce and manufactures became the most powerful levers 
of culture in the Middle Ages. It accordingly is a blinded judg- 
ment which conceives of the height that industrial Teachers notan 
life has reached in our day, as being purely material- isolated order oi 
istic. The range of encyclopaedic culture involves ^°^^® ^' 
rather that such facts, however distant from the field of the- 
ology they may lie, should be estimated in accordance with their 
social importance; and to theology in particular, unless it prefers 
to perish in monastic isolation, belongs the task of comprehending 
these " secular matters " in their relations to the household of God 
and the sacred order of his kingdom, in harmony with the apostle's 
thought, " all things are yours." (1 Cor. iii, 21.) In that divine order 
each thing is linked with every other thing, and the most material 
elements strive to become spiritualized. Accordingly, the military 
calling finds its spiritual expression in legislation, and the handi- 
craft rises to the dignity of an art; but both legislation and art rise 
above the preliminary conditions illustrated by the soldier and the 
artisan, since the former not only controls wickedness by the re- 
straints of law, but also establishes the fundamental principles of 
behaviour in the State, and the latter does not confine itself to the 
adorning of the sensual life, but, in addition, spiritualizes the sen- 
sual in harmony with its ideal character, and employs it for ideal 
purposes. 

The legends of immemorial times, and the traditions of later ages, 
have always represented artists and legislators as the spiritual lead- 
ers of mankind, and as revealers of the godlike, who derived their 

origcin from heaven.^ They, too, are teachers of man- ^ 

o ^ . J ' 7 ^ The relation of 

kind in a certain sense, although not in the complete teaching to art 
and highest sense; for with the one the teaching ele- ^^<^iegisiation. 
ment is subordinate to the purposes of illustration, and with the 
other it is secondary to the idea of absolute rule. Mere law has in 
itself no life; its whole importance depends upon external condi- 
tions ; it can only determine the outward character of human action 
with reference to a given case. Habit and custom may enable the 
power of the law to penetrate into the depths of the moral disposi- 
tion, and from thence to put forth shoots; but law will never be 
able to develop the actual root of the moral life from within itself. 
Art, on the other hand, is uncertain and undecided in its effects. 
Every work of art is a concealed symbol, to be interpreted only 

^Odyss., xix, 1*79. Herod., i, 65. Plutarch, vita Lycurgi, c. 5; vita Numae, c. 4. 
Anthol. graeca, iv, 81. Philostrat. vita Apollonii, vi, 19. Jacobs, academische Re- 
den, i, 362. 



20 THE TEACHING FUNCTION SUPERIOR 

by the cultured person who has been initiated into the interior life 
of art; to the uncultivated mind it remains an unexplained hiero- 
glyphic/ But what is beyond the ability of both law and art is 
accomplished by the living word of teaching alone. It goes down 
into the depths of human dispositions, taps every vein, passes 
through every stage of culture, addresses both the child and the 
adult; and as the magic of art calls forth a god from the rough 
block of marble, so does the powerful magic of the word bring into 
view the image of God from the undeveloped spiritual tendencies 
in man. In this regard the teacher unites in himself, and with in- 
creased efficiency, the functions of both legislator and artist with 
reference to the cultivation of mankind. He is the bearer of the 
divine, an administrator in the domain of holy things, a priest of 
God. Without an order of teachers men would still be in a savage 
or half-civilized state. The heritage of culture is forever secured 
and guaranteed to a people only where wise men, scholars, philoso- 
phers, orators, poets, ^ prophets, authors, in one word, the instructors 
of manhind have by vivid employment of the vernacular given 
their intellectual treasures to the public, and, through the medium 
of a free circulation of ideas, have developed a common conscious- 
ness, the results so gained being embodied in history for the ben- 
efit of succeeding generations. 

SECTION VIII. 

Inasmuch as the teaching-order is preeminently the spiritual 
trainer of mankind, it follows that only a religion which has a 
body of doctrine, and consequently an order of teachers, will corre- 
spond to the idea of religion in its highest form. 

Religion (on its nature see infra, § 12), which we consider for the 
m^oment, in its general character, as the highest interest of man. 
Superiority of G<^^l<i Only appear, in any period, under the three forms 
the teaching of of Law, Art, and Teaching, discussed in the preceding 
trine to law Section. The laws of ancient peoples were religiously 
and art. sacred; priests and scholars were at the same time polit- 

ical and religious personages. This fact rests upon the truth that 
ideas of right have their origin in the eternal laws of reason, and, 

* Griineisen, referring to Grecian art, observes very correctly : " It was the lack of 
positiveness, power, and depth, the unsettled and undecided elements in the moral 
consciousness, and its influence over the world- view and artistic conceptions of the 
Greeks, that permitted illusions and immorality to intrude upon this field also, and 
that in the end opposed with steadily decreasing energy the superior force of moral 
corruption." Compare his treatise, Ueber das Sittliche der bildenden Kunst bei deu 
Griechen, p. 14. 

* Poets convey art and instruction through spirit and word. 



TO ART AND LEGISLATION. 31 

therefore, in the Divine; but what was true in the idea became 
perverted by the abuse of the spirit in the letter. The law can 
only represent the eternal by an inadequate comparison with the 
temporal, whose conditions are limited and modified by existing 
states. When circumstances undergo a change, the law becomes 
a dead statute. Law is moreover deficient in seizing upon only a 
single aspect of religion — that of unconditional obedience and the 
consequent recompense. It knows nothing of an unconstrained 
love and enthusiasm. Upon this latter point art is in advance of 
law. It assumes the infinite (ideal), and makes that its object; but 
in the qualities in which law is too rigid, art appears entirely too 
free and unrestrained. The moral element, which appears in the 
law under the rigid form of commandment, is here entirely subor- 
dinate; it is neither desired nor allowed to become prominent, for 
fear that it might injure the purposes of art which accounts for 
the mongrel character of all didactic poetry ; but art can never 
displace doctrine, because its function is not, primarily, to teach. 

A merely aesthetic religion, a mere " worship of genius," is quite 
as deficient as a merely legal religion. The latter lacks the power^ 
the former the discipline, of the spiritual element; the one is deficient 
in not providing for the free exercise of the religious disposition, 
the other in not possessing the strict principles and the impelling 
power of the ethical.^ It follows that the doctrine, the word, in- 
struction, and sermon {6idaxf\^ Aoyo^, Karrj^rjai^, Kij^vyfia) occupy 
a higher place than either law or art, the two inadequate modes of 
revealing the life of religion. Teaching possesses the ability to 
excite the entire man to action. It arouses feeling — to create it is 
beyond its ability also — develops the understanding, and gives 
direction, although not ability, to the will. It lifts man out of the 
undecided chaos of impressions into a harmoniously-developed ra- 
tional life, and treats him as a free, self-determining nature. It is 
the "fountain of life, to depart from the snares of death" (Prov- 
erbs xiii, 14), 

SECTION IX. 

The conclusion reached in the foregoing discussion may be his- 
torically illustrated by the Jewish, heathen, and Christian religions, 
since the development of Judaism has been chiefly in the direction 
of law, of heathenism in the direction of art, and of Christianity in 
the direction of doctrine. 

The Jews were the people under the law {ol vnd rov vo^iov). The 

* Valuable observations on this point iu Ullmann's work, Der Cultus des Genius, 
Hamb., 1840. 



23 " THE SUPERIORITY OF TEACHING 

law was conditioned by the theocracy. So long as the latter con- 
superiority of tinned, the law retained the peculiar importance as- 
the teaching signed to it in the Divine economy (John iv, 22). It con- 
and art iUus- tained elements (aroi%em) of Divine training that tended 
trated. toward a higher development, and became a school- 

master (jTaidayojydg) working toward perfection (Gal. iii, 24; iv, 3). 
The prophetical institution was already introduced as the necessary 
complement of the law, and of the priesthood founded upon law. 
A still more decided turning toward doctrine is apparent after the 
Captivity. Provision for teaching is made in the synagogues, 
which, however, affords opportunity for the perversions of Phari- 
saism to vaunt themselves, until the true Teacher, sent of God, 
appears in Israel. In ancient heathenism art formed the leading 
element of religion, attaining its highest development in Hellen- 
ism (the gods of Greece)/ While, however, the Jews strove in 
vain to express from the rind of the law the last drop of the juice 
of life, and the statues of gods left the heart as cold as the marble 
from which they were carved, and while only a dreamy suspicion of 
the existence of an " unknown God" pervaded the nations, the hu- 
manized divine doctrine, the Logos, the Word from heaven that 
was made flesh,^ was walking quietly and humbly among men in the 
form of a servant, and scattering the seed which should produce 
the Divine regeneration of the nations. Preaching gave birth to 
faith (Rom. x, IV), and faith to love, while love bloomed in the life 
that conquers death. The worship of God in spirit and in truth 
took the place of the law, and the altar of "the unknown God" 
received name and significance. 

The inter-relation of these elements should, however, be ob- 
served. In each of the religious systems to which we have re- 
ferred, the three, law, art, and doctrine, exist, although in vary- 

^ "Heathenism," says Rust (Philos. u. Christenthum, 2 ed., p. 103), "had no lumi- 
nous teaching in which the result of the development of its religious life was laid 
down, and it had no need for it. Instead of doctrine, it cultivates a mighty symbol- 
ism^ which has emanated from its own being, a concrete representation of its relig- 
ious spirit to the senses." (Also in Griineisen, at § Y.) "Nowhere in heathendom 
does the human spirit rise above natural conceptions. In the figures of his gods the 
heathen beholds simply the form of his own being." " Schenkel, Der ethische Char- 
akter des Christenthums, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., ISSV, p. 44; comp., also, p. 47: 
" The pagan systems of religion exhaust their strength in the effort to construct a 
thoughtful and frequently artistic symbolism. They are extravagant in ceremonial 
manipulations and changeless customs, but indifferent about moral manifestations, and 
unconcerned about the eternal nature of things." 

^ It is scarcely necessary to observe that no attempt to exhaust the Logos idea, in 
an exegetical or dogmatic way, is here implied. 



OR DOCTRINE ILLUSTRATED. 23 

ing proportions and combinations. Not only does Judaism, by vir- 
tue of its worship, include artistic elements, and the law 

T . T • 1 l^'dw. Art, and 

stand forth m religious dignity among the heathen, but Doctrine co-re- 

doctrine also seeks to gain acceptance with both Jews ^^^^^' 
and pagans. The prophetic order toiled for this among the Jews, 
as did philosophy among the Greeks. The great importance of 
Socrates consists in this, that he turned the attention of philosophy 
away from nature and toward man, that he aroused reflection upon 
moral and religious questions, and that he represented in himself 
the noblest work of art — a moral renovation. Christianity, on the 
other hand, includes in its constitution both law and art; for to the 
extent to which " man's highest work of art is man," ^ will appear 
the representation of a pure man, which existed in Socrates only as 
an effort, in absolute perfection in Christ, the Divine Son of man; 
hence the ideal Christ represents art's highest task. Christ, in like 
manner, came not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it ; in harmony 
with which principle, it cannot be disguised that modern art and 
the public life of modern nations are essentially determined by the 
teachings of Christianity. That Christianity is not a mere abstract 
system of doctrine, but a living loord, a higher law, and independent 
(art-) work of the Spirit, will appear from what follows. 

SECTION X. 

The teaching function of Christianity is more strongly empha- 
sized by Protestantism than by Roman Catholicism, since the latter 
elevates law and art, at least to the level of doctrine, while with 
the former doctrine holds the first place. 

In the apostolic age teaching was the leading element, most fully 

developed in the Pauline Christianity, while the Ebionitish Judaiz- 

ing Christianity retained a legal character, and Gnosticism severed 

the doctrine from its historical foundations, and carried it back into 

mvtholoffv. At a later period' the body of doctrine, 

♦^ *. , , ^. , , T . . ^, ^ ' The teaching 

after having been speculatively and ecclesiastically de- function more 

veloped, was held in the unyielding restrictions of prXSantisirr 
dogma, and became rigid. A theoretical legalism was than in Rom- 
developed side by side with a practical righteousness ^"^^°^* 
of works, and as the latter manifested itself, as formerly in Juda- 
ism, only in the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, a supera- 
bundance of symbolic and artistic matter was produced, which, in 
its turn, served to encourage the legal spirit. The two elements 
are combined in the established canon of the mass. The unlicensed 
sensuality of common life at last resulted again in heathenism; but 

^UUmann, Cultus des Genius, p. 57. 



24 PROTESTANTISM THE RESTORER 

while art celebrated its prosperous condition in modern Rome over 
the ruins of the Apostolic Church, the restoration of the word to its 
primitive authority, and the preaching of the free doctrines of the 
Gospel, were being accomplished in Germany and Switzerland/ 
From this time forward the sermon became the heart and centre of 
Protestant worship, to an extent which compels the admission that 
in some instances the element of teaching received undue promi- 
nence, to the exclusion of every thing artistic, and even that doc- 
trine itself hardened into legalism, which gave rise to reactionary 
movements endangering the existence of the Protestant faith. 

SECTION XL 
Although the religious instructor belongs preeminently to the 
order of teachers, he is still so far to be distinguished from the sci- 
entific instructor, as religion is not bare knowledge, and therefore 
cannot be taught and acquired directly, and without the interven- 
tion of other agencies. 

The position of We have now reached that point in the field of learn- 
the ^^ religious -j^^ ^^^ which the different courses and methods of study 
other teachers, may be distinguished from each other. With respect 
to methods of instruction the clergyman, as a teacher of adults, 
holds a position midway between the teacher of youth and the aca- 
demical professor. Being addressed to adults, his teachings will 
assume a more elaborate character, and take a higher range than 
those of the teacher of youth; but as they do not subserve a purely 
scientific purpose, they will be more popular and less purely didactic 
than those of the academical instructor. The sermon, moreover, is 
not to become a mere intellectual discourse, though the preacher 
should never cease to be a teacher.'^ The clergyman, in the exer- 
cise of both his catechetical and his pastoral duties, divides the 
function of training with the teacher of youth. The subject-matter 
of his instructions is determined by the peculiar nature of religion 
itself, to which we now direct attention. 

' The Lutheran Reformation in Germany bore predominantly the character of a re- 
action against the Judaism that had intruded into the Churcli, while the Reformed, in 
Switzerland, was chiefly a reaction against paganism. This distinction is, however, 
only relative. Comp. Al. Schweizer in the Introduction to the Glaubenslehre der 
evang.-reformirten Kirche, Zurich, 1844. 

^ " The clergyman should be both preacher and teacher of religion. It is even im- 
possible, in various regards, for him to be a genuine teacher, without being, at the 
same time, a preacher, and introducing one element of the sermon — illustrative dis- 
course — into his teaching ; and he cannot be a true preacher of religion without being 
at the sa<ne time a teacher, and basing his entire preaching upon his teaching func- 
tion, so as to connect it with, and ground it in, the doctrine itself." — K. Sack, Werth 
u. Reiz d. Theologie, Sixth Discourse, p. 92. 



OF CHRISTIAN TEACHING. 25 

SECT. XII. 

RELIGION. 

Elwert, Das Wesen der Religion, etc., in Tub. Zeitsehr. fiir Theologie, 1833, No. 3 ; 
Reich, Das Schleiermachersche Religionsgefiihl, in Stud. u. Krit, 1846, No. 4, p. 845; 
Herra. Renter, Die Religion als die Ureinheit des Bewnsstseins, in Hanov. Vierteljahrs- 
scrift, Gott., 1846, No. 4; J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik, p. 183, sqq.; E. Zeller, in 
Tub. Jahrbb., 1845; D. Schenkel, in Herzog's Encycl., s. v., Abhangigkeitsgefiihl ; 
Tholuck, id., s. v., Gefiihl, iv, p. 704, sqq.; C. D. Kelbe, psychischer Ursprung u. Ent- 
wicklungsgang der Religion, Brunswick, 1833 ; Carlblom, Das Gefiihl in seiner Be- 
deutung fiir den Glauben (Religionsplul.) ; H. Paret, Eintheilung der Religionen, in 
Stud. u. Krit., 1855, No. 2; Jul. Kostlin, in Herzog, s. v., Religion, xii, p. 641, sqq.; 
Jens Baggesen, Phil. Nachlass, 2 vols., 1858-63 ; Jiiger, Was ist Religion? in Jahrbb. 
fiir deutsche Theologie, x, No. 4, p. 118, sqq.; Bobertag, Einige neuere Bestimmungen 
d. Begriffes d. Religion, id., xi, No. 2, p. 254 ; Tolle, Die Wissenschaf t der Religion, 
2 vols., 1865-71 ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion, ihr Wesen u. ihre Geschichte, 2 vols., 1869 ; 
Fauth, Ueber die Frommigkeit, in Stud. u. Krit., 1870, No. 4; Biedermann, Bilanz iib. 
d. rationellen GrundbegrifPe der Religion, in Zeitsehr. f. Wiss. Theologie, 1871, No. 1. 
(Comp, the literature on the philosophy of religion, § 30.) 

Religion (piety, the fear of God, godliness, mh' nxT, (p6(iog rbv 

•^eov, evaefieia) is, primarily, neither knowledge nor ac- Deflnition of 
tion, but rather a definite state of feeling, which is to religion. 
be developed into a clear and rational consciousness through the 
exercise of intelligent reflection, and into a firmly established dis- 
position through the moral determination of the will. As the true 
principle of life, it is to permeate the whole inner man (6 eacx) dv- 
'dgcjTTog), and to manifest itself externally as the highest fruitage of 
human nature.^ 

An objection might be raised at the outset against the use of the 
Latin term religion (from religio), and "godliness" be suggested as 

a substitute: but if Hase's definition,^ that, obiectively 

-, ,. . . , , . '. / . •; Scope of the 

considered, religion is man s relation to the mnnite, and word religion, 

that, subiectively, it is the determination of human life andthedistiuc- 

'•'.•" ^ , ^ tion between 

by that relation, be accepted, " godliness " and similar it and various 

terms will be inadequate, as indicating only the subjec- ° ^^ ^^™^" 

tive side of religion. The word "faith" is likewise not entirely 

sufiicient ; for, as David Schulz (Die Chr., Lehre von Glauben, 

2 ed., p. 104) observes: "In the word religion, for which the Bible 

* On the etymology of the word (whether from relegere, Cicero, De nat. deor, ii, 8, or 
from religare, Lactantius, Inst, div., iv, 28 ; or even from relinquere, M. Sabin., in 
Gellius Noctt. Att., iv, 9), comp. Nitzsch, Religionsbegriff d. Alten, in Stud. u. Krit., 
i, No. 3; *J. G. Miiller, Ueber Bildung und Gebrauch d. Wortes Religio, Basle, 1834; 
C. A. Dietrich, De etymol. vocis religio, Schneeb., 1836 ; K. F. Braunig, Religio nach 
Ursprung u. Bedeutung erortert, Leips., 1837. Also, Rohr's Krit. Predigerbibl, xviii, 3, 
p. 248, sqq. ; Redslob, Sprachl. Abhandll. zur Theologie, Leips., 1840, and Stud. u. 
Krit., 1842, No. 2. 

*Lehrbuch der ev. Dogmatik, 1838, § 2. 



26 THE TERM RELIGION 

has no special term, but which in the Now Testament is generally- 
represented by nlarig and Tnareveiv, wb conceive of all the rela- 
tions of man to God in their entirety and their connexions wiih 
each other. The fear of God, trust in God, love, reverence, piety, 
hope, all express definite and particular relations of the rational 
creature towards the Deity, and therefore constitute separate feat- 
ures of religion." However inadequate this term may be, there- 
fore, when the object is to illustrate a decided piety, it is yet con- 
venient and even indispensable, whenever choice or necessity com- 
pels a more general discussion, as in scientific exposition. 

Thus much on the word. A^'^ith reference to its interpretation, it 
is to be observed that the older method, dating from Buddaeus, 
by which "religio" is taken as equivalent to "modus Deum cog- 
noscendi et colendi," has been shaken in both its members by the 
more recent definition, which, according to Schleiermacher,^ denies 
that religion is either bare knowledge or action. 

]. It is not simply knowledge. Cicero's derivation (from relegere), 

and, to some extent, the scriptural and popular usa^e^ 

Religion Is not . ,, ^ ,, ..^, 

merely knowi- (mn^ n;'"], encyvojaig rov icvpiov), seem to justiiy the ren- 
dering of religion by "knowledge," inasmuch as it may 
be both taught and learned. But, practically, religion presents a 
somewhat abnormal appearance among the courses of study in an 
institution of learning ; and it cannot be said, with the same pro- 
priety, that a student is a good religionist as that he is a good 
philologist, mathematician, geographer, etc. The maxim that re- 

* Glaubensl., i, § 8. Schleiermacher, however, was neither the first nor the only 
person who regarded religion as a matter of feeling. Without recurring to the 
earliest period and to mysticism, we may notice that Zwingle defined religion to be 
devotion to God, hence an inclination and determination of the feelings, (De vera 
relig., p. 51 ; Yera religio vel pietas haec est, quae uni solique, Deo haeret.) Among 
moderns the emotional theory, with various modifications, has been adopted by 
Herder, Jacobi, Lavater (Biographie von Gessner, iii, p. 151), Clodius, Fries, de 
Wette, Twesten, Benj. Constant, and, with si)ecial thoroughness, by Elwert. The 
philologist, J. G. Hermann, expresses similar views (in his oration at the jubilee of 
the Leipsic reformation, p. 6) ; Non enim mentis, sed pectoris est pietas ; and also 
Bulwer (England, i, 2), " Religion must be a sentiment, an emotion, forever present 
with us, pervading, colouring, and exalting all." An additional question concerns the 
adequacy of the term "feeling" itself, which must be settled by what follows in 
the text, 

^ It is evident, however, that the exercise of reflection and the scrupulous exami- 
nation into questionable features, which are involved in the term religio, in their turn 
direct attention to a state of feeling that lies at the basis of all such questionings. 
The knowledge, moreover, to which the Scriptures refer, is a practical heart-knowl- 
edge. It is also significant that the Hebrew regarded the heart (^^5) ^s the seat of 
knowledge. 



INADEQUATE, YET USEFUL. 27 

ligion is a concern of the intellect is, moreover, subject to various 
interpretations. The lowest view would be that which it is not bare 
makes it a mere matter of memory, which is often done ^0,^^^^^ ^ 
in practice. The memory should certainly not be ex- the memory. 
eluded, for all positive religion rests upon tradition, and religious 
instruction properly begins with impressing on the memory the 
facts of religion and its truths as conveyed in proverbs, hymns, etc. 
This, however, must be regarded simply as a method of reaching 
the heart, in which the scattered seed is to take root and grow, so 
as to exert an influence over the dispositions and the character. 
Such one-sided cultivation of the memory, and the contentment with 
such religious knowledge, constitutes a dead orthodoxy. 

Another doctrine advocates a different view. Religion is not to 
engage the memory alone, but is to be received into the understand- 
i,ng and wrought over by it. Some try to improve on j^. ^g j^^^ ^isire 
this by substituting the word reason, though they often knowledge, as 
mean the understanding simply, ^. e., the logically an- the under- 
alytic and synthetic faculties of the mind, or also a standing. 
sound common-sense, which, without being conscious of its proc- 
esses, instinctively discovers the right. No sensible person will 
deny that understanding is necessary in all things, and religion 
among the rest, and the Scriptures concur in attributing proper dig- 
nity to this faculty.^ Experience teaches, however, that bare intel- 
lectual knowledge is by no means identical with religious knowledge. 
The work of the understanding in the field of religion is strictly crit- 
ical, and, therefore, negative. It strips off the robes of figurative 
speech from religious conceptions, guards against misapprehen- 
sions and stupidity, and, like a current of fresh air, becomes a 
healthful corrective to religious feeling; but there is unceasing 
necessity that it be confined within its proper limits and reminded 
that the infinite cannot be embraced within the range of finite 
ideas. An exclusive tendency to cultivate the understanding con- 
stitutes a false rationalism. 

Science, however, presses its claims from a third point of view. 
In opposition to both a formal orthodoxy and an intel- it is not a 

lectual rationalism, it contends that relis^ion belono-s transcendental 
' . o &" knowledge of 

to the department of a higher knowledge. It takes the absolute, 
exclusive possession of the term reason, and declares that religion 
belongs to the field of the thinking spirit, which mediates all con- 

* Jesus was pleased when the scribe answered him " discreetly " {vovvexiog), Mark 
xii, 34 ; and St. Paul counsels Christians to be children in malice, but men in under- 
standing. 1 Cor. xiv, 20. The Old Testament, likewise, connects the religious dispo- 
sition with the understanding (n>3), Pro v. ix, 10, and elsewhere. 



38 RELIGION NOT BARE 

trasts, and penetrates and energizes all things (knowledge of the 
absolute). Not the dead conception, but the living idea, forms 
the element in which religion lives. Short-sighted understanding 
cannot penetrate to the highest ideas of reason. We agree to this : 
but we question whether reason as here described is innate to the 
mind, instead of being the product of the feelings and the under- 
standing — a resultant higher unity of the two. It is a further ques- 
tion whether the grasping of this idea or whatever phrase may be 
applied to it is itself religion and eternal life, or whether reason 
as thus conceived is not rather a mere phantom of the mind, so long 
as it is not the reflex of a profound personal feeling and experience. 
As the word reason is, with rationalists, often merely a sort of 
Sunday suit in which ordinary understanding clothes itself, so the 
same word serves with idealists to conceal an arbitrary poetizing 
fancy, which is incapable of satisfying either the feelings or the 
understanding.^ That imagination in its proper character is not 
the source of religion will be universally conceded, although it 
must be allowed, like every other faculty, to share in the religious 
life.= 

The following general considerations should be brought to bear 
against the assumption that religion is merely an intellectual 
affair : — 

1. If religion were simply this, it would follow that knowledge 
Evidence that ^^^ right thinking concerning it would determine the 
religion is not measure of piety. Our own ae^e ou2!:ht to be more 

exclusively the i ./ o o 

product of the pious than former ages, philosophers than the public, 
intellect. j^gj^ than women, adults than children. Why was sal- 

vation transmitted through the Jews, rather than through the 
schools of Greece ? Why did God conceal it from the wise men 
of this world, and reveal it to babes and sucklings ? Why did the 
renaissance of learning simply prepare the way for the Reforma- 
tion, instead of completing it? Why is the finely-cultured Erasmus 
eclipsed by Luther, his inferior in culture ? 

2. If knowledge were to constitute religion, the Church (com- 
munion of believers) would possess no value, and must become 
transformed into a community of the learned, or school. The dif- 
ferent degrees of learning among its members would produce an 

' Comp. C. A. Thilo, Die Wissenschaftlichlieit der modernen speculativen Theologie 
in ihren Principien beleuchtet, Leipsic, 1851 — a book that deserves to be noticed, 
despite its prudish bearing towards all religious speculation, since it urges soberness 
and watchfulness. 

^ Ullmann has beautifully developed this idea in Theol. Aphorismen, in Stud. u. 
Krit., 1844, p. 417, sqq. 



THINKING OR KNOWLEDGE. 29 

esoteric and an exoteric class, so that " many men of many minds " 
might be said of this community, but not "one heart and one soul." 
[f such descriptions are heard even now, it is the result of the fact 
simply, that in the Church undue importance has been attached to 
learning, and theology has been allowed to supplant religion. Sec- 
tarianism and controversial tendencies have their origin chiefly in a 
false assertion of the claims of knowledge, and in a lack of purity 
and simplicity of faith.' 

3. If thinking and investigation constituted the peculiar organs 
of religion, their exercise ought to produce religious satisfaction, 
and religious inspiration ought to reach its highest energy during 
the process of thinking ; and in like manner religion should decrease 
in moments when the faculty of thought is impaired or restrained, 
e. g., in old age," and upon the sick and dying-bed, while the truth 
is, that, under precisely such circumstances, it often appears in its 
highest perfection. The emphasis placed upon thinking is mis- 
placed ; for in the vocabulary of religion the emphasis rests rather 
upon feeling. "When the Quietists asserted that the most perfect 
prayer is that in which thought has no place, they were guilty of 
exaggeration verging upon the absurd ; but a profounder truth 
lies at the basis of the apparent absurdity, which is wholly over- 
looked by those whose views would reduce even prayer to a mere 
arithmetical example. 

II. Religion is not merely action. The idea that re- Religion not 
ligion is altogether a doing, a moral determination of ^^^^^^ action. 
the will, has even more support than that which identifies it w^ith 
knowledge. " If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them " 

^ A fact stated by an old Reformed Theologian, Keckermann, Is generally forgotten 
(he himself overlooked it occasionally), namely, that theology is not simply a disci- 
plina contemplatrix, but also operatrix. See Al. Schweizer's Ref. Dogmatik, p. 103. 
The members of the general S}Tiods of Bergen, beginning with A. D. 1680, were, 
on the same principle, required to pledge themselves to the studium pietatis as 
well as the studium orthodoxige. The excessive importance attached to the so-called 
Confessions is evidently owing to the misconception that religion has its seat in the 
cavities of the brain instead of the chambers of the heart, or that it may be preserved 
in formulas, as anatomical subjects are preserved in alcohol. 

2 For a remarkable psychological proof of the fact that religious ideas are capable 
of being clearly present to the consciousness, independently of other processes of 
thought, and even under circumstances when the power to think is departing, comp. 
John Spalding's Life of his Son, G. L. Spalding (Halle, 1804), p. 188, sqq., note, and 
also the death of Schleiermacher, in W. von Humboldt's Briefe an eine Freundin, ii, 
p. 259. Schenkel's remark is, therefore, of great force : " The religious consciousness 
is infinitely greater than the world-consciousness, even as God is infinitely greater than 
the world ; and it, therefore, contains a fountain of inexhaustible power and perennial 
comfort." — Dogmatik, i, p. 153. 



30 RELIGION IS NOT 

(John xiii, 17.) It is sustained also by the expressions nin' 'nm bddg 
rov Kvplov, mb;', ■^grjaKela, deQaneia, epya, Kapnog, etc., religio (in the 

sense of conscientiousness), and by popular usage, according to 
which a pious person is the same as one who is good or uprio-ht 
(SiKatog), and which conceives of virtue and godliness as being iden- 
tical. There are, however, different methods of conceiving religion 
as confined to the sphere of action. The lowest view, a counterpart 
of that which places it in the memory, regards piety altogether 
Not action in as a work to be outwardly performed (opus operatum), 
mecScamo- ^ "^^^'^ ^^^^^ mechanical doing. It is evident that this 
ing of works, does not deserve the name of religion. It is to be 
observed, on the other hand, that they who contemplate religion 
chiefly with the miderstanding , generally identify it with 7noral- 
ity (the Kantean, rationalistic view), or, at any rate, regard as 
essential to religion only such elements as will promote the moral 
Religion not ^'^^^t^^^^my of reason. A higher view (corresponding to 
identical with the speculative theory, among those wha assign religion 
mora i y. ^^ ^^^ intellect) makes religion an internal activity, or 

an action of the spirit in us. If the latter expression be not a mere 
speculative phrase, behind which moral indifference may hide, it 
may be understood, in the Christian sense, as a work of the Divine 
Spirit in us, and therefore as equivalent to "regeneration." The 
supporters of this opinion add that at bottom piety is concerned to 
Not identical bring abouL the improvement or sanctification of our 
posed spiritual dispositions and our walk ; so that here rationalism and 
activity. pietism agree in the practical demand that religion mitst 

produce residts. To insist upon religious action does not, hoAvever, 
constitute a proof that religion in its last analysis is action. In 
opposition to this view we present the following: — 
Tbe reasons for 1. While religion and morality coincide in their high- 
*^eUo-u?n ^^^and ^^* development, so that a true religion without morality 
morauty. and a true morality without religion are equally incon- 

ceivable,^ they are yet clearly distinguished in their details as well 

^ Rothe (Anfange der Christlichen Kirche, p. 27) remarks : " A complete morality, 
which is not in its positive aspects substantially religious, does not exist. In the 
same proportion in which morality should not have acquired the certainty of religion 
(the certainty of conscious dependence upon God) would its development as morality 
be deficient," K3'm (Die Weltanschauungen und deren Consequenzen, Zurich, 1854, 
p. 9) : "A religion that should not pass over into morality, and through this into life, 
would be a centre without circumference, therefore a half, and accordingly untrue, 
unreal religion. A morality that should have no connexion with the Deity would be 
without depth and without a last (?) central point The morality which separates it- 
self from religion is likely to become self -righteousness and self-satisfaction, because it 
lacks provision for the judgment of self. Hence faith is the creative reason of love." 



IDENTICAL WITH MORALITY. 31 

as their general character. A genuine piety is found to exist in 
which the moral element leaves much to be desired, but which can- 
not be justly rated as hypocrisy; and there are many poorly- 
behaved and ill-bred children of God who yet know that God is 
exercising discipline over them, and submit to his authority. This 
was true of David and other Old Testament characters. Without 
this presumption it becomes impossible to understand the Old Test- 
ament as a whole,^ and also the Middle Ages, with their profound 
apprehension of God and their boundless immorality. 

The period of the Reformation asid modern pietism might also 
furnish illustrations of this point.'^ On the other hand. Morality and 
the piety of many is put to shame by the existence of ^^gj^^^ f^^^l 
a praiseworthy and correct morality, which has grown separated. 
beyond a mere legality, and become moral self-respect and self- 
control, in a measure compelling approval and admiration, which 
yet lacks the sanctions and the impulse of religion; i. e., a definite 
relation towards God and eternity. This applies not only to the 
stoicism of the ancients, but also to the categorical imperative of 
Kant, and the morality of cultivated persons in our day. While, 
therefore, morality and religion belong together, and in their ulti- 
mate development must coincide, they may yet be logically distin- 
guished, and bear a separate character in the lower stages of their 
development even in actual life. It is, however, the mark of a 
truly religious disposition, that, when moral imperfection or sin is 
recognized, it should be acknowledged as shi, and as a wrong com- 
mitted against God (" I have sinned against heaven and in thy 
sight," Luke xv, 21) ; and that the soul should bow before God, and 
humble itself and repent. Morality without religion knows nothing 
of sin as such, but recognizes only moral deficiency; and it therefore 
substitutes " self -improvement " for repentance. Sin and repent- 
ance are religious-ethical ideas. ^ 

2. Morality presupposes capacity^ developed by practice, and 

evidencins: itself in a series of moral actions or denials. „ ,. . . . 

... . . . . . Religion IS ong- 

Religion is original poioer, original spiritual life, and is inai spiritual 

concentrated upon a single point. It stands related to P°^®^- 

^All objections against the moral character of the patriarchs are founded on this 
misconception, 

^ What a contrast exists between the spiritual songs and the passionate polemical 
writings of Angelus Silesius (Scheffler) ! a contrast so great as to apparently require 
that two different persons be assumed in explanation of their authorship (comp. Kahl- 
ert, Ang. Silesius, Breslau, 1853, conclusion). A similar contrast is presented by the 
Lutheran poet Philip Nicolai, whose hymns breathe a profound piety, while his con- 
troversial works bear witness to a morality by no means refined (comp. Schweizer, 
Prot. Centraldogmen, p. 584). 



32 RELIGION REQUIRES WORSHIP 

morality as genius to talent in the sphere of art. Men of genius 
may exist who possess a rich fund of intellectual conceptions, but 
who nevertheless are exceedingly awkward in the application of 
technical rules, while others may work in obedience to the highest 
rules of art to represent utterly commonplace ideas; and a similar 
distinction holds good between morality and religion. The real 
master, of course, is he whose talent has become subservient to 
genius, and impregnated by it. 

3. Moral action is determined by the external conditions of life. 
Moral action and its range is confined within the limits of such con- 
uutwaxd^con- f^i^ions. The castaway cannot employ his morality in 
ditions. the solitude of his island, unless moral self-respect 
should become for him a mode of worship, and thus idolatry supply 
the place of religion. The religious life, on the contrary, may ap- 
pear in its highest perfection under circumstances of quiet seclusion 
from the world. ^ Anchoretism, like Quietism, is a morbid phenom- 
enon; but it arises from the truth that a religious person, unlike the 
merely moral man, has occasional need of solitude; and the ideal 
element in such phenomena can be properly estimated only from a 
religious point of view. 

4. The moral life needs no worship ; the moral action constitutes 
Religion re- its cult. The religious life likewise finds expression 
Sn^actionfor ^^ ^^^ion : "By their fruits ye shall know them." But 
its expression, it seeks, in addition, to manifest itself symbolically in 
words and imagery. It seeks to express itself in prayer, to portray 
itself in art, to communicate itself to others, and, when rejected by 
them, to commune Avith God himself. It was because of this that 
the conduct of Mary Magdalene was incomprehensible to the pro- 
saic company of banqueters; and similarly a rational morality still 
asks, " Why this waste ? " whenever the religious life finds expres- 
sion without regard to utility: "The money might be given to the 
poor," etc. A community founded simply on morality would not, 
as Kant conceived, exhaust the idea of the Church. It could only 
have either a negative tendency, like a temperance union, or an in- 
structive purpose, as in schools of morality and lectures, which, 
however, are no longer necessary to the advanced learner, or, finally, 
it must aim at practical results in the outward life (benevolent and 
mutual aid societies). The Church-union is grounded in a totally 
different want, and it is a misconception of the religious idea to re- 

^ In the exercise of religion man is primarily concerned for himself ; he alone is in- 
volved therein, in his relation towards God. In this he is alone with his God. . . . For 
this very reason the view that religion in itself is the relation of the individual to the 
community, or of the community to the individual, is erroneous. Schenkel, 1. c. p. 156. 



FOR ITS EXPRESSION. 33 

gard a congregation of worshippers as belonging to any of the above 
classes. Are prayer and the sacraments simply means for the pro- 
motion of virtue ? and are they necessary only to the weak ? Let it 
be remembered that the ideal of the Church is not the ecdesia niil- 
itans, but the ecdesia triumphans, the glorified community of 
heaven, which is exalted above all conflict. Religion is not only to 
accomplish something for God, but to receive something from him 
(the idea of grace), and is ultimately to rejoice in God, and find its 
perfect rest and satisfaction in him (the idea of glory). 

5. Morality is based on the ideas of independence and self-deter- 
mination; religion on those of dependence and direc- Morality is 
tion from above. The two do not exclude each other, based on iMe- 

. . pendence, re- 

and are even necessarily conjomed, though they may ligion on de- 
be separately considered. The religious element may pendence. 
predominate at one time, and the moral at another, in the life of 
every individual, and as the result of his circumstances and dis- 
position. The most perfect state, however, is that in which religion 
transfigures morality, and in which the moral attests the religious 
character.^ 

III. Should religion, then, be considered a matter of feeling ^^ 

Loud protest is raised against this view. Baume^arten- ^ • ^ , 

i , * . , ° In what sense 

Crusius has most forcibly included the various objec- is religion root- 
tions to it in the sentence, "No one who understands ®<^^^^66^°s^ 
himself, and who is concerned to attain to an assured and definite 
life, will make feeling the basis of religion."" The problem pre- 
sented will be solved, however, if we set the idea of religious feel- 
ing in a clear light, and show that a " definite and assured life " 
may exist in connexion with it when properly understood. 

A clear apprehension of this subject is certainly necessary, for 
the name of religious feeling is not due to all that lays claim there- 
to.^ It will be needful, first of all, to exclude the sensuous feeling^ 

^ "Although religion and morality are two noble buds upon a single stalk, they have 
nevertheless their respective shoots and crowns. For religion is nothing else than a 
conscious life-connexion with God, a conscious dependence of the finite spirit upon |;he 
infinite. The flower could not lose the feeling of connexion with its roots, were it, 
like man, capable of feeling. Religion is in a derived sense only a matter in which 
the thinking and volitional spirit is concerned ; primarily, it is the feeling of the re- 
lations our life sustains to God." — Tholuck, Gesprache iiber d. vornehmsten Glaubens- 
fragen der Zeit, Halle, 1846, p. 60. 

- Einl. in die Dogmatik, p. 64. 

^Steffens beautifully remarks: "While the term 'feeling' maybe indefinite, and 
not entirely appropriate, this feeling (of Schleiermacher) was more comprehensive ; it 
contained a life and consciousness of its own, and designated the sacred ground of its 
own origin^ — Christliche Religionsphil., p. 11. 
3 



84 IN WHAT SENSE 

to which some have applied the term sensibility .^ It would be 

danarerous to assume that the most impressible, emo- 
Rellgious feel- . ° n t • n • 

ing not mere tional, sensually and intellectually excitable persons are 

sensibiuty. ^^ ^^^^ account the most pious. They who are unable 

to conceive the subject in a different aspect from this are entirely 

justified in rejecting a religion of feeling at the outset, and taking 

refuge in a religion of action. Spalding's essay, On the Value of 

the Religious Feeling, will continue to assert its force against such 

defenders of sentimentalism, even though, like many others, he fails 

to comprehend the true nature of feeling. That Schleiermacher, 

the keen dialectician, whose sermons have even been described as 

icy-cold, should have advocated mere sensibility, can be asserted 

only by persons who are determined to misunderstand. Nor is ms- 

„ ,. . ^ thetic feeling intended. A certain relation of art and 

Religious not ^, ^ 

the same asses- poetry to religion cannot be denied; but it would be 
ee mg. Yejjt^i-esQjiig ^q assert that all who are unable to appre- 
ciate art, or, more boldly still, who are not endowed with creative 
imagination,^ are thereby unfitted for religion ; or, on the contrary, 
to maintain that the greatest poet, painter, or, possibly, even the 
most eminent actor, is therefore the most pious man. We are com- 
pelled to acknowledge that often the devotees of the beautiful and 
the priests in the service of genius resemble the parasitic plants, 
which fix themselves upon the sacred blossom of religion, and ex- 
tract from it the life-giving sap ; ^ while, on the other hand, the 

^ The usage upon this point is, apparently, not yet settled. It is as allowable to 
speak of a sensibility for religious and material things, as of feeling for them. We 
shall not err greatly, however, if we consider sensibility as excited more particularly 
by impressions received from without, while feeling is a spiritual faculty that is rooted 
in the inmost depths of our being. Hence it might be more proper to attribute sensi- 
bility than feeling to brutes. Sensibility is more especially related to the perceptive 
faculty, and to the individual object upon which it is engaged (thus, the eye is sensi- 
ble of the entering ray of light) ; in feeling, the subject and the object are more inti- 
mately combined (I feel myself blessed). In this view we coincide with Carlblom, 
who finds in sensation single points of contact between the subject and the object, 
while 'va. feeling he discovers the collective relations between the two — "the collective 
impressions made upon the subject by the object as a whole," or " the uplifting of the 
subject through the ideal power of an object " (inspiration). Comp. p. 2 ; also, Twes- 
ten, Einl. zur Dogmatik ; Kym, 1. c, p. 5. 

^ Ullmann, 1. c, makes the just observation that " feeling and imagination, although 
they connect in the unity of the spirit and condition, and excite each other, are yet 
not one and the same." 

"An evidence of this is found, upon the one hand, in the degenerate romancing of 
a Zacharias Werner ; and, on the other, in the observations of a now defunct " Young 
Germany." The course which the young German school of poetry believed itself com- 
pelled to adopt, in its reaction against an overwhelming romanticism, serves, however, 
to illoBtrate also the damage inflicted upon poetry when it is separated from religion. 



IS RELIGION FEELING? 35 

fulness of religious life, existing side by side with imperfect forms of 
art and a neglected aesthetic culture, justifies us in overlooking such 
deficiency. What else gives attractiveness to a badly-modelled 
image of some saint, or endows the excruciating church music of an 
assembled village congregation with the power to edify, nay, to 
excite profoundest emotion ? We would not approve the bad taste 
which, under the influence of religious zeal, appears to have con- 
spired against whatever is beautiful. An unaesthetic piety, and 
that miserable absence of taste which is so often commended as 
being originality, are assuredly more hurtful than beneficial to re- 
ligion. Who would venture to assert, however, that a lack of 
religious feeling in Zinzendorf is evident, because he sometimes 
wrote verse m bad taste, or in Abraham a Santa Clara, whose 
preaching was of a like character? Such men have religion, but 
they lack the sense of beauty ; a proof that the two are different. ' 

But are religious and inoral feeling identical? They are certain- 
ly closely related, and touch upon and interpenetrate ^eiieious n t 
each other. It is possible, however, to distinguish the identical with 
two in thought, for the purpose of scientific inquiry, in "^^^'^ ee.mg. 
the same way as has been done with religion and morality them- 
selves. The moral feeling manifests itself more particularly in its 
negative aspects as tact, and on the positive side as impulse or in- 
stinct. The substance in which it adheres is conduct — the doing 
of things, or leaving them undone. It impels or restrains. Relief- 
ions feeling is self-centred, and finds its satisfaction in itself. It is, 
in short, the sacred chamber of our inner being ^ that ddvrov of the 
soul, in which all earthly changes cease to agitate, together with all 
opposition of desire and aversion, within whose limits the merely 
sensuous has its range. This inner sanctuary,'^ which is first disclosed 

^Kahler, Sittenlehre, p. 239, distinguishes in a similar way between the religious 
feeling, and the pathological or sesthetical. 

^ The internal basis of life, the Ego, in which are comprehended all distinctions in 
their individual simplicity and their concrete lack of dissimilarity, must be regarded 
as the soil and ground of religion," — Deinhardt, Beitr. zur rel. Erkentniss, Hamb., 
1844, p. 5. "Religion is and must remain an immediate influence, a something that 
lies as near to man as do the impressions which are made upon the senses by the 
outer woi'ld. If, for this reason, religion be defined as the ' feeling of dependence,' a 
real truth will be conveyed, provided a spiritual feeling is understood thereby ; for in 
matters relating to the spirit there can be no reference to sensuous impressions." — 
Fritze, Ideen zur Umgestaltung der Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 2. We can readily ap- 
prove of the substitution of the term heart for feeling (in popular language), as being 
justified by scriptural usage, and including both the intellectual and the moral ele- 
ments (37). " The assurance with which genuine culture retains words like heart in 
their higher significance, despite the definitions of the sciences, unquestionably rests 
upon the assumption that the animal life is the counterpart of human being, even as 



36 TPIE SENSE OF DEPENDENCE 

to the penitent alone — this heaven in the soul, whence shine the 
stars of faith, and love, and hope, to cheer the darkness of our 
night — this anchor that holds firm, upon which every thing depends 
and must depend if it shall not founder in the current of fleeting 
time — is religious feeling. 

We designate it more closely as the feeling of dependence / that 
j.^. is, dependence upon God, the Infinite One. Objections 

lug of depend- are raised against this also. It is said, " The very dogs 
enceuponGo . ^i^^^ ^j^g feeling of dependence !" — a cynical reflection, 
which is beautifully disposed of by Matt, vii, 6, and xv, 21-28. 
Comp. Isa. 1, 3, and Athenag. Apoloog. for Christ., p. 16 (ed. Oxon).' 
Dependence is construed to mean servility, and the saying of Jan- 
sen, "Dei servitus vera libertas," or of our Lord in John viii, 32, is 
forgotten. We likewise discover a twofold character in religious 
feeling — a discouraging (humbling) and an encouraging (exalting) 
element; but in their ifimost nature the two are one. Even the 
feeling of liberty and of communion with God must be derived 
from God; and St. Paul's exclamation, " I can do all things through 
Christ, which strengtheneth me," is as thoroughly pervaded by the 
sense of dependence as that other word, "Without me ye can do 
nothing."^ To be dependent is equivalent to being conditioned 

the former finds its counterpart in the organism of the visible body ; or, that in this 
life, at least, the anatomical and physiological organization corresponds to the spirit- 
ual forms of the human soul, that it was constructed for and determined by it, so that 
it still conveys the shadowy image where the soul itself has fled. From this point of 
view the cultivated person, whom we request to undertake an explanation of the idea 
hearty will describe it as the centre, or the pulse ; or, better still, as the proper source 
of our entire inner life." — Steffensen, Das menschl. Herz u. d. Philosophie, in Gelzer's 
Monatsabl., 1854, p. 281. 

^ Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 9, strikingly observes : " The genius of religion lies in the rec- 
ognition of our limitations and our nothingness. The limitation does not of itself 
lead to religion, for the very beasts would in that case become possessed of religion ; 
but the consciousness of our limitations involves at the same time the recognition of 
the infinite, and of our relations to the infinite." And Carlblom writes (1. c, p. 180) : 
" The feeling of unqualified dependence, freed from pantheistic and Pelagian elements, 
can only work advantage to our time, as a scientific principle." 

^ Kahler's remark is therefore correct (Sittenlehre, p. 324) : " In their relation to 
God or the absolute, dependence and communion hold the same position ; they are 
inseparable. Upon what is such communion based, if it be not upon dependence ? 
We do not invite him to fellowship, he calls us ; and we attain to the feeling of com- 
munion with him only through that of dependence upon him ; through the fear of 
God to the love of God." Comp. Nitzsch, System of Christ. Doct., p. 18, "There is 
nothing religious in free consciousness but the consciousness that we are free through 
God and in God; that is, dependent on him." Kahler nevertheless endeavours to 
limit the idea of dependence, against which see Elwert, p. 79, sqq. It may be true 
that, with Schleiermacher, the feeling of dependence is connected with pantheistic 
assumptions ; but if so, the attacks of criticism should be directed simply against his 



CONSISTENT WITH FREEDOM. 37 

and determined by an outward power, as is sufficiently apparent in 
the relations that exist between men. Who so dependent upon 
others as he whose life is interwoven in such a way with another life 
as to justify the language, "Without thee I cannot live?" The 
religious man depends on God in this sense, that he cannot be with- 
out God, that his life is guided and controlled by God, and that he 
knows himself to be so determined and controlled. It is impossible 
to see how such a feeling of dependence can impair or negative our 
freedom. It is, on the contrary, itself the highest freedom. 

If we have been successful in isolating religious feeling in the 
way of analysis, so that it becomes available for scien- r^^^ synthesis 

tific observation in a pure and unmixed form, it will of religious 
, -Ti'i c ,-\ • in feeling with 

now be required that, m the way oi synthesis, we shall our other fac- 
again connect it with the faculties of the soul, by which, ^^^ies. 
and through which, it finds expression. The " theory of feeling " 
is not antagonized simply because its opponents misconstrue the 
term, but because they deduce the radically erroneous conclusion 
that feeling alone is implicated therein, and that cognition and ac- 
tion are excluded by the fact that they are not made the immediate 
seat and organ of piety. A " definite and assured " life would, of 
course, be impossible, if religion were so restricted to the feelings 
as to never venture out of its sanctuary, either into the light of 
knowledge, or into the fresh air of active exertion. As the germ 
contains Avithin itself the principle of development, so the nature of 
healthy religious feeling involves the disposition to strive for the 
attainment of clearness on the one hand, and of steadiness, firmness, 
and thoroughness on the other. The infant in the manger grows 
to maturity, and becomes the light and. joy of the world. Kahler^ 

methods of deduction, not against the principle itself. Nor can we acknowledge that 
the feeling of dependence is " wanting in the moral element " (Schenkel, in Herzog's 
Encykl., p. 64). What is obedience, the source of religious morality, but the ethical 
outworking of the feeling of dependence ? or sacrifice ? or the devotion of love ? 
moral self-denial ? humility ? When Biedermann (Dogmatik, p. 32) observes that the 
necessary correlative of "liberty in God," that is, in an "infinite dependence," is 
" freedom from finite dependence," that is, " from the world considered as world," he 
is simply stating in speculative language what we have expressed merely as a dictum 
of experience. In the same connexion that author gives some noteworthy observa- 
tions concerning the interrelation between God, the infinite, and man, the finite spirit, 
and also concerning the " correlation of revelation and faith," although we find it im- 
possible, from our point of view, to accept his conclusions. 

^Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 195. Comp. also Dav. Schulz, Yom Glauben, p. 112: 
" When a person has attained to self -consciousness, he cannot avoid observing the 
movements of his feelings, which at first are possibly involuntary, and, as it were, pas- 
sive, but which he will now elevate, by his free activity, into a condition of greater 
clearness, and consequently into convictions." 



38 OUR RELIGIOUS AND OTHER 

strikingly remarks : " From feeling, as it sends forth its roots, pro- 
ceeds the more definite activity which is termed thought, and desire 
Religious feel- when it grows the bud." It connects itself with the 

ing connects it- understanding, and thereby attains to clearness: it ioins 
self with the •> o 

understanding with itself the power of the will, and thus acquires 
and will. steadiness and firmness. The knowledge that is rooted 

in religious feeling, and supported by it, is religious faith. Faith, 
in its turn, is capable of a further development, and ripens toward 
a state of, as yet, conditioned sight. The moral power arising from 
religious feeling manifests itself in analogy with faith in the form 
of GonsGience,^ and develops into moral disposition or firmly-estab- 
lished religious-ethical principle, ultimately resulting in that cer- 
tainty of action, that devotion to virtue, which is the highest 
expression of true liberty. 

Religious feeling should become a conscious feeling. The relig- 
Reiigious feel- ious feeling has correspondent religious conceptions, 

Ihf ?t^!lr,o^ and with reference to these receives aid first from the 
the imagina- 
tion, imagination, which clothes the conceptions in figurative 

garb. " It is the sculptress who collects the heavenly treasure into 

earthen vessels." ^ The understanding comes to its support in the 

service of imagination, arranging the figurative conceptions, and 

combining them into a whole. Thus arise mythology and mythol- 

ogizing symbolism, bare, or more refined ; and the greater the 

supremacy acquired by logical sequence over the original fresh and 

vivid poetical conceptions in such a system of symbolism, the less 

will it be able to satisfy the reason, which seeks to discover a higher 

unity. It will be only a shell, a dry skeleton, from 

Reason cooper- ^ "^ _ *' . , 

ative with re- which the life has departed. It is the ofiice of reaso?i 
igious ee mg. ^^ recognize, by virtue of its ideal nature, the eternal 
character of the contents of the feelings, though given under a finite 
form, and to combine and reunite in a higher unity the elements dis- 
tinguished hj the understanding. While unable (supra) to regard 
reason as the source of religion, we yet consider it the pure mirror 
(reflex) of all that has its birth in the feelings ; it is reason that 
catches and reflects the ray which emanates from that source. It 
does not create the religious life out of its own substance, but it 
watches over that life as over every other impulse, and it stamps it 
with the mark of intelligence. We, therefore, consider a religion 

^ We cannot regard the conscience proper as the original seat and organ of religion, 
after the noteworthy observations made by Schenkel upon this subject, though we 
cordially recognize the importance of conscience, as the moral factor within the sphere 
of religion. 

^ Ullmann, 1. c, p. 430. 



FACULTIES EXHIBITED SYNTHETICALLY. 89 

of reason as impossible as a poetry of reason or a commonwealth of 
reason ; but we demand a rational religion as we demand a rational 
poesy or a rational government. True reason cannot be hostile to 
religious feeling, but is rather necessary to the recognition of the 
latter {mortg develops into yvcoatg). Keligious knowledge, thus 
borne upon the feelings, is no longer mere dead knowledge, but a 
living consciousness. 

An objector might now admit that the primitive form of religion 
was feeling, and that the feelings constituted its earli- obiection- 
est seat; but he might add that this was the worst "Feeling if the 
form, and that religion has no more urgent duty to ^^tTorm of 
fulfil than that of removing its seat from the feelings reUgion." 
to the reason, from the heart to the head. This, however, is not 
correct.^ It is important that the double meaning of the word 
"feeling" be not forgotten. Feeling certainly involves a pre- 
liminary perception. There is a spiritual as well as a physical 
sense of touch, which often instinctively discovers the ri2:ht in 
either case. It must not be assumed, however, that such feeling 
and touching {i})7]Xa(f)dv) is all that is required (Acts xvii, 27); for 
he who does no more than feel in religious matters, " is blind and 
gropes with the hand," where he ought to avail himself of the eye 
of knowledge. The merely anticipative consciousness of feeling 
must accordingly give way to a clear understanding. A different 
principle applies to feeling in its proper character (the feeling of 
love, of gratitude, of devotion, etc.). This cannot be dissolved into 
reason, any more than music may be resolved into one of its parts, 
or may petrify into a building. Keason does not love, give thanks, 
or pray, any more than it eats or drinks; but love, gratitude, and 
prayer, may be justified to the reason as highly rational matters, as 
readily as eating and drinking. Religious feeling is the root of the 
religious life ; and we certainly do not aid the tree to put on its 

* Rousseau has already observed, " Quand on commence Sb penser, on cesse de sentir." 
On the other hand, Passavant (to Diepenbrok) says truly, *' This statement is false, for 
the reason that only a certain class of feelings are displaced by thought; while the pure 
thought and the pure volition carry with them a higher feeling in steadily increasing 
power and exaltation. So the feeling of pleasure, in which the unskilled person 
shares, becomes a higher and more intelligent emotion to the connoisseur in music 
when observing the harmony of some grand composition. So, too, the indeterminate 
feeling of immensity caused by a view of the starry heavens changes into an intelli- 
gent admiration with the astronomer, whose thought embraces not only the magnitudes 
of masses and their distances, but also the laws which govern the most distant worlds 
and the falling grain of sand, and who realizes that he has apprehended in nature one 
of the thoughts of God." — Briefe von J. M. Sailer, M. Diepenbrok, u. J. K. Passavant. 
Frankfort, 1860, p. 100 sq. 



40 THROUGH CONSCIENCE RELIGIOUS 

crown of bloom when we cut off the root, or permit it to decay. 
The soundness of the root determines the brightness of the foliage 
and the perfection of the blossom ; for " as feeling is the point at 
which all spiritual life begins and breaks forth in man, so it is also 
the goal of perfection in the cultivation of the spirit." ^ 

Religious feeling should be firm and steadfast. As it develojDS 
Through con- ^^^^ definite convictions, it should also become a settled 
science reiig- disposition. In this regard the conscience renders the 

ious feeling be- . . x« i • i <• • -, 

comes a stead- Service m practice which reason performs m theory, 
fast disposition, ^g ^]^g religious feeling is enlightened \i^ reason, so it is 
established and morally strengthened by the conscience. In practical 
matters law stands related to conscience as the understanding to 
reason in the domain of theory. In the latter province, that is, 
theory, the cognitions, being merely logically arranged and com- 
bined by the understanding, may harden into a lifeless dogma, and 
become rigid ; and, in like manner, the law of outward morality 
may become a dead statute, for the letter of the law kills, the spirit 
makes alive. A conscience enlightened by reason will doubtless be 
one in which religious feeling manifests and approves itself. But 
Religious feel- as feeling could not be resolved into reason, so here it 
ex^ ^ resolvable ^^^^^^^^ ^^ resolved into conscience. What we are accus- 
into conscience, tomed to term a good conscience, which gives us bold- 
ness before God and happiness in him, is of itself an indication 
that conscience is rooted in feeling. But the fervent love-life 
of communion with God, which forms the crowning point of all 
religion, the blessed life, which, as being designed for eternity, 
makes use of the finite forms of earthly worship to find expres- 
sion in a rich anticipative symbolism as "joy in God" — this sure- 
ly is not a mere matter of the conscience ! The contrary is true : 
for if a system of worship were to assert itself in the character 
of a concern of the conscience, it would degenerate into work- 
righteousness. Worship is altogether an expression of the feelings. 
Religious impulses may possibly emanate from the conscience under 
certain circumstances (e. g., the impulse to pray) ; but this will be 
the case only when religious feeling has become dull and listless, so 
as to need a spur. Where the religious feeling is in a healthful 
state, it overflows in thanksgiving, praise, etc., without requiring 

^De Wette, Vorlesungen iiber Keligion, p. 73. Carlblom uses similar language 
(1. c, p. 184): "An absolute feeling of dependence is the proper expression for re- 
ligion, even in the highest stages of its development. The Christian's heart is moved 
because he believes; he conceives himself in feeling as a personal unit before God. 
In the character of devotion, feeling combines clearness of understanding and force 
of will in a mighty ardour, that is inspired by the present God." 



FEELING BECOMES STEADFAST. 41 

the admonitions of conscience. The same reasoning applies to love. 
Conscience may admonish to works of love, but the love that is 
dictated by conscience is not the highest and truest love, which 
loves because it must, and cannot refuse. Conscience does not love, 
give thanks, pray, and praise, in its own character ; and for that 
very reason is no more capable than reason, which likewise fails in 
this regard of being the organ of religion. 

We sum up in the following paragTaph what has been pre- 
sented : — 

Religion, far from being, in the first instance or exclusively, con- 
fined to knowledge or to action, has its seat in the centre of man's 
spiritual and moral nature — in the heart ^ (which is the summary of 
scriptural and popular term for what we have hitherto ^iie argument. 
designated as the feelings^ and what others call the spirit) . This 
religion of the heart, however, must develop into a living conscious- 
ness through the intellectual process of rational thinking (reflec- 
tion), and must ripen into a settled disposition, and attest itself 
in action, through the moral processes induced and perfected by 
the conscience. 

We may accordingly say that religion is a subject in which the 
whole inner man is engaged," but whose pivotal point is in the feel- 
ing of dependence. "A healthy religion," remarks an excellent 

* On the heart, as the seat of religion, see Prov. xxiii, 26 ; Josh, xxiv, 23 ; 1 Sam. vi, 6 ; 
Ezek. xi, 19 ; xxxvi, 26 ; Matt, v, 8 ; Phil, iii, 7 ; Col. iii, 15 ; Heb. xiii, 9, and many other 
passages. A new objection might arise here, based on the language of the Scriptures, 
viz. : that the heart is represented as the seat of evil, of ungodliness also. Gen. vi, 5 ; 
viii, 21 ; Psa. xiv, 1 ; liii, 1 ; Jer. xvii, 9 ; Matt, xv, 19. These passages, however, illus- 
trate this very point, that the heart is man's central organ, the hearth, upon which both 
pure and impure fires may burn, the soil, capable of propagating both good and evil 
seed. Comp. Luke viii, 15. Hence we do not make the heart the source of religion; 
if it were, man might devise a religion in accordance with the desires of his heart. 
The source is in God ; but God addresses his revelations to the heart, as the receptive 
organ of religion. God's word takes root in the heart ; regeneration proceeds from 
the heart, and the peace of God, in the character of a good conscience, dwells in the 
heart. The non-identity of heart and conscience, which forbids the substitution of 
one word for the other, is apparent from the usage of ordinary speech, which approves 
of a large heart, but not of a large (elastic) conscience. We therefore commend the 
language of Julius Kostlin : " According to the ordinary usage, conscience is simply 
the organ for the recognition of requirements as such, etc. The recognition of gra- 
cious impressions, and, more emphatically still, the feeling of blessedness, which 
steadily becomes more profound, and connects more and more intimately with God in 
the truly religious, Christian life, cannot be assigned to it ; for which reason the con- 
science may not be designated the religious organ, in an unqualified sense." Comp. 
also Immer, Das Gewissen, seine Gesundheit u. s. Krankheit, Berne, 1866. 

^ This is strongly asserted also by Mynster (Ueber den Begriff der. Christl. Dogmatik, 
in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, 3, p. 449) ; Olshausen (BegrifE der Religion, ibid, 1830, 3, p. 644) ; 



42 A PUltELY JSUJUEOTIVE 

theologian, " exercises power over all the circumstances and condi- 
tions of life. Where its authority is acknowledged it is the heart, 
the silent pulse-beat of our entire being. It there consecrates and 
transfigures all things, however humble ; and it applies a correct 
rule to all things, however proud and ambitious they may be. Not 
in states of spiritual excitement and exaltation merely does the con- 
sciousness of God's presence express itself, but in discouragement 
and deepest sorrow likewise does it convey peace, and exert a sanc- 
tifying power." * 

SECTION XIII. 

The task of the religious instructor is consequently threefold: 
Threef Id t k (■^) *^ excite and quicken religious feeling itself; (2) to 
of the religious Cultivate the understanding and develop perception, 
under the guidance of reason, into a clear consciousness ; 
and, (3,) to bring moral influences to bear upon the conscience and 
the will, until the religious consciousness becomes an abiding dis- 
position. The three lines of effort in the one task are not, however, 
entirely separated, but are mutually dependent on each other for 
their successful prosecution. 

Neither an exclusive attention to feeling, nor a bare exercising 
of the understanding, nor yet the mere inculcation of moral maxims, 
will satisfy the conditions of this task. The religious teacher must, 
at the outset, fix his attention upon the entire man. He is to edify, 
to arouse, to teach, to guide, to admonish, to reprove. The modes in 
which the separate features of the task acquire a more distinct prom- 
inence in the work of the Christian Church will appear hereafter. 

SECTION XIV. 

THE EELIGIOUS COMMUNITY CHEISTIA^STITY. 

The religious community constitutes the soil in which the relig- 
ious life of the individual is rooted, in which it develops, and upon 
which it reacts. Hence the teacher who desires to achieve perma- 
nent results in the religious cultivation of otber minds should not 
only be penetrated by religious principle, but also stand connected 
with a religious society, and hold an active relation thereto. 

A purely subjective religion and a corresponding culture, after 
the manner of Rousseau's JBjmil, are conceivable; but they will exist 
in the imagination only, and be without a corresponding object in 

but they do not indicate what constitutes the controlling element in this whole. For 
a contrary view, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 46. Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 4, defines religion as " the 
life of God in man, and the life of man in God," and joins us in limiting the term 
" man " to the inner nature, and in understanding by religion the living presence and 
efficacy of the Deity in the inner self-conscious man or Ego." 
* Ullmaun, Ueber den Cultus des Genius, p. 52. 



RELIGION IS IMPOSSIBLE. 43 

the world of realities, besides being deficient in depth. However 

earnestly we may have sousjht to locate reliction in the „ ,. . 

*^ ^ . TTT 7. Religious feel- 

leelmgs, we have not implied that the suqjeetive feeling ingcommouto 

of one person alone is sufficient to meet the require- ^community, 
inents of the case, or that any one may construct his religion accord- 
ing to the likes and dislikes of his heart. Religion is certainly 
subjective and personal in its root, and is a natural principle, as 
being grounded in the human constitution, instead of being the re- 
sult of accident; but that which animates a single person is designed 
to quicken all. Religion is a common interest of the entire human 
race. Subjective feeling must expand into the feeling of brother- 
hood ; it requires prompting ; it is rarely powerful enough to be 
self -stimulating.^ When it does so manifest itself, its subjects are, 
humanly speaking, religious geniuses, comparable with the creative 
minds of art in its religious aspects ; men endowed and inspired of 
God. 

Such " elect persons " become founders of religions, about whom 
gather congregations of believers. An erroneous and misdirected 
feeling may, no doubt, likewise display such energy (as in the case 
of false prophets) as to be successful in founding a communion; and 
for this reason the communion to which one belongs is by no means 
a matter of indifference. He only can be a genuine and properly 
qualified founder of a religious system, in whom the religious feeling 
exists in absolute strength and purity, and in a spiiitual harmony 
with all the faculties of the soul ; in whom the God-consciousness 
and the self -consciousness are so one that all friction is removed. 
That such a Being has actually appeared, and that he has founded 
a religion which not only deserves a place beside and above all 
others, but which, accurately considered, is the only religion ;' and 
that, consequently, the salvation which the individual vainly seeks 
in himself or others is to be found in him alone, are necessary as- 
sumptions, if we would extend our way farther into the field of 
Christian theology, within which a proper place (apologetics) will 
be found for justifying what we now take for granted. 

'This should especially be asserted against the mistaken objection that the religion 
of feeling excludes all objectivity. Against this, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 69, »§'§'., and 
Schleiermacher, Glaubenslehre, i, p. 188. The feeling of beauty is excited in like 
manner by the study of real works of art, the sense of justice by the study of positive 
laws, etc. 

^ All the statements we have made concerning religion as such are actualized in 
Christianity. God was in Christ, and Ids life was involved in the life of God. This 
psychological-historical fact is the root of the entire tree. In no other positive relig- 
ion does religious feeling, as a primary feeling, possess such fervid, energetic power ; and 
no other religion has so clear a consciousness and such free determination of the will. 



44 THE THEOLOGIAN MUST LIVE 

SECTION XY. 

THE CHURCH AISTD THEOLOGY. 

H. Schultz, Die Bewegung innerhalb der evang. Kirche u. d. Aufgabe d. Theologie derselben 
(Zu den kirclil. Fragen d. Gegenwart). Frankfort, 1869. 

The teacher of the Christian religion belongs to the Christian 

Church, or to the visible religious communion of believers in Jesus 

Christ, and must regulate his course as a teacher of religion by that 

^ ,.^ ^. fact. To qualify himself for the duties of his calling. 
Qualifications n j ... * 

of the religious he must, first of all, come to regard Christianity, the 
eac ei. kingdom of God in its historical manifestation, as di- 

vinely ordained, and a necessary, rather than accidental, fact. He 
must trace its origin and recognize its bearings in every direc- 
tion, and appropriate to himself all the knowledge and skill made 
necessary by the historical progress of the Church and its present 
state. The scientific treatment of a positive religion as here indi- 
cated constitutes the study of theology in the narrow sense. 

Every positive religion which is rooted in the facts of history 
presumes positive intellectual acquirements. The necessity for such 
historical mediation should impress the theologian at the very be- 
ginning of his studies, that he may avoid the danger, on the one 
hand, of falling into a false idealism, and, on the other, of pursu- 
ing, in a merely mechanical way, studies whose importance to relig- 
ion he is not able to estimate. Our ideal suggests a man filled with 
religious fervour entering the theological school, and finding there 
the critical, historical, and philological apparatus, which must be 
regarded as the source from which theological wisdom is to be 
drawn. He may, no doubt, be discouraged by the thought of such 
a mass of apparently dead and unproductive material. It would 
tru s irit ^^^'^^i^^ly seem more attractive and profitable to draw 
of the theoiog- simply from the depths of the soul, and with strong 
ica s u en . (^^raughts to drink what nature, art, and, perhaps, his- 
tory (chiefly regarded, however, in the large perspective outlines of 
its development), may have to offer, than to toil laboriously with 
grammar, and devote the greater part of student-life to the interpre- 
tation of single letters, which frequently have but a very distant re- 
lation to the word of God.' We cannot do otherwise than rejoice 
in the question, Cui bono ? the very question to which encyclopaedia 
is to furnish the answer. There is a certain kind of self-denial which 
does not pause to inquire about the utility of prescribed studies, 
but rather enters on them in the conviction that the future will 
throw light on this point. Such modesty is rare, however, and dif- 
fers greatly from the indifference and the listlessness which lead so 

^ Goethe, Faust, i. 



IN AND FOR THE CHURCH. 45 

many to "be directed by, instead of directing, their studies. They 
hear lectures on exegesis. Church history, dogmatics, etc., simply 
because these belong to the course ; they would, in the same way, 
pursue any other study — heraldry, for instance — if an examination 
at the end of the term should be required. The object of Encyclo- 
poBdia is to deliver from the dullness that asks no questions. 

SECTION XVI. 

The theology developed by a positive religion will assume a sci- 
entific character in proportion as its body of doctrine is intelligent 
and complete. In this regard the highest place is held by the the- 
ology of Protestant Christianity.^ 

So long as a religion contents itself with the transmission of 

myths and legends, and with the observance of symbolical usages. 

it confines the wisdom of its priests within narrow ^ ,.,. 

^ Conditions of a 

limits. A higher scientific character belongs to a the- fuiiy developed 
ology which stands related to existent sacred writings, ^^^^^°^^- 
whether they be found in a sacred language and accessible to the 
priests alone, or whether they be the common possession of the peo- 
ple, and consequently require interpretation. But wherever the 
letter of the writing is not animated by the spirit which pervades 
the community, and wherever the religious idea laid down in such 
writings is permitted to remain undeveloped, the theology will 
speedily become a lifeless letter. That religion only which adds 
to its sacred writings a living history, to its standard and unchange- 
able elements others capable of being modified, can produce a sound 
theology. This character belongs to Christianity. It has sacred 
writings in languages which, though ancient, are accessible to all. 
The writings are not the exclusive property of a priestly order, but 
belong to the people as a whole; on this account they require a 
thorough exposition, based on the original meaning. It has also a 
historical development in a higher degree than any other religion. 
More than any other, historical Christianity has become 
the religion of the world, seizing upon every language tions fumued 
and popular custom, and entering so thoroughly into ^ ristiamty. 
the culture of modern times as to seem, during an extended period, 
its sole support. These remarks are preeminently true of Protes- 
tantism. The Roman Catholic Church, which has an authorized 
version of the sacred writings, but reserves their interpretation to 
itself, cannot demand of its servants that each individual shall so 
carefully go back to the first meaning of the original ; and, in view 
of the limited use of the Bible by the people, it does not place an 

' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 2 and 4. 



46 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AN 

equal value on the practical exposition of the Scriptures. The 
principle of historical development is more apparently present in 
Roman Catholicism (tradition) than in Protestantism. As, however, 
development in Roman Catholicism is restrained by outward au- 
thority, and stability is exalted into a ruling principle instead, it 
results that even history has a higher importance in Protestantism. 
This does not imply that, on the one hand, many individuals will 
not pass beyond, or, on the other, that many will not fall behind, 
the requirements of their Church in scientific matters. The scien- 
tific character of Roman Catholic theologians is, accordingly, a very 
praiseworthy opus supererogativum, while a similar character is, 
with Protestants, a conditio sine qua non.^ 

SECTION XVIL 

THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AND THE CLEEGT. 

K. Ullmann, Theologie, Theologen u. Geistlicbe zu dieser Zeit; preface to Studd. u. Kritt. for 
1849; K. Lechler, D. neutest. Lehre vom heil. Amte, Stuttg., 1857; W. Preger, d. Gesch. vom 
geistl. Amte, Nordlingen, 1857 ; Nesselmann, Ueber Priester-u. Prophetenthum in ihrer Bedeu- 
tung f. d. Christl. Kirche, Elbing, 1830 ; G. F. Magoun, Theological Education in England, Bib. 
Sacra., xxiv, p. 531; E. A. Park, Bib. Sacra., xxviii, pp. 60-97. 

In proportion as theological science widens, and its treatment 
becomes more profound, will a division of the work be found nec- 
Theoiogians Gssary. To some persons will be presented the duty of 
and practical cultivating the Science for its own sake, while to others 
ers— bow dis- it becomes simply a means for the practical ends of the 
tinguished. teaching ofiice in the Church. The former constitute 
the theological school, and are termed theologians, in the strict 
sense ; the latter form the teachers of the Church (clerus), and are 
variously designated in accordance with local or denominational 
usage, or as their stations in the Church and their leading duties 
may suggest; e. g., priests, clergymen, ministers of God's word, 
rectors, preachers, pastors, cures, and confessors. 

It should be remembered that the Church is more ancient than 
Scientific theo- the school. The latter sprang from the former. Pas- 
paftOTs co^S *^^® ^^ *^^ congregation existed before doctors of the- 
lated. ology. The distinction between them, which has now 

become necessary, is not designed to result in their alienation from 
each other; for the life of the Christian community depends for its 
soundness largely upon the effects produced by the school and 
Church upon each other. The scientific theologian can only form a 
correct estimate of his science when he views it as having living 

^ The future must decide the extent to which the " Old Catholic " party, which de- 
nies the infallibiUty of the Pope, but nevertheless, in its own fashion, acknowledges 
the authority of the Church, shall secure an independent organization as a Church, 
and develop a theology corresponding to its character. 



OUTGROWTH OF THE CHURCH. 47 

relations to the Church and its specific needs; while the practicjil 
clergyman can successfully measure up to the duties of his calling 
only when he holds friendly relations to theological science and its 
cultivators.^ The pretended gentility of scholars, which, instead of 
seeking to train faithful servants for the Church, rather aims to de- 
prive her of their aid whenever possible (on the ground that good 
heads are too valuable for such business, is quite as perverse as the 
boorishness of unscientific empirics, which looks with suspicion upon 
the advantages of learning, and seeks, to the extent of its ability, 
to repress all inquiry. It is, therefore, important to the preserva- 
tion of the union between the school and the Church that men 
should be found in whom the scientific and the clerical characters 
combine, so as to fit them for successful labours in either field (as 
was the case with most of the reformers, and in a qualified sense 
with some in recent times; e. g., Tzschirner, Schleiermacher, Sack, 
Nitzsch, Tholuck, J. Miiller, Al. Schweizer, Rothe, Schenkel, Bar- 
row, Wesley, Chalmers, Jonathan Edwards, Hopkins, Moses Stuart, 
etc.). The same rule, however, does not apply to all. All that can 
be required is that men should be open to influences from the one 
department, even while exclusively employed in the other. The 
Church must not be excluded from the school, nor the school 
bolted out of the Church. 

A few words on the appellations above cited. We do not take 
the title doctor of theology in the empirical sense, which ^^^ ^ 
implies that the holder of it has received a diploma? which pastors 
but in its more pregnant meaning as involving scientific 
acquirements. It applies not only to academical teachers, but to 
all who are called to give material aid in the further development 
of theological science as such, and also to theological writers.'* 

All Christians are priests (1 Pet. ii, 5), for the spiritual priest- 
hood, to which all are called, must for that very reason lead to the 
universal priesthood. But, inasmuch as the priestly character is to 
be especially exemplified in those who are called to minister in holy 
things in the name and in behalf of the congregation, it is not im- 
proper that the Protestant clergyman should bear the title, although 
not in the exclusive sense of the Roman Catholic Church. Viewed 
in its etymological bearings, it is very simple ; for if the word priest 
be derived from TZQeafivrTjg, npeajSvTegog, a presbyter, it follows that^ 
every pastor is a priest, or even a hisho}^, since hmoKonoq and ttqeo- 
fivrepog denoted the same ofiicer, in the apostolic Church. But it is 

^Comp. Schleiermacher, § 12. 

' Comp. De Wette, Opuse. theol., p. 169 s^., who compares doctors of theology to 
the prophets of the Old Testament. 



48 THE CLERGY NOT CALLED PRIESTS 

evident that we think rather of the Sacerdotmm {iF.pdTevfia *) than 
of the Preshyteiniim, when we use the word, and in that sense the 
Protestant clergyman cannot properly appropriate the title exclu- 
sively to himself.^ This consideration, however, has not prevented 
defenders of the priestly character (as the possession of a privileged 
class) from arising even in Protestantisn. When Spalding ex- 
pressed a purely economic view of the utility of the clerical office, 
(Nutzbarkeit d. Predigtamtes, 1772), Herder replied in the Provin- 
zialblatter for 1774, defending its priestly character, but guarding 
against erroneous conclusions.^ Marheineke* and Harms'^ likewise 
came to its support, the latter remarking that the priest need not 
necessarily be conceived as armed with the sacrificial knife, while the 
former held that the sacrifice and the priest are most intimately con- 
nected, because "every one who sacrifices is a priest, and, on the other 
hand, the jD^iest exists only for the sake of sacrifice." — Lect. ii, p. 14. 
In the Reformed Churches the clergy are usually designated as 
the spiritual order (geistlicher stand, geistlichkeit), and the expres- 
sion is employed in the confessions. Many have protested against 
the phrase, among them Harms (1. c), who insists that the spiritual 

class should include all Christians (Gal. vi, 1, Trvevaan- 
Various desig- ,x rm i -, . . -, ' 

nations of the Koi). Ihe language, however, is not mtended to oppose 

clergy. ^-j^^ rrvevfiaTLKog to the ipvxiKog, or the oapKiicog, but has 

reference to the distinction between KXriQiKoq and XacKog. The or- 
ganized body of teachers in the Church (ordo) is now known as the 

' Some derive the word priest from the Persian Perestar, one wJio prays, equivalent 
to the apTjTTjp of Homer. Comp. linger, Reden an kiinftige Geistliche. Leipsic, 1834. 

^Comp. Conf. Helv., ii, c. 16: Diversissima inter se sunt sacerdotium et ministe- 
rium. Illud enim commune est Christianis omnibus, hoc non item. Luther is particu- 
larly emphatic : "In the New Testament wo find no external, visible priests, except 
those raised up and established by the devil through the lies of men. By the testi- 
mony of the Scriptures the external priesthood is hurled to the earth in the New 
Testament, for it makes prayer, access to God, and teaching the privilege of all."^ 
"VYerke, Walch's ed., vol. xix, p. 1311. Similarly Spener. 

^ " We are not set apart to sacrifice for the people, to be intermediate between God 
and man, half divine and half human, theurgists and theanthropists, in short, exor- 
cists of the devil — ^nor do I know what rabble could suppose this. Not the bearer of 
an offering for the people, but bearer of God's gift to the people, teacher of his rev- 
elation, scatterer of the truest means of culture, and to that extent really a separated, 
chosen, m.ediating person, a messenger and an instrument of God ! Not an anointed 
administrator of sacred usages, especially as based on human arbitrariness, but some- 
thing nobler : an anointed, i. e., chosen administrator of sacred functions, of the holi- 
est duty on earth, the cultivation of the soul through the influence of religion," See 
Werke zur Religion u. Theologie, vol. x, p. '64:2, sg. 

* Grundlegung der Homiletik in einigen Vorlesungen lib. d. wahren Charakter der 
Prot. Geistlichkeit. Hamb., 1811. 

^Pastoral theologie, ii, 1st and 2d discourses. 



AS BEING MEDIATORS. 49 

clergy, and the above designations are simply familiar versions of 
this term. The clergy are not termed " spiritual " in the subjective 
sense, as being more spiritual than other persons, but in the objec- 
tive sense of having in their official character to perform certain 
functions. This of course does not forbid that the laity also may 
and should be a spiritual order; and, in any case, the designation 
may serve to continually remind him who bears it by reason of his 
office, that he should be spiritually-minded beyond all others.^ 

Minister of God's word (verbi divini minister) is an expression that 
prevails especially in the Reformed Church. It forms the direct 
contrast to the term priest, but by that very fact becomes one-sided, 
since it limits the service to the Word, and disregards the liturgical 
element. The proper term to apply to the body of servants of the 
Word would, accordingly, be the miivistry (ministerium, not clerus 
or clergy). 

The term rector properly denotes the person who has a parish, 
as distinguished from the unappointed candidate, the mere admin- 
istrator (vicar), or the assistant (diaconus). In this sense some 
derive its German equivalent, Pfarrer, from ndpotKo^, naQOLKia, 
comp. diotKTjOLg. If it be derived from ndpoxog, [napexcj,) it is 
equivalent to dispensator, administrator, and then every person 
who administers the Word and Sacraments might assume the title.'' 

^The German language makes a keen distinction between the outwardly spiritual 
and the inwardly spiritual. The outwardly spiritual should always be spiritual in its 
inward essence, but the latter does not always fall into the category of the former. 
Differently expressed, not every thing that is spiritual is the object of spiritual func- 
tions. It has been said (Wechsler, Charakter u. Zukunft d. Protestantismus, Konigsb., 
1844, p, 6, sq.) that "the great mission of Protestantism consists in promoting the 
subjectively spiritual (das Geistige), rather than the spiritual in its outward bearings, 
as i-elating to order, functions, etc. (das Geistliche). The latter merely indicates like- 
ness to the spiritual, and is related to it about as reddishness is to red." This is an 
entire perversion. The subjectively spiritual is the demonstration of tlie spirit in 
the most general way, including its worldly (cosmical) relations, while the objectively 
spiritual expresses the relation of the finite spirit to the infinite spirit, and thus be- 
comes a powerful exponent of the religious idea. 

^ Another etymology that is urged with much confidence — from pf aren (f aren), the 
same as to beget (Vorfahren, ancestors, those who have previously begotten), or even 
from Farr, a bullock (Parr, the herd), is adduced simply as a cui'iosity. See Clamor, 
Die Zustande d. Christl. Kirche in d. ersten 6 Jahrhunderten, Halberst., 1856, p. 46, 
note. The word Pfciff^ (out of TrdTTTraf), which had a good meaning in the Middle 
Ages, now denotes the caricature of the priestly character. The danger of becoming 
a Pfaffe threatens every clergyman more nearly than may be supposed ; for, while the 
teaching order is a necessity for the Church, the merely professional administration 
of religious duties is always an unhappy indication. Only a high and enthusiastic de- 
votion can secure against falling into the depths of vulgar frivolity or of hypocrisy. 
See Zollikofer's Predigten lib. d. Wiirde des Menschen, ii, p. 474. 
4 



50 THE THEOLOGIAN RELATED BOTH 

Preacher (predicant) is a name derived from the leading function 
of the Protestant clergyman, to which those of the pastor and over- 
seer of souls are added in a complementary way; but as the liturgi- 
cal element is not included, the term is insufficient and one-sided.' 
Pastor (TToifiTJv, njn) is taken from John x, 11, sqq./ xxi, 15, sqq,; 

Eph. iv, 11; Heb. xiii, 20; 1 Pet. ii, 25. Comp. the Paator of Her- 
mas, and the Shepherd (Hirte) of Zwingle. Every person who, in the 
love of a disciple, feeds the sheep and lambs in healthful pastures, 
is accordingly entitled to this name. As an official title it corre- 
sponds to rector (Pfarrer). Curate (Seelsorger) in the Reformed 
Church, and Confessor (Beichtvater) in the Lutheran, have refer- 
ence more particularly to the relation sustained by the clergyman 
toward the individual members of his charge.'^ In the Church of 
England, the word curate denotes a rector's assistant or substitute. 
Suppleoneyit 1. — No reference has been made to the 'missionaries, 
,„ . . who constitute a distinct class in the theological order. 

Missions in . . . . ^ .... 

Theological The increasingly scientific method with which mission- 
Encyciopaedia. ^^^ affairs are administered in recent times, renders it 
more and more imperative that Theological Encyclopaedia should 
make room for the science of missions in its organism. 

2. The officers of the apostolic age (apostles, prophets, evangel- 
ists, pastors, and teachers, Eph. iv, 11 ; comp. 1 Cor. xii, 28) have 
in recent times been regarded by members of the Catholic Apos- 
tolic Church, better known as Irvingites, as obligatory for the 
future also, but without sufficient exegetical or historical authority. 
The fact that the lists of officers in the two passages do not corre- 
spond, is of itself sufficient to suggest a more independent view. 
Neither passage, moreover, refers to the office of angels, which is 
taken from the Apocalypse, nor to that of deacons, which occurs in 

Acts vi. 

SECTION XVIII. 

KELATIOIT OF THE THEOLOGIAN TO SCHOOL AND CHURCH. 

The Protestant student belongs to the theological school during 
the period of his academical studies, and derives his culture from 

* The reason for this is found in the history of Protestantism. The teaching and 
pastoral oflBce, which certainly demands the most various gifts, was exalted, in oppo- 
sition to the mechanical duties of the " mass-priest." The true liturgist, however, 
deserves to be termed a priest (with Harms), in so far as he represents the priestly 
character of the entire congregation in the liturgical act — but in this case only, and in 
this point of view. 

" Other, provincial, designations {e. g.^ domine among the Dutch), or such as relate 
to the government of the Church, or to special ofl&cial stations (bishop, abbot, super- 
intendent, antistes, provost, dean, archdeacon, deacon, etc.), do not come under review 
in this place. 



TO THE CHURCH AND THE SCHOOL. 51 

that source, rather than immediately from the Church. The latter 
is entitled, however, to demand from persons who seek a place 
among its teachers such evidence of theological acquirements and 
Christian disposition as may be necessary. 

The Church itself prepared its servants in the earliest "period. 
The apostles trained their assistants, and the latter trans- sketch of the 
mitted to others, in a purely practical way, what they fgteS^^rain- 
had received. Science was as yet in the possession of ing. 
the ancient (heathen) world, and Christians were in the habit of 
attending the schools of heathen philosophers and rhetoricians, and 
of appropriating to their own uses whatever of good they could 
thus obtain.^ Specifically Christian training-schools were soon in- 
troduced, however, as that for catechumens at Alexandria (in the 
third century), and the schools at Antioch, Csesarea, Edessa, Nisi- 
bis, etc. The monasteries, also, afforded training-schools, and during 
the Middle Ages the episcopal and convent schools, founded by 
Charlemagne and his successors, in which the trivium and quadrlv- 
ium — grammar, logic, rhetoric, and arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
omy, and music, the seven liberal sciences — were taught, were 
especially valuable for the purposes of ecclesiastical education. 

The rise of universities (studia generalia) in the twelfth century 
introduces a new era in the history of the sciences. At The rise of uni- 
the first, certain universities were managed more par- ^^ersities. 
ticularly in the interests of a single faculty, the schools at Paris, 
Oxford, Cologne, and Louvain, being especially prominent for 
theology. In these scholjjsticism set up its throne. New uni- 
versities, whose beginnings were due, to some extent, to the con- 
flicts of the hour, were founded in or about the time of the Refor- 
mation, and generally became the exponents of some theological 
tendency (Wittenberg, Jena, Halle, Helmstedt). This exclusive 
character was gradually laid aside, and in more recent times the 
superiority of a university training over that received in institutions 
devoted to a specialty came to be properly recognized," more 
particularly as manifested by the wide culture, the mutual 
exchange and free intercourse of different forms of thought, and 
the unrestrained liberty of teaching and study, which it involves. 
Against this, however, it has been remarked that a wise limitation 
with regard to the matter of instruction, and a more definite ideal 
governing the methods of instruction, would in no wise impair the 
object for which universities exist. 

* Comp. Augustine, De doctr. Chr., ii, 40. 

' See Schleiermacher, Ueber Universitaten, p. 52. 



53 THE LECTURE SYSTEM 

SECTION XIX. 

THE UNIVERSITY. 

♦Schlelerraacher, Ueber Unlversitaten in deutschen Sinne, Berlin, 1808; H. Steffens, Idee der 
IJniversitaten, Berlin, 1809; Id. Ueber Deutschlands prot. Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1820; F. C. v. 
Savigny, Wesen u. Werth d. deutschen Unlversitaten, In Ranke's Histor.-polit. Zeitschrift, Ham- 
burpr, 1832 ; L. F. Froriep, Ueber das Eigrenthiimlicbe der deutschen Unlversitaten, Weimar, 1834 ; 
G. 0. Marbach, Unlversitaten u. Hochschulen in dem auf Intelligeuz sich griindenden Staate, 
Leipslc, 1834 ; (Fr. Theremin, Ueber d. deutschen Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1836 ; A. Diesterweg, 
Beitr. zur Losung d. Lebensfrage der Civilisation, Essen, 1836, 1838) ; Fr. Thiersch, Ueber d. 
neuesten Augrlffe auf d. deutsch. Unlversitaten, Stuttgart, 1837 ; J. E. Erdmann, D. Universitiit 
u. ihre Stellung zur Kirche, in his Vermischte Aufsatze, I, Leipslc, 1846 ; V. A, Huber, Ueber 
akad. Convicte, zur innern Mission auf d. Unlversitaten, Berlin. 18o2; Henry P. Tappan, Uni- 
versity Education, New York, originally an article m the Bib. Repository for July, 1850 ; 
Noah Porter, American Colleges and the American Public, New Haven, 1870, from the New 
Euglander for 1869 : also Index to Bib. Sacra., pp. 242-244, title Universities. 

The period of academical study is the time spent in the college 
or university. Usage has limited it to a brief term of years, which 
would seem to be scarcely sufficient, in view of the present state of 
science. Much has been said for or against the exclusive adoption 
The university of the lecture system in university training.^ Scientific 
lecture system, instruction can evidently be conveyed only in connected, 
uninterrupted discourse, and the mind of the hearer is stimulated 
to higher energy by quietly receiving and inwardly digesting what 
it hears, than by hastily interrupting and throwing in replies. It is 
by this very feature that the academical lecture is to be distin- 
guished from that employed in the seminaries (gymnasia) and 
grammar-schools. A lecture of this kind ^ should of course be ex- 
tempore and fresh, carrying the hearers along with the current of 
thought ; not declamatory or pathetic, but strictly methodical, dig- 
nified, and earnest, and accomplishing its purpose by clearness and 
depth of thought instead of foreign ornamentation. It should even 
be edifying, not, however, in the manner of a moving pulpit dis- 
course, but through the silent power of the truth. As it is not 

^ Theremin demands a more conversational method of instruction. Diesterweg goes 
still further, and traces much of the existing corruption to the present character of 
the universities. Comp. also C. F. Fritzsche, De ratione docendi Socratica in institu- 
tione academica, in the Opuse. academ. (Tur., 1846), p. 361, sqq., and more recent 
treatises on the same subject. 

"^ Comp. especially Schleiermacher, p. 62, sqq. ; L. Thilo, Grundsatze des akad. Vor- 
trags, 1809; Scheidler, p. 103, sqq. "What Pyrrhus says to his Epirots, 'Ye are my 
pinions ! ' is felt by the zealous teacher toward his hearers, whom he loves, and whose 
entire soul is interested in his discourse. His investigations are not facilitated merely 
by the desire to be clear, and not to present any thing as the truth that could be at 
all doubtful ; but much more by the view of his audience, to whom he sustains per- 
sonal relations that awaken a thousand thoughts even as he speaks." (Niebuhr, in 
Preface to the second edition of his Roman history. Eng. edition (Hare & Thlrlwall's), 
pp. xi, xii. (-ompare also his letter to a young philologist, published by K. G. Jacob. Leip- 
slc, 1839, p. 38. 



AND ITS PROPEll USE. 53 

designed for immediate effect, but to excite thought and mental 
activity on the part of hearers who think and act for themselves, it 
is desirable that these latter should seek to retain the mental imQ,ge 
brought before them in the lecture by sketching it on paper, or re- 
producing it in its main outlines. College sketches of this kind, the 
work of the student's personal power of independent mental repro- 
duction, and accompanied with marginal notes of inquiry, doubt, 
etc., form the most valuable journal of the years of academical 
preparation, whose direct relation to the writer forbids that any 
printed book should ever take its place. The mere attendance on 

lectures and listenins: to them, without subsequent writ- „ ^ 

» ' 1 The true meth- 

ing, is often simply intellectual sloth, or, at best, awk- od of profiting 
wardness, which, however, not unfrequently conceals ^ ®^ "'^" 
itself behind a screen of easy indifference. The sort of copying 
to be commended, by which we mean the independent recording 
of thought from the mind of another person, is, of course, very 
different from a thoughtless writing of dictated matter. Formal 
dictation can only become necessary through the force of circum- 
stances, and with regard to a few leading postulates (for want of a 
printed guide). In other respects the teacher is no more to be de- 
graded into an instrument of dictation than the student is to become 
a copying-machine.^ While, however, the lecture should not be 
displaced by any other method of instruction, it is certainly bene- 
ficial to combine with it other methods. Teaching by question and 
answer seems adapted to primary scholars, and involves a painful 
element ; but semi-annual examinations, following a completed 
course, have their beneficial side. Especially stimulating, however, 
are disputatiojis under the guidance of the teacher; and independ- 
ent societies for practice among the students, or presided over by a 
teacher, are likewise of value (comp. § 20). 

SECTION XX. 
Public instruction should be supplemented by private Private indus- 
industry, whose efforts are not to be limited to careful j^ent o/puwic 
preparation for the expected lecture, and to a subse- instruction. 
quent exact recapitulation of its matter; it must also approve itself 
by independent inquiry and exercises. 

* It should never be forgotten that some things can be better conveyed through tlie 
eye, and others through the ear. Nanaes, figures, the titles of books, etc., should be 
before the hearer in printed form, as also the necessary documents. Against dictation, 
see Schleiermacher ut supra, p. 65. It is remarkable that the Jesuits in the sixteenth 
century were the chief originators and promoters of dictation, although the Jesuit Posse- 
vin clearly points out its disadvantages. See his Bibl. selecta, i, 26. The Pietistic school 
(Lange) of Halle likewise opposed the practice, while the Wolfians favoured it greatly. 



54 REPETITION AND DISCUSSION 

Attendance on too many lectures at once works injury and con- 
fusion. In this regard the study of encyclopaedia and methodology 
helps to produce system and rule. But private industry is not to 
prevail at the expense of public instruction, else the sojourn at the 

Preparation university will be without an object. Preparation and 
^o bemadded to I'^petition (repetitio mater studiorum) constitute the 
the lecture. bonds of union between private industry and the objects 
sought in the hearing of the lecture. The one, preparation, sharp- 
ens the vision to perceive the objects that may be presented; the 
other, repetition, impresses them more deeply on the mind. In 
one department of study, however, more of preparation will be 
needed, in another more of recapitulation. The former is especial- 
ly necessary with studies that present philological and other diffi- 
culties which must be overcome at the outset; the latter applies 
here also, and likewise in the historical and systematic departments. 
But inasmuch as the mere appropriation of knowledge is of less 
importance than its digestion, the recapitulation will increasingly 
utility of oral t^xpand into a "volvere et revolvere in animo," while dis- 
discussion. cussion with f ellow-students will provide the intellectual 
gymnastics by which the faculties are strengthened and made trust- 
worthy. Care must be taken, however, to prevent the spirit of 
disputation in religious matters from degenerating into a petulance 
which eats out the heart, and attacks the root of the deeper life. 

The most approved antidote against disorderly disputes and a scep- 
tical temper is found in severe mental labour; and to this evfery 
student should subject himself during one or more periods of his 
course, by engaging in the thorough investigation of some specialty j 
this, too, if his aim is to prepare for the simplest duties in the 
Church, rather than for the work of theological scholarship. They 
who have themselves untied knots are alone capable of appreciating 
the labours of others, and they only who possess the patience and the 
courage to go to the bottom of what is individual and special can 
attain the power to comprehend the universal. It may be added that 
only such persons can possess the ability to derive profit from inter- 
course with scientific men, or deserve their notice. The chatterer 
will be avoided. Much, and especially discursive, reading is to be 
avoided; let "non multa, sed multum" be the rule in this regard.' 

^Plin,, Epp., vii, 9; Quinet., Inst, orat., x, 1, 59; Senec. Ep., 45; Non refert, quam 
multos, sed quara bones habeas (libros). Lectio certa prodest, varia delectat ; Her 
der's Briefe, No. 49 ; Niebuhr, Brief an einen jungen Philologen, p. 145 : " Give up 
tlie miscellaneous reading, even of ancient authors ; there are very many worthless 
ones even here. Eolus allowed only the single wind to blow that should bring Ulysses 
to his goal, and bound the others ; when loosened and sweeping through each other, 
they prepared him endless wanderings." 



SHOULD SUPPLEMENT LECTURES. 55 

Writing, whether of compilations^ or original article8/ is far more 
profitable and improving. 

SECTION XXL 

THE FOEMATION OF CHAEACTEE. 

While attaching all importance to thorough scientific culture, it 
should be a principle never lost sierht of, that the char- , 

^ , . ^ . '^ ' Importance of 

acter of a religious teacher is not only determined by character in 
the measure of his knowledge, but also by the measure tue theologian, 
of his religious and moral convictions, and the thoroughness of his 
spiritual culture, and, consequently, that the formation of a theolog- 
ical character upon the basis of previous Christian training is as im- 
portant an object as the acquii'ing of knowledge and the develop- 
ment of skill. 

No theological teacher who has comprehended his duty should 

avoid enterinec into intimate relations with earnest stu- „ , ,. 

o . , Relations of the 

dents. We must certainly requii'e that he shall per- teacher to the 
sonally illustrate a theological character that, with all ^*'^^®^^- 
its deficiencies, shall yet possess certain features which are the in- 
voluntary expression of spiritual achievements. The whole may be 

^The younger Pliny boasts (Epp., iii, 5) of his uncle: Nihil legit, quod non excer- 
peret ; dicere enim solebat, nullum esse librum tarn malum, ut non aliqua parte pro- 
desset. Comp. C, Meiners, Anweisung fiir Jiinglinge zum Lesen, Exeerpiren, und 
Schreiben, Hanover, Vl^\ ; Scheidler, Hodegetik. Herder (Sophron., p. 153) calls 
excerpts the cells which bee-like industry constructs, the hives in which it prepares 
its honey. 

- Herder, I.e.: " Nulla dies sine linea, not a day should pass in which a young per- 
son does not write something for himself, whether he record what might otherwise be 
forgotten, or notes and answers his doubts. The pencil, which for us means the pen, 
sharpens the judgment, corrects the language, develops ideas, and excites the soul to 
activity in a wonderfully pleasant manner. Nulla dies sine linea." Much writing 
with the object of teaching before having learned, or a conceit of authorship, may, 
however, involve its own dangers. Niebuhr — rather strong and almost extreme — ex- 
presses a contrary opinion (Brief, etc., p. 134 sq^\ "To learn, my friend, to learn 
conscientiously, and always to test and increase our knowledge, this is our theoretical 
life-calling, and it is especially so for youth, which has the good fortune to be able to 
expose itself without restraint to the charm of the new intellectual world revealed in 
books. The writer of a treatise assumes to teach whatever he may say ; and teaching 
is impossible without some degree of wisdom, which, if pursued, is given by God to 
replace the evanescent bliss of youth. A wise youth is a monster." (Accordingly, 
Niebuhr counsels only fragmentary writing, without any attempt at completeness and 
finish [?] ), He continues : " Well is it with the young tree that has been planted in 
a good soil and is surrounded by favourable conditions, whose erect growth is pre- 
served by careful hands,'and that forms a solid heart ! Should excessive moisture 
accelerate its growth, should it be soft and weak, exposed to the storm-wind's blast 
without protection and support, the result will be that its wood is spongy, and its 
growth deformed throughout the entire period of its life." 



56 PRAYER, MEDITATION, TRIAL 

comprehended in the language of one of the most esteemed theo- 
logians:^ "Decision without exclusiveness and repulsive boldness, 
independence freed from all vain self-sufficiency, dignity without 
unkindness, firmness without harshness and passion, and all these 
resting on the basis of a Christian spirit, together with wealth of 
intellect and of knowledge — these are the elements that constitute 
the theological character." 

The student of theology who is in earnest will speedily discover 
that this ideal cannot be realized by the way of study alone, how- 
ever indispensable this may be ; the causes that so often dampen 
the courage and intensify the struggle are more deeply rooted in 
the moral nature. If newly-gained conceptions excite alarm and 
fears arise that faith may become unsettled, while the desire to 
avoid the conflict suggests that it would be better to leave things 
as they are, it is wise to inquire whether indolence has not be- 
gotten the desire, and cowardice the unwillingness to sustain the 
fight. When novelties impress us, and we feel ourselves driven 
into opposition against the existing order, we may ask what share 

^^ , .in our condition is due to vmiity. dogmatical or quarrel- 

The temper in o • 

which doubt sotne dispositions/' In this way the student has oppor- 
shouid be met. ^^^^^j ^^ constantly apply to himself that beneficial dis- 
cijDline of spirit, to which all were obliged to submit who attained 
to eminence in theological character. In this way, too, the maxim 
of the ancients, " Oratio, meditatio, tentatio, faciunt theologum," 
receives its meaning and confirmation. The practice of quiet and 
frequent self-communion, even though it may oblige him to read 
some pages less, meditatio,^ the trustful look and elevation of the 
soul to God, the Living One, in prayer, oratio,*" courage, and endur- 

^Ullmann, Theol. Aphorismen, in Studd. u. Kritt., 1844, No. 4, p. 448. 

^ " We can battle for nothing nobler than the truth ; and it is worth battling for 
when the mode of conflict leaves love and liberty unharmed. But to quarrel, hate, 
and become alienated about opinions or the authority of councils, synods, faculties, 
journals, or human decisions and forms of doctrine in general, is the most miserable 
business under the sun for men to follow." — Menken, Leben u. Wirken, ii, p. 108. 

^ It was an early custom at commencements to open a book and close it again, in 
order to suggest reflection upon the instructions now brought to a close. But inces- 
sant reading deprives our generation of the opportunity for thinking. 

^"Dimidium studii, rite precatus habet," said the Fathers, and Herder recommends 
prayer and reading of the Bible in the morning and the evening as a daily food 
(1. c, p. 174). In like manner, a Swiss theologian of recent times remarks : "I there- 
fore hold that no person is suited to the sacred oflBce of proclaiming the word, who 
does not come before God with prayer and pleading and sighs day by day, and who, 
with every new hour in which he is to learn some lesson, does not beseech the Lord 
anew in his heart, and so secretly as to escape observation, that he would bless him 
in that hour, so that he may be able to learn the grace and mercy of God, and the 



MAKE THE THEOLOGIAN. 57 

ance in the conflict against doubt, and against the influences of 
sloth and pride, hypocrisy and passion, bitterness and discourage- 
ment, tentatio — these are the methods by which the theologian is 
developed into a man of God ; and such he must become if he 
would be a divine in the favour of God.^ A theologia irregeni- 
torum is, when carefully examined, a contradictio in adjecto. 

true welfare of man, from the study upon which he is now to enter." — Zyro, Die 
evang. ref. Kirche, p. 12, sq.^ 

^It is usual to demand physical qualifications, also, of the future servant of the 
Church, and not without propriety. The Old Testament was prescriptive in this as 
well as other regards. Lev. xxi, 17, ^qq. In the Koman Church, too, the authoritative 
Canon law recognizes the principle, sacerdos ne sit deformis. The greater liberality 
of Protestantism appears in this respect also, since it prescribes no formal rule. A 
sound, physical constitution is, however, a fundamental condition of ministerial effect- 
iveness. Good lungs ai-e a manifest necessity for the preacher. Much may be ac- 
complished in this direction by dieting, and imperfections of the vocal organs may be 
modified by continued exercise of the parts (Demosthenes). Reading aloud, and also 
singviff, are to be particularly recommended, and no less outdoor exercise. Even study 
may be carried to excess, and a walk in the open air is as important for the mind and 
feelings, no less than the body, as a few hours spent beside the student's lamp. 
Lord Bacon read much, but never to weariness and satiety. The beneficial change 
of a walk, a ride, or a daily game of ball, always succeeded the time devoted to study 
(see Rawley in Yauzelles, Hist, de Bacon, ii, p. 197). There has been a narrow age 
which condemned physical exercises like gymnastics, as not suitable for a theologian 
to practice (through a perversion of 1 Tim. iv, 8). We had supposed that such opin- 
ions were no longer held, until an article in Hengstenberg's Kirchenzeitung for 1863 
endeavoured to show the incompatibility of gymnastics with a Christian disposition ; 
it, however, received an answer, to which we assent, in the columns of the same 
journal. On the advantages of gymnastic exercises for students, comp. Scheidler 
Hodegetik). The great importance of social intercourse for the cultivation of man- 
ners is admitted, and it is greatly to be desired that students associate together in a 
cheerful, joyous way ; nor should they isolate themselves from other society, lest they 
fall into unbridled license. Schleiermacher, Ueber Univers. p. 126, sq. 



58 GENERAL TIIEOLOGICAI, ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



PART I. 
GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYGLOPJIDIA, 

ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER SCIENCES, AND ITS AIMS. 



SECTION I. 
THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. 

Theology is a positive or applied science (Schleiermaclier, § 1), 
and its scientific character is consequently not determined by any 
thing within itself, as is the case with a pure science, but from with- 
out by an existent and historically-conditioned fact, namely, the 
Christian Church and its manifestation in time. 

The word positive is sometimes employed in a more limited sense, 
so as to denote, not simply what is conditioned in the circumstances 
of outward life, but also what is at the same time commanded by 
outward authority — positive law in distinction from natural. The 

^. ^ propjress of our discussion will show, when treating: of 

Sense m which ^ ^ , . ° 

theology is a the relation between reason and revelation, that theol- 
positive science. ^^^ ^^ ^ positive science in this sense also — which is 
likewise true of jurisprudence, but not of medicine. But the three 
sciences referred to may be termed *' positive " without referring 
to that question, if the word be interpreted to mean "a combi- 
nation of scientific elements whose collocation is not required be- 
cause they form a necessary constituent in the idea of science, 
but simply because they are needed for the solution of a practical 
problem" (Schleiermacher) . ^ In this view natural philosophy is a 
pure science, in so far as it investigates nature and its phenomena 
for their own sakes and without reference to the relation of nature 
to the practical necessities of the human race ; while medicine, 
although based on a knowledge of natural philosophy, is still a 
positive, or applied, science, because it selects and collocates simply 

' Similarly Pelt : " The whole of theology has reference primarily to an external phe- 
nomenon, whence its positive character is derived ; for we designate a science as pos- 
itive when it does not originate in a supreme principle developed by free investigation 
in harmony with its own peculiar laws, but when it relates to an organism having its 
beginning in time as an object, such as the ethical associations of the State or the 
Church." — EncykL, p. 15, sq. Comp, Harless, Encykl., p. 25. 



THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. 59 

what concerns the relation of the human organism to the organ- 
ism of external nature; i. e., the relations of health and disease.^ 
If diseases should cease, medical science would come to an end. 
And similarly, in connexion with theology, Hellenistic Greek and 
Hebrew have a different significance for the philologist,*"^ and 
Church-history for the historian, than they have for the theologian; 
and the comprehension, e. g.y of exegesis. Church-history, etc., in a 
single course, can be understood only in view of the common ob- 
ject to which they relate. "These very sciences cease The guidance of 
to be theological, and take their places respectively the church the 

. , , - 1 • 1-11 11 1 object of theol- 

with the particular science to which tney belong by ogy and its Mu- 

reason of their contents, if they have been acquired dred sciences. 
and are held without reference to the life of the Church and its di- 
rection." " The great varieties of scientific knowledge stand related 
to the purpose of participating in the guidance of the Church, as 
does the body to the soul ; and without such purpose the unity of 
theology disappears, and its constituents fall into distinct elements." 
(Schleiermacher, § 6, V). This, however, is not universally admitted.^ 
While in former times empii'icism prevailed, and the mere 
thought of future practice frequently served to prevent dangers of the 
thoroughness in study, we now find dominant a scien- excess of the 
tific spirit that mocks at life, and, with cruel harshness, ^^^^^ ^^^"^ * 
drives from its presence the most crying demands of actual con- 
ditions. The example of Dr. Griffin (in the Memoires de Paris) 
affords a melancholy illustration of the manner in which the very 
hospitals are made to afford opportunities for scientific observa- 
tions on the part of medical men. In like manner, a certain theol- 
ogy claims the right to undertake its merciless vivisections on 

^ The anatomy of man, for instance, is simply a contribution to comparative anatomy 
with the natural philosopher, while with the medical man it forms the soil upon which 
his practical activity is based. To the botanist each plant is of equal value with any 
other ; while the physician has a distinct science of therapeutics (materia medica), etc. 

"^ A genius for language is generally regarded as at the same time a theolo^cal 
genius, and a certificate of philological talent passes for the best assurance of the- 
ological fitness ; but real philologists (by profession) have themselves comprehended 
that the one does not necessarily involve the other. " The connexion of theology with 
philology is more properly an accidental one, arising from the fact that the principal 
documents of the former are written precisely in that language to which the latter 
ascribes the highest classical character." — Passow's Leben u. Brief e, pp. 38, 12. 

^Sartorius, Die Lehre von der heil. Liebe, Part I, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1851 (new 
1 vol., ed. 1861) — in harmony with the Victorines and Middle Age mystics gener- 
ally — makes the sound observation: "Theology is a practical science, a knowledge 
that pervades the affections, and stands connected with the disposition." (The term 
" pectoral theology " has been invented for purposes of ridicule ; but the adage, " Pec- 
tus est, quod disertum facit," cannot be limited, in its application, to the orator alone.) 



CO GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the body of the Church, in order to observe the palpitating spasms 
of the heart which the anatomical knife has laid bare to the view. 
The recent times furnish terrible illustrations of this spirit. Are 
men determined not to comprehend that such inconsiderate asser- 
tion of the claims of science forces science itself to become unnat- 
ural, and that, whatever may be thought about the height to which 
such methods may seem to force it, they yet sever the root upon 
which the life of science depends, and thus ensure its death ? ^ Let 
it be observed, however, that the very organization of universities 
in faculties^ which has hitherto prevailed, is based on the distinction 
between the pure and the positive or applied sciences, which we 
have indicated.^ Philosophy, as a distinct university science, has 
to do with pure knowledge, and therefore deserves, not the last, 
but the first, place. ^ Medicine, jurisprudence, and theology are 
mternally allied with it, though in their external bearing they face 
toward actual life, and derive from life their peculiar character as 
determined by its conditions. 

When compared with law and medicine, the remaining positive 
Relations of sciences, theology is found to present numerous points 
law^Smd a^- ^^ contact with both, and even to manifest a closer re- 
cine. lationship with either than they bear to each other. It 

rests upon the foundation of historic fact, like jurisprudence, and 
presupposes the Church, as jurisprudence does the State. The 
courses and apparatus of study in law and theology present a sim- 
ilar appearance (exegesis, history, dogmatics, Bible, and Corpus 
Juris), and in their practical application each involves public dis- 
course and the functions of direction and administration. The two 
meet and interpenetrate each other in the department of ecclesi- 
astical law. But the regulative principle of theology is, never- 
theless, wholly unlike that of law; the latter has to do with firm 
and legally-determined forms, the former with a free development 
of life. A judicial theology is not what we could wish, for it 
would appear as a false positivism. (See the remarks on Law and 
Doctrine, § 7). Theology does not deal with an element of human 
life, such as the principle of right, in the abstract, but with the living 

* There is a papacy and hierarchy of learning and science, a fanatical tyranny exer- 
cised by the learned classes. Their motto is, "Fiat scientia et pereat mundus." — 
Liicke, p. 10. 

^ Schleiermacher, Ueber Universit., p. 73 sqq., p. 75 : " The three faculties (exclud- 
ing philosophy) do not derive their unity immediately from learning, but from an 
external employment, and they combine from different studies whatever is needed for 
that work," Comp. Herbart, Phil. Encykl., chap. 2. (On man in his delations to 
nature, the State and the Church, whence the author deduces the three faculties). 

^ Schleiermacher, 1. c, p. 78 ; Kant, Ueber den Streit der Facultaten. 



THEOLOGY AS A PRACTICAL ART. 61 

man in all his relations. Its work is not mandatory, but curative ; 
and this connects the theologian with the physician, particularly in 
the field of pastoral theology. 

The care of souls reaches over into the physical realm, in view 
of the intimate connexion between soul and body. The physician 
and the clergyman meet beside the sick bed, not only in outward 
form, but also in the profoundest depths of man's need of healing 
(medicina clerica). The moral and intellectual qualities required 
in the physician are also to be in many respects demanded of the 
clergyman, and vice versa. Humanity, apart from what is specific- 
ally Christian, forms here the connecting link. An individualizing 
method of treatment is even more apparent in the work of physicians 
and clergymen than in that of jurists; their personal contact with 
the subjects of their labours is more frequent, difficult to determine, 
and constant. The theologian is accordingly required The qualities 
to unite in himself qualities which are usually presumed ^e^„J^ted?nthe 
in both the jurist and the medical practitioner. He theologian. 
must possess the historic sense, the disposition to labour in a legiti- 
mate way in behalf of a historically-developed society, and the gift 
of oratory, in common with the lawyer; and with the physician he 
must possess the talent for giving direction to the life of individ- 
uals, and for noting the mysteries of the psychical life, an observing 
eye, keen discrimination in the treatment of different persons, and, 
finally, the desire to heal and to change diseased conditions into 
states of health. In former times theology embraced both the other 
sciences, and nourished them in its maternal womb; and their sub- 
sequent separation, though resulting in advantage to them all, does 
not warrant a disregard of their continued relations to each other. 
It forms one of the advantages of a university course (in contrast 
with the opportunities afforded by schools devoted to a specialty), 
that such relations become apparent and are partially actualized 
before its studies are completed. The theologian may gather in- 
, formation from the jurist and the physician, and each is able to aid 
the others in behalf of science and future usefulness from his own 
possessions. 

SECTION II. 

THEOLOGY AS A PRACTICAL ART. 

The relations arising from a positively determined field of activity 

not only demand a certain measure of intellectual ac- ^ ,. , ,.^ 
...*'.. . , Practical life 

quisitions, but likewise a high degree of practical abil- the object of 
ity; hence, theology is not to be onesidedly regarded *^®°^°^y- 
as a speculative or historical science, but also as a practical art or 
art-theory. 



U2 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Pelt (Encykl., § 3) has properly called attention to this fact; 
for " the general interest of the thought does not predominate in 
theology as in philosophy; the object is not to gain a consciousness 
of the truth, without reference to its application;^ the leading idea 
is, rather, that by means of such consciousness the Church should 
be brought nearer to its consummation" (ibid. p. 34). The word 
art {rexvrj) is here taken in its most general meaning, as denoting 
free action in conformity to recognized principles. 

SECTION III. 

THEOLOGY IN ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMEIST. 

Zezschwitz, G., Der Entwicklungsgang der Theologle als Wissenschaft (particularly Its prac- 
tical development). Leips., 18G7. 

Christian theology, regarded as the aggregate of the various 
Christian theoi- methods and forms of positive knowledge which have 

ogyconditioned reference to the Christian religfion and Church, is whol- 

by the history of , , , o / ^ 

Christianity. ly conditioned by the existence of that religion and 
Church; and its scientific character can accordingly be understood 
only in connexion with the actual state of Christianity in the cor- 
responding period. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, § 4. The attempt to explain theology 
from the etymology of the word will surely lead to error. In its 
highest character it is unquestionably divinity, the doctrine of God 
and divine things ; and apart from this idea it becomes a dead 
aggregate of the most various learning. This learning, however, 
enters into the body of theology, however variously modified the 
latter may be by the conditions of each successive period. The 
man who should attempt to become a "theologian" in the way of 
simply speculating about God, would speedily find his expectations 
crumbling into ruin. The theologian is obliged, rather, to give 
attention to very human matters, as grammar, history, etc., the 
knowledge of which has become necessary through the progress of 
historical development. The incipient theologian, placed at the 
very center of the present, will be unable to appreciate the com- 
plexity of his science unless he has a preliminary knowledge of its 
history. 

The word theology passed over from heathen into Christian 
Origin of the ^sage. They who, among the ancients, were able to 
term theology, furnish information respecting the nature and history 
of the gods, were termed theologians; the word was so applied to 

* Ficlite, however, demanded that the university should not simply transmit knowl- 
edge to the students, but that it should become a school for teaching the art of scien- 
tifically employing the understanding. Comp. his life, by J. H. Ficbte, Pirt i, p. 522. 



HISTORY OF THEOLOGY. 68 

Pherecydes of Syros (Olymp. 45-49; B. C. 600) and Epimenides of 

Crete (Olymp. 64-68), a contemporary of Pythagoras.^ In the 

earliest Christian age the word theology was understood to signify 

the doctrines of the divinity of the Logos, and of the Trinity; 

and, in accordance with this view, John the Apostle and Gregory 

Nazianzen were called theologians. The Middle Ages were the 

first to include in Christian Theolosjy the whole body ^^ , ., 

/. ^1 • • T • T / AT 1 IX The Middle A?e 

of Christian doctrine; and some [e. g., Abelard) con- sense of the 

tinued to employ the word preferably in connection ^^^ theology. 
with the doctrine of the Trinity even then. It was the leading 
characteristic of the scholastic theology that it was chiefly con- 
cerned with speculative representations of the Divine nature and its 
attributes. The mystics, on the other hand, whose modes of speech 
were adopted by Luther and also by Spener and Francke, understood 
by theology a courageous entering into the nature of religion itself, 
or the absorption of the mind in God — hence the title of the book, 
Theologia Germanica, and the maxim, *'Oratio, meditatio, tentatio 
faciunt theologum." The modern interpretation, by which theology 
denotes the aggregate of the knowledge which bears upon the life 
of the Church, could only originate after a more definite organiza- 
tion of its several sciences had taken place; but the thing itself 
was previously known under different designations. 

The scientific treatment of religion, or rather of its doctrines, was 
called deoAoytfCTj -ngayiiareia^ avvrayfia TTiareoyg, institutio divina, doc- 
trina Christiana (Augustine), etc.^ A distinction was made between 
niGTig and yvcdOLq {kmGTTjfiT}) , the latter denoting the Theological 

speculative apprehension of the doctrines of religion; science m the 
J J. T . . o ' early Chnstian 

and a further distinction existed between the true and church, 
the false gnosis.^ Theological schools were formed, the speculative 
tendency predominating in that of Alexandria and the grammat- 
ical in that of Antioch. Various considerations led to a scientific 
treatment of theology: 1) the needs of apologetics; it became 
necessary to resist the attacks of scholars and philosophers with 
similar weapons (Justin Martyr et al, Clement and Origen, Minu- 
cius Felix, Tertullian) ; 2) the interests of polemics, the various 
tendencies within the Church having resulted in doctrinal contro- 

^ Cicero, De nat. deor, iii, 21 ; Ernesti, Claris on that passage; Plutarch, De defectu^ 
oraculor., xiv, p. 323, ed. Hutten ; Plato, Polit., lib. ii ; Arist., Metaph., x, 6 ; Diodor. 
Sic, V, 80; Stephani Thesaur. lingua, gr. s. v. deoloync ; Pollux, Onomast., i, IP, 20. 
The priests of the ancients were called lepelg, veuKopoi, ^uKopoi.. trpoipTjTai, viroor/Tai, 
^i'Tai, Te?ieaTac, lepovpyot, Ka-^apraL fiuvretc, T^eofidvTetc, xPV^^I^V^oi, xP^^f^^^^7^h 
XPVf^/J'OSoTai. Trava-yeic, T^vpdopoc, VTTTjperni. ■&eovpyn^ i^v^ttoXo'. Ibid. 14. 

^Semler, Introd. to Baumgarten's Glaubenslehre, i, p. 110, sqq. 

^ See Smith's Hagenbach, Hist, of Doetr., § 26, vol. i. 



64 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

versies and. in the rise of heresies. The councils, beginning with 
Origin of form- ^^^ fourth century, settled the doctrines of the faith, 
ai Christian and. furnished, and prepared, the material out of which 
eo ogy. ^ later age constructed the edifice of church doctrines 

(Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory Nazi- 
anzen, among Orientals ; and Augustine in the ^^'^est). 

The contents of theology continued to be Christian; but the 
form of the various doctrines was influenced by the philosophies 
(Platonism and Aristotelianism) which had from the first been 
transplanted from heathen into Christian soil. Various intellectual 
tendencies made themselves felt even within the orthodox catholic 
Church; one of these attached more importance to what had come 
down from previous ages, and contented itself with a simple figura- 
tive phraseology, while the other combined the whole of the material 
so transmitted into a body of doctrine, (Isidore of Seville and John 
of Damascus, in the seventh and eighth centuries), and sought to 
penetrate it intellectually, by means of a speculative apprehension 
Early relations ^^^^ dialectic treatment of the several dogmas. The 

of philosophy effort to reconcile theology and philosophy, faith and 
and theology. , , , ^, ., ^-^ ^ ,^ f p 

knowledge, the prescribed and the results oi personal 

thought, revelation and reason, was especially apparent in scholas- 
ticism in various directions (Scotus Erigena in the ninth century, 
Abelard and Anselm in the eleventh). Philosophy, however, be- 
came more and more dependent on the established teaching of the 
Church, and filled, while deceiving itself with the appearance of 
independent action, a servant's place in the house of its mistress. 
But theology, the mistress, likewise failed to emancipate herself, 
and continued to bear the fetters of a dialecticism imposed upon it 
from without. Aristotle ruled the Bible. 

Exegetical and historical studies, formerly cultivated, were ne- 
Middie Ages glected in comparison with systematic inquiries in the 
dogmatic. twelfth and thirteenth centuries from Peter Lombard 
to Thomas Aquinas. Such studies finally degenerated into an in- 
tolerable rage for disputation, and dogmatism gave way to scepti- 
cism. The mystics, however, especially in the fourteenth century, 
Mysticism the Were inwardly preparing for a regeneration of the 
The^'^Reforma- Christian life and thought, when, in connexion with 
tion. the so-called humanism, philology, criticism, and his- 

tory again became prominent, and exegetical studies, immediately 
before the Reformation, resumed their flourishing condition. (Lau- 
rent. Valla, Reuchlin, and Erasmus.) Theology was obliged to 
renew its youth under the influence of the Protestantism of the 
sixteenth century (Luther, Zwingle, Calvin), which postulated the 



THEOLOGY SINCE THE REFORMATION. 65 

Scriptures as the only certain rule of faith, and based every thing 
upon them. The study of the Bible took a freer range and became 
more independent, and was made the broad substructure of the 
body of Protestant doctrine. This body of doctrine was devel- 
oped by the Lutheran and Reformed theologians of Development 

^ "^ , , ,, , • •,! ^4. of doctrine in 

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with great ^j^^ Protestant 

thoroui^hness, but not without retaining something of Churciies. 
the scholastic spirit and of polemical bitterness. 

The effort was finally made, from the stand-point of science 
(Calixtus), and especially from that of practical life (Spener and 
Pietism), to return to the simple faith of the Scriptures, and to di- 
rect attention to properly religious needs, in contrast with a dead 
orthodoxy. When Pietism began to lose its savor at the beginning 
of the eighteenth century, philosophy gave it polemical support. 

Wolfianism, havino^ been preceded by Descartes and influence of the 
^ ., . -■ ■• • .1 1 / xT- ^- n^ Wolflan philos- 

Leibnitz, brought into theology a new (mathematically ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ 
demonstrative) formalism, and though still wearing an ogy. 
orthodox garb, prepared the way for rationalism, Avhich was still 
further supported by the critical tendencies of Semler and others 
in the second half of the eighteenth century. 

"Dogmatics" was confined within increasingly limited bounds 
and became more and m.ore undecided in its bearing, while exegetical 
beginning with Ernesti, and historical theology from the time of 
Mosheim, acquired a more independent position. Extraordinary 
changes in the other departments of life (e. g., the awakening of 
German literature in Lessing, modern pedagogics, philanthropism) 
exercised both an inciting and enlightening, a levelling and a secu- 
larizing influence upon the life of the Church. The Wolfenhuttel 
Fragments threatened injury not only to the doctrines The woifen- 
of the Church, but also to the historical basis of Chris- oS^^^isToricai 
tianity. " Apologetics " showed itself embarrassed, and Christianity. 
allowed outwork after outwork to be taken. At this juncture Kant 
appeared and marked out the limits of reason, within which a re- 
ligion that renounced all knowledge of the supersensual and con- 
fined itself to the morality qf the categorical imperative was 
obliged, with its practical ideas of God, liberty, and immortality, 
to content itself for the time. The speculative pressure of Ger- 
man philosophy, in Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, soon again made 
that its real object, which others, like Jacobi, reserved for a 
faith based on the feelings. Schleiermacher was as earnestly en- 
gaged in the work of separating theology from the philosophy of 
the schools, as in penetrating all its branches with a philosophic 
glance and in pointing out the germs of their life. From that time 
5 



66 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

it has been the task of modern theology, before all else, to compre- 
hend its own nature in the light of history, and to secure a clear 
idea of its relation to the present age. There is no lack of persons, 
however, who ignore the whole of the historical development of 
theology, and believe it necessary to reconstruct every thing anew 
from the beginning; while others still desire to conjure up the 
theology of the seventeenth century much rather than that of the 
sixteenth.^ 

SECTION ly. 

THEOLOGY AS RELATED TO THE PEEPAEATOEY SCIENCES (PROPE- 
DEUTICS). 

Theology, like every other positive science, presumes a strictly 
scientific school-training, since it treats the pure sciences as in part 
preliminary to its work, and on the other hand continually employs 
them as auxiliaries. 

A distinction may be made with Bertholdt, between preliminary 
Distinction be- knowledge (propaedeutics) and auxiliary sciences (boe- 
tweon the pre- thetics). The former ogives to every person the neces- 

paratory and ,.^ . , . ,. i • n c 

the auxiUary sary qualiiication, and indicates nis ntness tor entering 

sciences. upon one of the university courses ; the latter are, in 

addition, special aids to the study of theology. A study is fre- 
quently at once preparatory and auxiliary, e. g., Latin, Greek, and 
history. The Hebrew language — even where it is taught in gym- 
nasia — is included among th^ ordinary branches of the school-cur- 
riculum solely for the sake of theology; we therefore reserve its 
consideration, in common with that of biblical philology in gen- 
eral, until the discussion of properly theological studies, where 
auxiliary sciences will receive attention. 

SECTION Y. 

THE PEEPAEATOEY SCIENCES. 

Among pure sciences the languages and history hold the first 
place with regard to their application to theology, and mathematics 

^ In this historical resume we have had reference primarily to German theology, and 
more particularly to that of Protestantism. Koman Catholic theology, wherever it 
was living, passed through the same phases, especially in Germany. All that in other 
lands (in either the Protestant or the Roman Catholic Church) has acquired reputation 
as theological science (which alone is here referred to, and not the practical church- 
life), is more or less closely connected with the course of development in Germany. In 
recent times a change has certainly taken place. The conflicts of German theology 
have been shared by other lands more and more fulty as time progressed, and the lib- 
eral tendency in particular, or even the negative, has found representatives in England, 
France, and Holland. With reference to England, comp., among others, Mackay. 
" The Tubingen School and its Antecedents of the History and Present Condition of 
Modern Theology." London, 1868. Also, the "Essays and Eeviews," Colenso, etc. 



DIVISIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 67 

and the natural sciences the second — and this both in a formal 
and a material aspect. We therefore observe, that a Theoio^cai 
liberal classical culture forms the only assured basis for Jf^T^cfassicai 
a sound, Protestant, Christian theology. i>asis. 

" Like him who leaves his country in his youth, so the departing 
student looks back over the course of studies pursued while in the 
school.'" Without taking philosophy into consideration for the 
present (comp. § 7), we may place the remaining mass of empiri- 
cal knowledge in two principal divisions, the one of which presents 
to us the world of bodies in space, and the other the jji^isiong of 
world of spirits, or the moral world as it is developed knowledge— 

JL , . , , , ^ , . . philosophy, na- 

in time, lo the former belong the natural sciences m t^re, and ms- 

their entire extent, together with mathematics, which ^^^y- 
constitutes their formal side; to the latter belong history and its 
formal medium and organ, language.^ While medicine, among the 
applied sciences, is based upon the conditions of nature, jurispru- 
dence and theology rest upon an ethical and historical basis (comp. 
§ 1). Without desiring to reconcile here the pedagogical dispute 
about humanism and realism,^ we may say, without hesitation, that 

* Herder, Anwendung dreier akad. Lehrjahre (Werke zur Rel. u. Theol., x, p. 164). 
Upon this entire section comp. vol. i of Noesselt's Anweisung (Niemeyer's ed., 1808, 
Svo), which, however, leaves much to be modified in accordance with the present con- 
dition of the science. 

^ The French apply the term sciences to the so-called exact sciences, but class phi- 
lology and history with "lettres," a distinction that is well-founded, although such 
designations are misleading, and rest upon too realistic an idea of science. It is, of 
course, understood that an absolute separation between the different sciences is im- 
possible, because they stand organically connected, and the transitions from one into 
the field of another are frequent. Thus geography (both physical and mathematical) 
must be classed with natural sciences, and is seen to be most intimately related to 
several of them, e. g.^ geology ; but it forms, at the same time, the basis of history, 
and is connected with ethnography and statistics. The conditions of nature are, sim- 
ilarly, also the first conditions of language ; and orthoepy may be connected with 
physiology. From this point of view J. Grimm called attention to the mysterious 
laws that control our organs of speech ; to demonstrate these laws is the office of nat- 
ural science. Comp. the preface to the Deutsches Worterbuch, p. iii. W. Wacker- 
nagel, in his preface to his work. Voces Yariae Animantium, a contribution to natural 
science and the history of language, 2d ed., Basle, 1869, likewise refers to this inti- 
mate connection of the sciences with each other. It may be added, too, that history 
has its mathematical side, in chronology, etc., and that its first beginnings (inquiries 
respecting the primeval world) are wholly lost in the investigations of natural history, 
e. g.^ concerning the lake-dwellings. Nor can even the most recent history be properly 
comprehended without duly estimating the revolutions in natural science, and their 
influence upon civilization. 

^ Comp. F. J. Niethammer, Der Streit des Philanthropismus u. Humanismus in der 
Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichts unserer Zeit, Jena, 1808 ; A. Rauchenstein, Bem- 
erkungen iiber den werth der Alterthumstudien, Aarau, 1825 ; F. Thiersch, Ueber ge- 



68 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

a classical, liberal culture,^ which is of advantage to the medi- 
cal scholar also, is yet of peculiar service to the jurist and the 
theolo2:ian. 

On a detailed review of the preparatory studies, the first rank 
Philology the will be occupied by philology, which possesses great im- 
paratory^*sfud- poi'tance for the cultivation of the mind, irrespective of 
ies. all inherent value. The whole work of instruction is 

based upon the power of the word; and for this reason the study 
of the mother-tongue alone is important. The power of language 
to cultivate the mind does not become manifest, however, until 
the ability to compare several languages with each other has been 
acquired. That especially the Greek and Latin, the (by way of 
eminence) so-called ancient languages, are adapted to perform this 
service, by reason of their wealth of forms and their definiteness, 
is conceded by scholars. The style of classical expression reacts 
upon the mother-tongue to purify and strengthen it;^ and it is 

lehrte Schulen, etc., Stuttgart, 1826, 2 vols. ; A. W. Rehberg, Sammtliche Schriften, 
Hanover, 1828, i, p. 238, sqq.; F. W. Klumpp, Die gelehrten Schulen nach den Grund- 
satzen des wahren Hmnanismus u. den Anforderungen der Zeit, Stuttgart, 1829 ; L. 
Usteri, Rede am Schulfeste 1829, Berne, 1830; Selections from German Literature, 
Edwards & Park, Andover, 1839. 

^ " The humanities, indeed, took a much wider range with ancient Roman writers, 
and included every kind of science that could contribute to human culture. See the 
passage in Gellii noctt. Att. xiii, 15, and J. A. Ernesti, Prol. de finibus humaniorum 
studiorum regendis, Lips., 1738, 4to. But since knowledge among the Romans was 
really acquired by the reading and through the influence of good authors, and in more 
modern times the whole of science was restored and started on its course by the same 
means, that view gave way to the more limited sense in which polite literature or the 
humanities is now taken." Noesselt, i, p. 106. 

^ Luther well illustrates the formal as well as the instrumental value of the ancient 
languages in the following : " Let us cling to the languages as earnestly as we love the 
Gospel. . . . And let it be remembered that without the languages we could not well 
receive the Gospel. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit 
is contained. They are the casket in which this jewel is confined. Should it ever 
come to pass, which God forbid, that the languages should escape our careless grasp, 
we should not only lose the Gospel, but finally reach the condition of being able to 
speak and write in neither Latin nor German. Let us be admonished by the wretched, 
horrible example of the high schools and monasteries, in which not only has the Gos- 
pel been lost, but also the Latin and German tongues have been corrupted, so that 
the miserable people have been reduced almost to the level of brute beasts, unable to 
speak and write either German or Latin correctly, and almost deprived of natural 
reason itself." " Where the languages are cultivated there is animation and energy, 
the Scriptures are examined, and faith continually derives new inspiration from other 
and still other words and works." See the address, An die Rathsherren aller Stadte 
Deutschlands, dass sie christliche Schulen aufrichten und halten sollen. Werke, 
Walch's ed., x, p. 538, sqq. Similar passages occur in Zwingle ; see Werke, IJsteri 
and Vogeli's ed., Zurich, 1819, 1820, ii, pp. 255, sqq., 268, sqq. 



THE STUDY OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 69 

therefore necessary that the talent for philology should be devel- 
oped and the intellect be strengthened by the study of ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
the classical models themselves rather than by that, for ancient ciasbic 
instance, of later ecclesiastical writers. Nothing but ^^'^s^^s^s- 
narrow-mindedness can discover danger to Christianity in this/ 
Besides a formal value for the cultivation of the mind, however, 
the theologian finds the languages, and particularly the ancient lan- 
guages, to be of practical utility, a point upon which but little need 
be said, as it is self-evident. 

The study of the ancient languages will of itself lead to the study 
of history, for which reason modern philology combines The study of 
in itself both linguistics and historical inquiry.^ It be- ^^^^^ pMioi- 
comes absolutely necessary for the theologian to attain ogy. 
to a clear idea of the ancient world, if it were only to enable him 
to contrast it with Christianity.^ But, in addition, the habits of 

^ The Church-fathers already questioned how far the reading of heathen authors 
might be beneficial or injurious to Christians ; comp. the celebrated dream of Jerome 
(Ep. xxii, ad Eustochium), the oration of Basil, Wpog rovg vkovg, OTvog av ef e7Ji7]vLKuv 
tj(l)eXolv~o ?M-yc}v (published separately by Sturz, Gera, 1'791 ; in German, by F. G. Uhle- 
mann in Illgen's Hist, theol. Zeitschr., part ii, p. 88, ffqg.., and by F. A. Nueszlin, Mann- 
heim, 1830). The monks in the time of the Reformation branded all Greek learning as 
heretical ; but their opponents likeAvise doubted whether heathen antiquity could sup- 
ply the Christian theologian with the most healthful food ; comp. the letter of Felix 
Myconius to Zwingle (0pp. Aii, 1, p. 258). In modern times the value of classical 
studies has also been abundantly debated. Comp. E. Eyth, Classiker u. Bibel in den 
niedern Gelehi'tenschulen, Basle, 1838, 8vo. Fer contra, K. Hirzel, Die Classiker in 
den niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Stuttgart, 1838. With more direct reference to theol- 
ogy: C. H. Stirm, De Classicis, quos dicunt, scriptoribus in usum theol. christ. legendis, 
in den Studien der Wiirtemb. Geistlichkeit, Stuttgart, 1838, vol. x, 'No. 2; L. Baur, Die 
Classiker u. deren Einfluss auf den Geistlichen, ibid, ii, 1, p. 127, sqq. ; J. G. Krabinger, 
Die Class. Studien u. ihre Gegner, Munich, 1853 ; K. L. Hundeshagen, Die Natur u. 
geschichtl. Entwickelung der Humanitatsidee, in ihrem Yerhaltniss zu Kirche u. Staat, 
an oration, Berlin, 1853; J. E. Erdmann, Das Heidnische im Christenthum, Berlin, 
1854; S. Hirsch, Humanitat als Religion, etc., Treves, 1854; J. G. Miiller, Yerhaltniss 
der Classiker zum Heidenthum, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl, 1856 ; E. Yoigtherr, Der 
Humanismus, a synodal oration, Glogau, 1857; F. C. Kirchhoff, Die Christliche Hu- 
manitat, an oration, Altona, 1859; G. Yoigt, Die Wiederbelebung des Class. Alter- 
thums, od. das erste Jahrhundert des Humanismus, Berlin, 1859; A. Boden, Yer- 
theidigung deutscher Classiker gegen neue Angriffe, Erlangen, 1869. 

2 Schiller, What Means and For What Purpose do we Study Universal History ? 
Works, vol. ii., pp. 346-352, Phila., 1861 ; J. G. Muller, Briefe lib. das Studiumd. 
wissenschaften, besonders der Geschichte, Zurich, 1817; E. B. Riihs, Entwurf einer 
Propaedeutik des hist. Studiums, Berlin, 1811 ; W. Humboldt, Die Aufgabe des 
Geschichtschreibers, in werke, 1841, 1; Gervinus, Introduction to History of Nine- 
teenth Century, Lond., 1866 ; Droysen, Grundziige der Historik, Leips., 1868. 

^ Christianity is assuredly appointed to overcome the world, including the heathen 
world, and therefore what remains in us of pre-Christian culture. This subjugation, how- 



70 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

thought presented in the Bible and Christianity, so contrary to 
those of heathenism, can only be appreciated by him who has 
come to understand the spirit of antiquity. It is necessary to hai'e 
regard, not only to the history of the Greeks and Komans, but 
also to the history of Oriental peoples in its relation to the 
Bible ; and likewise to that of the Middle Ages and more recent 
times, without which Church history cannot be understood. But 
history and the attention given to it are not only of material value, 
as making us acquainted with matters of fact ; there is also a for- 
mal, fashioning element, the quickening of the historic sense, which 
must not be overlooked. History should not, therefore, be consid- 
ered simply as dealing with nations and states, but, in the spirit 
of Iselin and Herder, as comprehending in its province the entire 
human race. In harmony with this conception, the history of man's 
spiritual culture should be made prominent as its subjective feature. 
While the study of languages and history thus forms the real 
Uses of mathe- basis for theological study, mathematics and the natural 
maticai toowi- gdences are not without value to its prosecution. The 
theologian. formative value of mathematics is unquestioned; it af- 
fords the test of the mind's demonstrative power,^ and is some- 
times called a practical logic, like the science of language. Its 
philosophical value has, however, been overrated. Mathematical 
modes of thought are as unsatisfactory in theology as juridical. 
Mathematics has to do with mensurable and calculable quantities 
(form and numbers), while the immeasurable nature of ideas cannot 
be forced into circles and equations. The wonderful blending of 
spiritual and intellectual life, the numerous and various shades of 
thought, which often elude the grasp of the most flexible and skil- 
ful language, cannot possibly be compressed into an expression like 
a-\-b. Not unfrequently that which, when broadly considered, is 
entirely true, becomes an untruth when the attempt is made to fix 
it and to grasp it with an unimaginative and ideal-less understand- 
ing. Many misconceptions have arisen in this way. ^ A notion that 

ever, is not to be an expulsion, as if of demoniac powers which must be cast out to make 
way for the Divine Spirit. If we have recognized the connection running through the 
different stages of development in the human history of the past, we can regard as the 
ultimate task nothing else than the reconciliation in us of the contrast between the two 
spiritual powers which may be termed the leading factors in the history of civilization, 
viz.^ Hellenism and Christianity." Curtius, in Gelzer's Monatsbl., August, 1858, p. 85. 

^" Hence," says Herder (Sophron., p. 89), "that Avhich Pythagoras inscribed upon 
a hall of learning, ' Without geometry let none enter here,' might properly be wiitten 
on the doors of the higher classes in gymnasia." 

^ Goethe i-emarks (Farbenl, ii, p. 158), "A great portion of what is commonly called 
superstition has its origin in an erroneous application of mathematics." Let memory 



USES OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES. 71 

meets with special favor among cultivated laymen, is that astron- 
omy sustains a near relation to theology, because each is a science 
of heaven. But the astronomical heaven is not that of Astronomy not 
theology, nor does " the sublimity we seek " in the world JSed ?o"tLot 
of morality and religion, dwell even in infinite space; ogy. 
for not all the evidences of the stars are able to lead to the star 
of Bethlehem. This was acknowledged by Lalande when he had 
measured the entire heavens without finding God. The knowledge 
of the starry heavens will, nevertheless, adorn the theologian as 
well as other cultivated persons, and the two sciences, however 
they may diverge in other respects, may meet in a poetical trans- 
figuration in the symbol of Urania. The natural sciences in their 
whole extent lie nearer to the theologian than does astronomy as a 
distinct science. 

These sciences were formerly considered from a theological point 
of view as supports to theology; while, in recent times. Acquaintance 
they are often compelled to do duty as sign-boards of ^^^j sciences 
infidelity, as though their progress could no longer important. 
harmonize with the theistic belief in God and immortality, nor yet 
with the more distinctively Christian faith in the truths of Revela- 
tion. It will be found that they whose understanding of the sub- 
ject is least perfect appeal most frequently to such progress, while 
many who are ignorant are afraid of ghosts. ^ With regard to the 
Bible it is necessary first of all to comprehend its relation to the 
natural sciences (which belongs to apologetics), and afterward to 
secure a thorough understanding of the matter in question, partic- 

recall, for instance, the mathematical figures -with which Gerbert (Sylvester ii) sought 
to demonstrate the doctrine of transubstantiation in the eucharist. Similar attempts 
were made in ancient times in connection with the trinity. Franz Baader, and even 
Hegel, toiled mightily for a time, to apply triangles and squares to the doctrine of the 
trinity ; comp. Kosenkranz in life of Hegel, pp. 101, 102. " Mathematics," says 
Bengel, " affords useful aid in certain directions, but it dethrones the imderstanding 
in relation to. truths that are wholly foreign to its forum. The desire for only definite 
conceptions is fatal to living ones. There are different organs for different concep- 
tions ; the eyes will not serve for hearing, nor the ears for seeing," etc. Burk, Leben 
Bengels, p. 71- Comp, also the passage from Melanchthon, infra^ § 81> note 10. 

^ A single word of Goethe's : " Let intellectual culture continue its progress, let the 
natural sciences increase more and more in extent and depth, and the human intellect 
expand to the utmost of its desire — they will never pass beyond the sublimity and 
moral culture of Christianity, as it appears in the Gospel." Eckermann, Conversa- 
tions with Goethe, p. 568. Fr. Fabri, Briefe gegen den Materialismus, Stuttgart, 1856 ; 
Bohner, Naturforschung und culturleben in ihren neuesten Ergebnissen, etc., Hanover, 
1859. A pecuUar attempt to illustrate the Bible by the book of nature, and to inter- 
pret the latter by the former, is made by Zockler, in Entwurf einer system, Natur- 
theol. vom offenbarungsglaubigen Standpunkte aus, Frankfort, 1859. 



72 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ularly with reference to the primeval world and its relation to the 
Mosaic history of creation/ 

SECTION VI. 

THEOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO THE ARTS AND GENERAL CULTURE. 

An artistic preparation, the halbit of regarding life in its ideal 
aspects, and of engaging in original efforts, particularly in the field 
of language is required in addition to the preliminary scientific 
training ; a Christian culture resulting from religious instruction 
previously imparted, is presupposed. 

This artistic preparation is still too greatly neglected. More at- 
usesofsesthet- tention should be given to stimulating the sense of the 
ic culture. beautiful in early youth, for an imagination nourished 
by poetry is as necessary a condition for the theologian as is an 
understanding practised in history, language, and mathematics.'* 
Early practice in written as well as oral expression, and also in free 
discourse, will especially be of inestimable value to the future 

^ Comp. William Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to 
Natural Theology, London, IBS'/, 2 eds,, 2 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1 vol. 12mo, and in 
Bohn's Library, 12mo; Fr. Pfaff, Die Schopfungsgeschichte, Frankf. on the Main, 1855; 
Bohner, Die freiforschende Bibeltheologie u. ihre Gegner, Zurich, 1859 ; the review by 
P. Kind (in the Swiss Ministerial Association, 1863, and the subsequent discussions); 
Reusch, Bibel u. Natur, etc., Freiburg, 18^70; Zollman, Bibelu. Natur in der Harmonie 
ihrer Offenbarungen, 3 ed., Homburg, 18'7l ; Jos. Huber, Die Lehre Darwin's, kritisch 
betrachtet, Munich, 1871 ; and the English and American reviews of Darwinism. 

The theological works of Paley, Sander, Bonnet, Reimarus, Brougham, and the 
Bridgewater Treatises, nevertheless contain much that is stimulating ; but far supe- 
rior to these is Humboldt's Costnos. Bengel, /. c, observes : " It is not right that the 
study of physics is so neglected, and that such a parade should be made of a sublime, 
metaphysical comprehension of the universe. But it was likewise true of the an- 
cients that the general ideas of philosophers were made a cloak to conceal their igno- 
rance." In our day the neglect of certain theologians to acquaint themselves with 
natural science is especially inexcusable. In the face of the ignorance that results, 
unbelief will be able to appeal more shamelessly and defiantly to the progress of 
those sciences. To close the eyes against facts, and, Bible in hand, to fight against 
infidelity, or to meddle in a desultory way with a science which is but superficially 
understood, can only serve to make theology ridiculous in the eyes of specialists ; and 
if the attempt result from a well-meant apologetic purpose it will produce more harm 
than good. 

^ It may be boldly asserted that a lack of poetic apprehension, for which precocious 
speculation is no substitute, has led to thousands of orthodox and heterodox absurdi- 
ties. The secret of Herder's theology and its refreshing influence lies in this poetic 
vein, which the most learned minds so often miss. On the pedagogical value of the 
fine arts comp. Herder, Sophron, pp. 32, sqq., 80, sgq. ; concerning the improvement 
of the vernacular, ibid., p. 197, sqq. How unjust is the charge of Staudenmaier that 
Herder pursued theology in the spirit simply of an gesthetical coquetry ! (Comp. his 
Dogmatik, vol. i). He was simply no scholastic. 



PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 73 

theologian. Rhetoric and poetry in the field of art are j^arallel with 
philology and history in that of science. A practical acquaintance 
with the plastic arts may not be required of the theologian, but his 
mind should not be indifferent to painting, sculpture, and archi- 
tecture, more than it should be closed to the charms of nature. 
The great importance of art will become apparent in connection 
with liturgies. Architecture holds the same relation to the theo- 
logian in the domain of art that astronomy does in that of science, 
without regard to the historical relations sustained by art toward 
the history of saints and the Church. Music, especially, which 
stands midway between the oratorical and the formative arts and 
is closely allied to poetry, is truly theological, and was cultivated 
by Luther.' The skilful fingering of an instrument is not the 
principal object to be desired, but much more the cultivation of 
singing and of acquaintance with the nature of music. Without 
the latter knowledge the theologian will be debarred from entering 
on an essential department of Christian worship. Inasmuch, how- 
ever, as all theology stands related to religion^ and can school and 
only be comprehended through that relation, it will be of ™?e]igious^^ 
necessary that the incipient theologian should not only feeling, 
possess religious feeling in a general way, but that he should have 
acquired religious culture in the preparatory schools. Much, in this 
connexion, depends of course upon the character of the religious in- 
struction imparted in such schools, which, though not designed for 
future theologians alone, may nevertheless be very stimulating and 
adapted to their needs. ^ To these must be added, moreover, the 
influence of the Christian home, and the impression of Christian fel- 
lowship which is produced by the worship of the sanctuary. How 
many an excellent theologian, especially among the older men, was 
first imj^elled to consecrate himself to this calling by beholding the 
shining example of some distinguished preacher. The first guiding 
impulse came from thence, not from the school, which can only for- 
ward the development. 

^Luther judged "that next to the word of God nothing is so deserving of esteem 
and praise as music, for the reason that it is a queen over the heart, able and mighty 
to control its every movement, though such emotions often rule and control man as if 
they were his master. ... I therefore desire that this art be commended to all per- 
sons, and especially the young, and that they be admonished to love and cherish this 
precious, useful, and joyous creature of God." Werke, Walch's ed., part xiv, p. 407. 
" Music is a beautiful, glorious gift from God, and near to theology " (in Table Talk). 

^ Comp. Hagenbach, Bedeutung des Keligionsunterrichts auf hohern Lehranstalten, 
Ziirich, 1846. 



74 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION VII. 

THE RELATIONS OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 

F. E. Schulz, Selbststandigkeit und Abhangigkelt, Oder Philosophie und Theologie in ihrem 
gegenseitigen Verhaltnlss betrachtet, Giessen, 1823 ; K. Ph. Fischer, iiber den Begriff der Phi- 
losophie, Tiibingen, 1830, 8 ; Heinr. Schmid, iiber das Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Philosophie, 
in der Opposiiionsschrift, edited by Schmid, Friess, u. Schroter, vol. i, 1 ; J. H. Fichte, iiber 
Gegensatz, Wendepunct und Ziel heutiger Philosophie, Heidelberg, 1836 ; A. Gengder, iiber das 
"Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Philosophie, Landshut, 1826 ; G. A. Gabler, de Vera Philosophiae 
erga Religionem Christianam Pietate, Berl., 1836; K. Steffensen, das Menschliche Herz und die 
Philosophie (in Gelzer's Protest. Monatsblattern), 1854, p. 285, sqq. ; L. P. Hickock, Theology 
and Philosophy in Conflict, American Presb. Review, vol. xii, 204 ; E. Hitchcock, The Philoso- 
pher and the Theologian, Bib. Sacra., vol. x, 1C6. 

Philosophy should be the constant companion of theology, but 

_,- ., , ., each is to retain, without interchansfe or confusion, its 

Philosophy the ^ ' . 

companion of own peculiar field. Its work does not consist in the 
eo ogy. merely logical process of connecting thoughts together 

(arrangement), nor in the exercise of an occasional criticism (rea- 
soning) ; but rather in combining the great variety of matter 
into a higher unity for the consciousness. This can only be 
done after the material has been furnished from without, by ex- 
perience and history. Philosophy can neither invent the needed 
material in the exercise of its own authority, nor destroy or make 
it other than it is through a pretended transformation or idealizing 
process. 

We purposely designate philosophy as the companion of theol- 
ogy, in opposition to the view that the study of philosophy may 
be finished before that of theology begins, which aifords the surest 
way to disgust the theologian with philosophy. The application 
of philosophy to theology has been the subject of controversy 
from the beginning. A warning against false philosophy occurs 
Relations of as early as Col. ii, 8. Irenseus and Tertullian opposed 
fheoiwraced ^^^ Gnostic, speculative tendency in theology, while 
historically. other Church fathers, the Apologists, Alexandrians, 
and especially Origen made use of it. The quarrel between the 
schoolmen and the positive theologians, Roscelin, Abelard, with 
Bernard of Clairvaux, turned especially upon the relations of phi- 
losophy to theology, and the philosophical dispute (realism and 
nominalism) between the schoolmen themselves likewise reacted on 
theology. 

The perversion of philosophy by the scholastics, and the mistaken 
habit of relying on authorities, which served to poison philosophy 
in its inmost nature, gradually led from dogmatism to scepticism. 
A point was reached where it appeared necessary to distinguish 
between philosophy and theology in such a way as to admit of 



PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY. 75 

truth in either science becoming untruth in the other. It is not 
surprising that, as the result, philosophy again declined in favour, 
and that empiricism was opposed to it as being the only trust- 
worthy method of reasoning (Roger Bacon). Philosophy was still 
in its decline when the Reformation came, and the Reformation 
did not at all favour what then passed for philosophy; for its 
own origin was not due to the desire for a better philosophic sys- 
tem, but to the longing to possess the true sources of salvation 

which were found in the Scriptures. Luther employed , ,^ , 

^ , . Luther s oppo- 

even violent language to oppose the philosophy of Aris- sitiontopwios- 
totle and "old Madam Weathercock, the reason;" but °^^^^* 
not so Zwingle, who made use of philosophy in a peculiar manner 
(his relation to Picus of Mirandola). The dogmatical works of 
Calvin and Melanchthon give evidence that they, too, were not un- 
acquainted with philosophic thought ; but in the Lutheran Church 
many, nevertheless, accepted Luther's opinions in opposition to 
philosophy.^ 

In the Roman Catholic Church the Jansenists opposed and the 
Jesuits favored philosophy; but which one was the Jesuitical phi- 
losophy? After the Reformation Aristotle was more Philosophy in 

favorably regarded in the Protestant Church, and at ^^^ Church aft- 
y _ & ' er the Refor- 

the beginning of the seventeenth century Martini, in mation. 
his " Yernunf tspiegel," defended the use of philosophy against the 
Magdeburg centuriators.^ When Descartes (1569-1650) appeared, 
powerful voices were raised against him in the Church, and disputes 
about this matter took place in the Netherlands. The populace 
applied the name of " Globenichts " (believe nothing) to the great 
Leibnitz, and the zealous clergy gave their approval. Sj^inoza stood 
alone, identified with no ecclesiastical communion. 

When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Wolf lectured 
on a modified Leibnitzian philosophy in his strictly demonstrative 
method, he was opposed in Halle by the Pietists and expelled (in 
1723), but afterwards recalled (in 1740). Philosophy now received 
recognition, at least in its formal aspects, and its proofs were re- 
garded as supports to orthodoxy, until Kant (1724-1804) de- 

^ Bugenhagen, too, was accustomed to write in family albums : " Si Christum 
discis, eatis est, si cetera nescis ;" but he added, " Hoc non est philosophiam et 
artes liberales ecclesia? et scholis necessarias contenmere, sed sine Christo nihil pro- 
desse." 

^ Vernunftspiegel, i. e., a statement of what Keason, together with its product Phi- 
losophy, is, its extent, and especially its use in religious matters, in opposition to all 
assailants of Reason and slanderers of Philosophy, but especially in opposition to 
some uncouth libels which have gone out of Magdeburg these two years. Wittenb. 
1618. 4. 



•76 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

stroyed these supports. The progress of philosophy could not 
Influence of l^eiiceforth be ignored by theology, without degradation 
Kant on phi- to its own Scientific character. The one-sided influence 
osop y. ^£ ^^^ Kantian philosophy upon theology was clearly 

apprehended by men like Herder; but the age, nevertheless, be- 
came rationalistic, possessed neither of a speculative nor of the 
more profound religious spirit. It was reserved for Fichte's ideal- 
ism, Schelling's doctrine of the absolute, and Hegel's doctrine 
of the immanent spirit, to exalt the profound life-issues of Christ- 
ianity, which Kant imagined he had disposed of by the introduc- 
tion of a one-sided morality, into speculative questions of philos- 
ophy. Others, as F. Jacobi, Fries, etc, who laid stress upon the 
distinction between faith and knowledge, assigned to subjective 
feeling what the philosophers already named (particularly Hegel) 
sought to elevate into demonstration through the energetic action 
of thought; while Herbert and his followers assumed indifference 
hiei r h toward theology. Schleiermacher, who was by no means 
er's aim as to averse to really profound speculation, and who was the 
p 1 osop y. most skilful dialectician of his day, yet desired that 
philosophy and theology should remain distinct, though he aj^plied 
philosophy to the treatment of theological questions. His simple 
object was that theology should no more be lost in speculation, than 
religion, which he regarded as an affair of the feelings, should be 

^. . . lost in thinkinaf. The Heo-elian school was divided into 

The divisions * ^ 

of the Hegeii- two wings after the master's death, one of which (the 
an School. right) took sides with Christianity, and the other against 
it, sinking even to the level of common freethinking (nihilism).^ 
The speculative tendency served, on the other hand, to stimulate 
certain parties to attempt an independent philosophy of Christianity 
and to seek its reconciliation with theology. A period of exhaust- 
ion and suspicion with reference to speculative thought was, how- 
ever, gradually introduced among theologians, which, in the end, 
resulted in the serious alienation of the two connected sciences 
from each other, if not in placing a gulf between them. Under 
the influence of the natural sciences a systematic scepticism was 
developed, which, on its religious side, passed over into Buddhism 
(Arthur Schopenhauer). 

In England, the Deism which appeared in the time of Charles I., 
and was represented by a succession of writers until Hume 
(1776), profoundly affected the development of apologetic theology. 
Hobbes (1588-1679) resolved all politics into absolutism and relig- 
ion into statecraft. He held it to be the business of the king to 

^ Comp. J. W. Hanne, Der Moderne Nihilismus, Bielefeld, 1842. 



PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 77 

prescribe tlie religious faith of his subjects. His atheistic opinions 
were attacked by Cudworth (1617-1688), particularly his denial of 
free-will and the immutability of moral distinctions. Lord Herbert 
of Cherbury (1581-1648) attempted to fix the principles of univer- 
sal religion, which he made to be five, and denied all of Christianity 
not included under these. Locke's (16.S2-1'704) "Essay on the Hu- 
man Understanding " confirmed the disposition to apply the so-called 
principles of reason to the judgment of Christianity; he remained 
himself a devout believer. Toland (1669-1722) carried the devel- 
opment of rationalism still further in his " Christianity not Myste- 
rious." He denies that there is any mystery in Christianity. An- 
thony Collins (1676-1729) in his "Discourse on the Grounds and 
Reasons of the Christian Religion," is the first English writer to 
accept the title of Free-thinker. He examines the historic founda- 
tions of Christianity, and asserts, as Strauss has asserted in our 
day, that Christianity is only ideally true. Lord Shaftesbury (1671- 
1713) argued from his doctrine of innate ideas (in opposition to 
Locke) and the disinterestedness of virtuous conduct that a super- 
natural revelation is superfluous. Matthew Tindal (1657-1733) in 
his " Christianity as Old as the Creation; or. The Gospel a Republi- 
cation of the Religion of Nature," tried to show that natural relig- 
ion is complete in itself and has, therefore, no need of supernatural 
additions. Thomas Morgan (f 1743) in his "Moral Philosopher" 
makes moral law the test of religion, and finds reason therefrom 
for rejecting Christianity. These philosophers of the deistical 
school were thoroughly met by numerous Christian apologists. Dr. 
Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), besides his attempted a priori demon- 
stration of the being of God, wrote on the " Truth and Certainty 
of the Christian Revelation." Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753) used 
his system of philosophic idealism as a means of establishing the 
truth of the existence of God. Bishop Butler (1692-1752) 
summed up the replies of the Christian apologists to the deistical 
writers of his age in his immortal Analogy. This work still 
holds its place as one of the most complete defences of Christianity 
ever written. 

Hume (1711-1776) by his essay on "Miracles" and his "Dia- 
logues concerning Natural Religion " gave the sceptical philosophy a 
new impulse. His objections to miracles received more replies than 
can be here named; his objection to the idea of causality, as usually 
received by philosophers, awakened the mind of Kant, and led the 
latter to work out his " Critique of the Pure Reason." Philosophic 
thought, as applied to Christianity, in our time has been greatly in- 
fluenced by James Mills and Coleridge, the one a representative of 



78 GENERAL TPIEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the sensational, the other of the intuitional school. Each has had 
numerous successors. 

In America speculation received its first impulse from Jonathan 
Philosophic Edwards (1703-1758), who framed a theory of the 
speculation in human will as a philosophic basis for the Calvinistic 
menca. theolo.g^y. His principles were further developed by 

his son, Jonathan Edwards the younger (1745-1801), Samuel Hop- 
kins (1721-1803), Nathanael Emmons (1745-1840), and Timothy 
Dwight (1752-1817). Some of these followers pushed the opinions 
of their master to extreme conclusions. Among the opponents of 
Edwards's theory of the will may be named Henry P. Tappan 
(Review of Edwards' Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will), and 
D. D. Whedon (The Freedom of the Will). Dr. James M'Cosh 
has applied the inductive method to the examination of the divine 
government with a view to the reconciliation of nature and revela- 
tion (The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral). 
Theodore Parker elaborated a^n absolute religion, intuitional in its 
character, but subversive of historical Christianity. The denial of 
Theism has been combated by various writers, among whom may 
be named Laurens P. Hickock (Creator and Creation), Asa Mahan 
(N'atural Theology), and Borden P. Bowne (The Philosophy of Her- 
bert Spencer; Theism). The denial of all philosophy by Comte has 
also received much attention from metaphysicians in the United 
States. 

Thus far the historical review. It shows that theology has never 
Fact demon- been able to separate itself from philosophy, but that, 
historfcaT re- ^^ ^^^^ Other hand, no lasting union between the two, or 
view. rather, between theology and any particular philosophy, 

has been practicable. To give no attention to philosophy would 
be the simplest expedient, but also the most objectionable, and 
impossible; for in this age no one can have the hardihood to pur- 
sue a theological (dogmatical) discussion without a preliminary 
training in philosophy, which, moreover, must not be confined to 
the ancient and wholly formal logic of the schools. The necessity 
of formal logic has always been understood, although its scien- 
tific value has been variously estimated ; but the conviction has 
been reached that the arrangement of a system and the line of evi- 
dence to be adopted, are themselves dependent on the intellectual 
point of view from whence fhe system is controlled. The main 
matter is to secure the point of view. The reliance upon so-called 
sound common sense, with which, no doubt, many seek to supply 
the lack of philosophical acquirements, is likewise misplaced in the 
field of science ; eclecticism is of little benefit to the student who 



LIMITATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 79 

is misinformed about the things among which he is to choose.^ It 
thus becomes absohitely necessary to undertake the study of phi- 
losophy ; and since it can rarely be reached in the j)reparatory 
schools, it is desirable that students of theology should begin phi- 
losophy in the first period of their course, in order to be nourished 
by it into strength, before they aj^proach dogmatics, the heart of 
theology.^ Philosophy is simply a clear recognition by the mind 
of its OAvn constitution, and all sound philosophy should take its 
rise in that recognition, or, in other words, in legitimate The object of 
thinking upon the ultimate grounds of all thought.^ It ^^ pMiosophy. 
should aid every student in attaining to a clear understanding of his 
own nature, and thus place him in a position to easily comprehend 
the organic connection of the different departments of knowledge, 
which is the objective goal of j)hilosophy.* Unfortunately, many 
students are more confused at the end of a course in philosophy than 
they were at its beginning ; like the pupil before Mephistopheles, 
they feel as if a mill-wheel were revolving in their heads. 

In view of this danger, the choice of a teacher and the method 
to be adopted are deserving of consideration. At this point the 

^ " Philosophy is most of all opposed to that intellectual barrenness, which general- 
ly ventures to assume the name of enlightenment. The elevation of the ordinary 
understanding to the position of arbiter in matters of the reason^ will, as its necessary 
consequence, bring about an ochlocracy in the domain of the sciences, and, sooner or 
later, the further consequence of a general revolt on the part of the rabble." Schelling, 
Methode des akadem. Studiums (comp. Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke, p. 112.) 

^ Schleiermacher (TJeber Universitaten, p. '78) held that all students, even the non- 
theological, should be engaged simply with philosophy during the first year of their 
university career. "What he exacts of all is demanded at least of theologians by 
Rosenkranz, Encykl., Pref., xx : " The student of medicine or law, if thorough in 
other matters pertaining to his specialty, may be pardoned for indifference or aversion 
to the study of philosophy ; but it is required of the theologian that, in addition to 
his special studies, he should pursue as thorough a course in philosophy as may be 
practicable." Similarly Schenkel, Christ!. Dogmatik, ii, p. 3 : "A thorough philo- 
sophical training is certainly essential to the theologian, and the punishment for its 
neglect Avill be the more bitter, as great effort becomes necessary to recover in later 
years what has been lightly regarded before." 

2 " The recognition of self," says the younger Fichte, " is the sole substance of all 
(philosophical) perception, and its highest perfection is accordingly the real goal of 
every philosophy that understands itself, and that has thereby attained to maturity." 
Idee d. Personhchkeit u. d. individ. Fortdauer, Elb., 1834, p. 42. 

* " Every person who aims to understand a particular science in its connexion with 
the whole of knowledge and in its ultimate grounds, is engaged in philosophical in- 
vestigation, whether he be called a student of nature or a theologian, or be employed 
more especially upon the works of man. Every question that proceeds beyond the 
presumptions postulated by the several sciences, leads him who pursues it into the 
domain of philosophy." Steffensen, p. 303. 



80 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

incomprehensible terminology, which can scarcely be avoided un- 
The hard terms der the existing methods of treating philosophy, should 
Souifnofbe neither dazzle nor alarm the beginner. The leading oh- 
feared. ject 171 the stuchj of philosophy is, not so much the acquisition 

of finished results, as of readiness in the art of philosophizing } The 
philosophical jargon which is especially patronized by persons who 
seek to cover the confusion of their minds with cheap fineries, 
should above all things be avoided.' Let the student endeavor to 
express in his own language what he has heard. It would be no 
unprofitable exercise to engage in philosophical disputations from 
which certain catch words {e. g. subject, object, etc.) should be 
banished at the outset. But let there be an equal unwillingness to 
stamp as nonsense whatever is incomprehensible by reason of the 
student's insufficient preparation or practice, or worse still, to repeat 
the childish dictum that men like Hegel failed to understand them- 
selves. Let philosophy not receive exclusive attention, without 
Philosophy providing real and positive food for the mind, espe- 
sued^^? coni ^^^^^3^ through the continuous pursuit of historical and 
nexion with linguistic Studies. The counsel given by Pelt,^ that 
other studies. ^^^ student should thoroughly examine some system of 
philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel), if 
possible in its original sources, is likewise greatly to be commended. 
The mind should accustom itself to regard each system in its rela- 
tion to its own time, and the current tendency of that time, as well 
as in the relation of its parts to each other. Care should be taken 
from the first that the judgment be not biased by the influence of 
some one system, when matters of fact are under discussion, or 
when the exegetical or historical investigation of some fact is in 
progress, or when it is sought to comprehend some doctrine that 

^ This was Kant's desire, comp. Anthropologie, p. 16Y: "He insisted, again and 
again, in his lectures to his students, that they were not to learn philosophy of him, 
but how to philosophize." Kuno Fischer, Kant's Leben, p. 25. 

^ "It is childish to wear the ornamental rags and patches of others while we are 
able and expected to provide an entire garment of our own and fitted to our person. It 
is madness to destroy the eye or impair its vision for the purpose of learning to look 
through the glass of others." Herder, Sophron., p. 213, The Frenchman, Edgar 
Quinet, addresses a similar warning to his countrymen who are not in other respects 
unduly speculative : " Empechez une nouvelle scolastique de naitre. J'entends par la 
les emb aches de mots, dans les quels I'instinct de la vie reelle, de la verite politique 
est sacrifie a une logomachie puerile qui n'a que I'apparence et point de corps. Com- 
bien d'umes droites sont deja dupes de cette scolastique et s'y embarassent a plaisir ! 
Combien surtout d'ames serviles s'abritent aujourd'hui sous ce masque. (Kevolution 
religieuse au 19 siecle. 1857, p. 113). 

^ Encyclopadie, p. 40. 



PHILOSOPHY CANNOT ORIGINATE DOCTRINE. 81 

has come down from former generations. Philosophy can invent 
nothing ; could it hear the grass grow, it would yet be Philosophy can- 
unable to produce a single blade. As natural philos- ^^''eoioScaiS 
ophy is incompetent to originate an order of plants or trine. 
a gas, so the philosophy of history is unable to necessarily deduce 
an historical fact.^ It is true that reason contains the general laws 
by which a substance surrounded by contingencies is freed from its 
accidental elements and raised into the category of the universal; 
but in this regard also care is needed, in order that the very pe- 
culiarity of the concrete phenomenon, and the fragrance resting 
upon it, be not destroyed in the process of generalization. 

Let an illustration suffice. A profound speculation seeks to 
apprehend the idea of the God-man as a necessary one, The inability of 
and as required for the completion of both the ideas oJiginate^dog^ 
God and man^ since God most effectively demonstrates ma iuustrated. 
his Divinity in man, and man attains his true manhood only in 
God; but the truth that the Divine life has been manifested and 
actualized in a human form, in the determinate person Jesus of 
Nazareth, is not derived from philosophy. It cannot prove that 
precisely this person was needed for the most perfect manifestation 
of God in human nature; nor can it employ authoritative dicta, 
such as that nature does not usually lavish all her gifts upon a single 
person, to destroy an historical fact which is necessary to explain 
the existence of the Church. In like manner philosophy may be 
permitted to show that the abstract idea of unity is not Another iiius- 
adequate for the more profound recognition of the na- tration. 
ture of God, and that only a God who knows himself as God in 
God, and is known by God as God (the Being that loves, the Being 
that is loved, and the love that forms the bond of union between 
them=God), can satisfy the religious consciousness.^ The Christ- 

' Luther called reason (philosophy) the old weather-maker ; it cannot, however, 
make, but only observe, or at the most, foretell the weather; and, even in this, it is 
often wrong. "The philosopher should know that without theology he can know 
nothing of the 'city of gold and precious stones,' and of the 'pure river of the water 
of life,' which St. John saw. A system of truths that must seem necessary to the nat- 
ural mind, can never wash away the fear of death from the heart or beget heavenly 
affections in the place of beastly lusts, more than it can remedy a nervous fever, or 
remove the smell of decaying matter from the atmosphere of a death-chamber." 
Steffensen. We also adduce the maxim of Picus of Mirandola, " Philosophia quaerit, 
theologia invenit, religio possidet veritatem." 

''Thus Augustine and all the more profound Christian thinkers. It is to be ques- 
tioned, however, whether the speculative development of the Trinity is the proper 
task of philosophy. " "We cannot, upon the whole," says J. H. Fichte (Idee d. Person- 
lichkeit, p. 86), "avoid the confession that the introduction into philosophy of this 
Christian dogma, which has become almost the favourite question of the day, particu- 
6 - 



82 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ian doctrine of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is not to be con- 
ceived as a mere actualizing of the speculative idea, but rather as 
the historical development of the Christian revelation, from which, 
in connexion with ideas previously extant in the world, the specu- 
lative conception was itself developed, and to which it now assumes 
a relation similar to that of the philosophy of art to an actual work 
of art, or of natural philosophy to one of the products of nature. 
This consideration will indicate the measure of truth in the state- 
ment that philosophy stands outside of or above religion (Schleier- 
macher, § 38). The above is not to signify superiority, but simply 
the objective character of its point of view.' 

SECTION VIII. 
THEOLOGY NOT BOUND TO ANY ONE PHILOSOPHY. 

The diversity of philosophical systems should not be permitted 
to mislead us. I'he truth is, that despite such diversity, every sys- 
tem of philosophy, which in any way permits a distinction between 
God and the world, spirit and matter, freedom and necessity, may 
be applied to theology. 

larly at this time, has produced no little confusion, not only by destroying the bound- 
aries between the mere a priori knowledge of God and a positive revelation, but even 
more by giving rise to the thoroughly inopportune appearance of a superficial coinci- 
dence of Christianity with the prevalent philosophy of any particular time." " To 
combine metaphysical and theological arguments with each other for the purpose of 
demonstrating that a religious tradition is metaphysical truth, or that speculative de- 
velopments have a Christian or orthodox character, is a deceitful process. In this way 
many now attempt to construct a metaphysical trinity out of three attributes of the 
Divine nature, and to substitute this arbitrary union of three such attributes for the 
original Christian doctrine of Father, Hon, and Spirit." Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. 281. 
' Lord Bacon expresses himself strongly against the confounding of philosophy and 
theology with each other, De augment, scientiae, ix, 487 : Quemadmodum enim theo- 
logiam in philosophia quaerere perinde est ac si vivos quaeras inter mortuos, ita e 
contra philosophiam in theologia quaerere non aliud est quam mortuos quaerere inter 
vivos. On the impropriety of subordinating either philosophy or theology to each 
other, and on the necessity for making them co-ordinates, see Eosenkranz, Encykl., 
p. 12. Comp. Fritze, Ideen zur Umgestalt. d. evang. Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 11: 
"Theology is not the mistress of philosophy, nor ought it to become the servant of 
any particular philosophical system." Kym, Weltanschauungen, p. 33: "Although 
philosophy serves as the handmaid of a particular science, e. g. theology, it is not in 
the way of supporting the train of some gracious lady, but in the way of going before 
it to aiford a light that shall conduct the science home, to its origin." On the rela- 
tion of religion to philosophy and its several branches comp. Steffensen, in Gelzer, 1858, 
p. 109 : *' They who fancy that religion will ever prostrate itself before philosophy and 
transfer to it the keys of the kingdom of heaven, are certainly very silly. Nor would 
philosophy accept the office if it were offered. . . . But it is equally certain that the 
spectacle will not be seen in our age, of philosophers subordinating their thinking to 
authorities in whose behalf the pious people of different denominations demand faith." 



THEOLOGY INDEPENDENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 83 

The objection to philosophy derived from the variety of systems 

is as shallow as an attempt to argue against revelation ^^ sound ob- 

on the ground of the number of positive religions/ jection to pui- 

, . losopliy from 

Nor do we mean that all philosophies are equally valu- the variety of 
able, so that one or another may be preferred at pleas- ^^® systems. 
Lire. Only a single one can be the true philosophy, and to it, the 
absolute truth, all should strive to attain; but the more genuine 
the desire to attain to the truth the less hasty will the mind be in 
coming to a conclusion. Inasmuch too, as any particular system 
can present only relative truth, it will always be necessary to com- 
bine the truths of different systems into a higher truth, and to 
avoid their errors. Such an undertaking is not, however, adapted 
to the powers of a single mind, and should therefore be entered 
upon in and with the school, rather than outside and irrespective of 
it. Until the student has become a master, he will attach himself 
with preference to some particular school. Which one he shall 
select is not without importance with respect to both philosophy 
and theology; but it is a less serious matter in its bear- Tt^eoiogy does 
ings upon the latter, for the reason that theology is not not stand or faii 
so dependent on any system of philosophy as to stand system of pM- 
or fall with it. A theologian of the Kantian school, for losophy. 
instance, might give evidence of more thorough theological acquire- 
ments, having grown beyond the limits of his system, than one 
belonging to the school of Hegel, for this, among other reasons, 
that the Christian consciousness, which is independent of all philo- 
sophical systems, is the principal qualification for a theologian. 

While, therefore, allowing freedom to speculation, we direct at- 
tention to the breakers, which threaten to shipwreck faith nnU^^s 
a competent hand is at the helm. It is self-evident that a philos- 
ophy which annihilates God, and denies the existence of spirit and 
moral freedom, a bald materialism, in short, (sensation- Both sensation- 
alism), must be excluded." But the spiritualistic philos- f^^^ unchris- 
ophy (idealism), which stands opposed to materialism, tian. 
which regards God and spirit as the only realities, and accordingly 
denies the existence of matter and the world, and which teaches 
an unbounded, absolute liberty by deifying the Ego, is likewise 

^ Thus, it is well known that Schiller would identify himself with no religion out of re- 
gard for religion, and with none of all the philosophies out of regard for philosophy; but 
the polemical point of an epigram cannot serve as the foundation of a solid edifice. 

^ In opposition to the materialism of modern times, against which theology is called 
to contend, and whose representatives are Moleschott, Karl Vogt, and Biichner, comp. 
the works of Jul. Schaller, F, W. Tittmann, J. Frohschammer, J. G. Fichte, and F. 
Fabri, the last named in Herzog., Encykl, ix, «. v., Materialismus. 



84 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

planted in an unthcological position. A god without a world is 
not the God of theology; a spirit without flesh to subjugate is 
not the Christian spirit; liberty that does not involve the feelhig 
of dependence is not the liberty of the children of God. The 
Bible everywhere presupposes a dualism, or rather parallelism, of 
God and the world, heaven and earth, spirit and flesh, etc., not 
as rigid and irremediable, but yet as an actual contrast to be 
overcome by the might of Christianity. In this way two other 
tendencies are obviated, the one of which regards such contrasts 
as rigidly immovable and out of all relation to each other, while 
the other, instead of reconciling them in thought, simply destroys 
them by an authoritative decision, while aiming to remove them. 
Deismandpan- The former tendency is deistic, the latter pantheistic. 
SstictoChrfst- ^^^^ former was the current adversary of an earlier age, 
ian theology, the latter is the antagonist of the theology of to-day. 

The term deism is applied to a conception of the world which 
not only distinguishes between it and God, but separates God from 
the world, holding that the only God who exists is an extra- and 
Bupramundane Being, who once created the world, but has now 
left it to the operation of its established laws. This God enters 
into no vital relations with man ; he stands over against him, in- 
deed, as lawgiver and judge, but does not enter into human na- 
ture, nor communicate himself thereto. The deistic conception of 
the relation between spirit and matter, as resembling that of two 
laths glued together,^ is in harmony with the separation of God 
from the world, and equally rigid. IsTature, too, is considered a 
lifeless mechanism; and the tendency of deistic morality is to make 
every thing promote the self-glorification of the reason. This phi- 
losophy denies the power of the inclinations, the profound influ- 
ences of natural conditions on the one hand, and the vital connexion 
of the spirit with God on the other; it is therefore unable to appre- 

^ . . hend the nature of sin or of redemption and grace, the 

Deism mcapa- _ ^ ^ ... 

bie of Christian mysteries of religious communion, or the significance 
of prayer, the sacraments, etc. Over against Deism 
stands the philosophy of identities^ which unites the contrasts in 
question. It has much that is attractive to the imagination and 
natural feeling, but is unable to aiford durable satisfaction;^ for 

^ Following an expression that is applied by the Formula Concordiae to the two na- 
tures in Christ, Carriere appropriately remarks that "spirit and matter should neither 
be separated nor identified, but distinguished and combined." 

^ Tzschirner's Briefe on the confessions of Reinhard (Leips., 1811), are instructive 
upon this point. Comp. p. 4Y sqq.^ where the author speaks of the impressions made 
pn himself by the then current nature-philosophy of Schelling. The hideous charac- 



WHAT IS A CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY? 85 

inasmuch as it assumes the character of pantheism with reference 
to the relation of God to the world, it either loses God in the world 
and sinks into materialism, or it resolves the world into God and 

becomes idealism. In the same way spirit is reduced ^^ , . , ^ 

■^ ^ , Theological and 

to matter (emancipation of the flesh) or matter is con- moral outcome 
sumed by spirit (false asceticism), while moral freedom ° pantheism. 
becomes a mere phantom. Upon this teaching sin becomes a nat- 
ural necessity, and redemption a divinely contrived ingenious drama, 
while the deity attains to consciousness only through the evolutions 
of the human mind, and exhausts itself in time, through the endless 
process of the immanent development of thought. 

It follows that only that philosophy can make a league with the- 
ology which recognizes a living personal God,^ who is neither 

ter of pantheism is admirably described by Lamartine (Dernier chant du peleiinage 
d'Harold, p. 18):— 

Le Dieu, qu'adore Harold, est cet agent supreme, 
Ce Pan mysterieux, insoluble probleme, 
Grand, borne, bon, mauvais, que ce vaste univers 
Revele a ses regards sous mille aspects divers; 
Etre sans atributs, force sans providence, 
Exer^ant au hasard une aveugle puissance; 
Vrai Saturne, enfantant, devorant tour a tour, 
Faisant le mal sans haine et le bien sans amour; 
N'ayant pour dessein qu'un eternel caprice, 
Ni commandant ni foi, ni loi, iii sacrifice; 
Livrant le faible au fort et le juste au trepas, 
Et dont la raison dit: Est-il? ou n'est-il pas? 

With this comp. a poem by Schelling, published in the Zeitschrift fiir spec. Physik, 
1800, and continued in the Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke. (Berl., 1844), p. 98. 
Much, however, may seem to be pantheism from the stand-point of abstract deism, 
that is not so in reality. Bunsen remarks: "The immanence of God in the world is 
by no means equivalent to pantheism ; for the life of God and his continuance in it 
may be conceived without excluding the self-origination of God as the idea and will 
of the world, and the independence of the self-centred blessed Deity, as a necessary 
result." Gott in der Geschichte, p. 5. 

^ The word " personal " may, of course, be erroneously explained, so as to involve 
the nature of God in human limitations ; but it has become one of the tasks of modern 
philosophy to settle this very idea of personality. It is of primary importance that 
the distinction between the ideas permn and individual should be preserved. God is 
not an individual (though so eminent a thinker of former years as Hamann employed 
this designation) but person — not a person, but person in the eminent sense — absolute 
personality. The historical development of the doctrine of the Trinity in unity, illus- 
trates, though in hieroglyphics, the difficulty of the problem to be solved. An idea is 
not to be rejected as unthinkable, simply because it is involved in difficulties to our 
thought ; precisely the inexpressible demands the most energetic efforts of the noblest 
of our powers and thought. Comp. (in addition to the younger Fichte) the treatise of 



86 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

excluded from the world nor included in it, and who both transcends 

,^ _,.,. the world and is immanent in it: and which furthermore 

The conditions ^ ' 

of a Christian conceives of the human soul and body as organically 
p 1 osop y. related, refusing to make of spirit merely sublimated 
matter, or of matter the precipitate of spirit, and acknowledging 
both personal freedom and a free personality created for eternal 
•ends. We designate such a philosophy as thelstlc,^ in contrast with 
both the deistic and the pantheistic, and accordingly observe that 
the only system that may be applied to Christian theology is that 
The only pos- of pure t/ieism. Whether philosophy can of itself for- 
phiiosophy tiS J^^l^-te this theism, or, renouncing the attempt, whether 
istic. it shall devolve the task upon the practical reason with 

Kant and Herbart, or upon feeling with Jacobi, or upon faith 
and presentiment with Fries, is a matter of little consequence ; 
for we are not concerned to clearly demonstrate the idea of person- 
ality in a scientific light, which task may be proj^erly reserved for 
philosophy. But theology can never strike friendly hands with a 
philosophical conception of the world, which eliminates man's per- 
sonal relation to God and consequently destroys religion, the basis 
of all theology itself.^ Nor would we venture to assert, without a 
prelirtiinary understanding^ that the philosophy must be "Christ- 
ian." How is the word to be understood? If in a historical cense, 
The sense in it apj^ears that all modern philosophy, having come 
ophTmust^h^e ^^^^ being through the influence of Christian ideas, is 
Christian. Christian; and this is true of such philosophies as are 

unchristian in their results, in so far as they have passed through a 
Christian development. But if it be made to signify that the doc- 
trines of Christianity should constitute the subject-matter of the 
philosophy, that, for instance, it should undertake to develop the 
atonement or the person of Christ, the result is that a demand is 
made upon j^hilosophy for which its power is inadequate.^ Finally, 

Deinhardt, Begriff der Personlichkeit mit Riicksicht auf Strauss (in Beitra^e, p. 85 
8qq.) and Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit in ihrer Zeitbedeutung fiir d. theoi. Wis- 
senschaft, etc. Schaffh., 1850, and also id., Dogmatik, i, p. 29 s<qq. 

' It must be conceded that these terms are arbitrarily applied ; but they are em- 
ployed in harmony with the current usage. Comp. Deinhardt, Kategorie des clirist- 
lichen Theismus, in Beitrage, p. ^1 sqq. The word theism is still used, however, as 
synonymous Avith deism, by some authors (as Kym, I. c). 

^ Lotze somewhere makes the appropriate remark, that " the truly real, which is and 
is to be, is not matter and still less idea, but the living and personal Spirit of God and 
the world of personal spirits which he has created." Theology will doubtless be able 
to content itself with this philosophical result. 

^ Van Oosterzee presents the distinction between the material of philosophy and 
that of theology in a very satisfactory manner. This distinction once accepted, the 



SUBDIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 87 

if its ideas are to be derived from other sources, e. g., from the 
Bible (the thought has expression in talk about a Biblical philos- 
ophy), it must cease to be philosophy and lose itself in dogmatics. 
A different judgment must be formed of the so-called 2^hilosophy 
of Christianity, which does not attempt an a priori explanation of 
the Christian Revelation, but regards it as existing, and seeks to 
comprehend it in harmony with the fundamental principles of rea- 
son. It is accordingly a part of the general philosophy of religion, 
or also of the philosophy of history, and may as readily be under- 
taken from an unchristian as a Christian point of view.^ 

SECTION IX. 

VALUE OF THE SEVERAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY. 

No single department of philosophical inquiry can be made at will 
to possess special prominence for the theologian, since philosophy is 
an organic whole; but the field of ethics — moral philosophy and the 
philosophy of religion — will more particularly come into relations 
with theology, in addition to the formal elements of philosophy 
(logic, dialectics) and its general bases (psychology, anthropology). 

In recent times the eiicydopcecUa of philosophy has been included 
among the subjects usually presented in academical Brauches of pw- 
lectures; and its study should be urged upon the the- ire^^^^mportan^ 
ologian, as of primary importance.^ Ordinary logic, as to theology. 
it was occasionally taught in preparatory schools or more generally 
in the first stages of the university course, had temporarily lost 
much of its significance for many students, in view of the entire 

confusion of philosophy and theology is readily avoided : " Theology is distinguished 
from speculative philosophy in this, that while the latter takes the pure human con- 
sciousness as its starting point, theology, on the contrary, must, above all, take ac- 
count with an historical fact, with the belief of the community in a divine revelation. 
It makes the subject and ground of this belief the material for its investigation, in 
order to purify the idea, to develop it, and when necessary to defend it. It is ' une 
philosophic, dont la base est donnee ' (Vinet), and thus, as a science, sustains a two- 
fold character. It proceeds from that which is given, not in order to leave it as it is 
given; it reasons and philosophizes, but not in the abstract. Its material is an his- 
torical product, but it must treat this in a Christian philosophical (really critical) 
method." (Christian Dogmatics, Amer. ed., v. i, p. 2). 

^ Comp., however, Pelt, Encykl., p. 541 sqq.^ and J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik. 

'■^ Herbart, Troxler, and Hegel published philosophical encyclopaedias. Oppermann, 
Encykl. d. Philosophic, Hanover, 1844 ; F. C. Callisen, Propaedeutik d. Phil., Schleswig, 
1846 ; K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems d. Philosophic u. Encykl. d. Phil. Wis- 
senschaften, Erlangen, 1848-52 and 55, 3 vols.; K. Rosenkranz, System d. Wissen- 
schaften, etc., Konigsberg, 1850; H. Ritter, Encykl. d. phil. Wissenschaften, 3 vols. 
Gottingen, 1862-64. Comp. L. Tobler, Phil. Propaedeutik auf Gymnasien in the 
Neue Schweiz. Museum of Ribbeck, Kochly and Fischer, 1861, No. 4. 



88 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

transformation of philosophy ; but as the paroxysm wore off, the 
reaction caused a more zealous return to logical sobriety, without 
which all philosophizing becomes simply a tumultuous confusion. 

Psychology, which for a period of considerable length had been 
moving in abstract categories, presenting the life of the soul apart 
from the conditions of physical life, was, after the return from this 
exclusive spiritualism, drawn more and more into the field of the 
physical sciences and brought into connexion with physiology — as- 
suredly an advantageous change for science. This change involved 
the danger, however, of losing the soul-life in that of the body, and 
Importance to of thereby passing from spiritualism into materialism. 
SunrwcSoi- ^ ^^"^ philosophy of religion will always be dependent 
ogy. on a thorough psychology, a genuine philosophical ex- 

position of the nature of the soul and its various manifestations 
(anthropology). An illustration is found in the relation between 
faith and knowledge, to determine which is the office of philosophy, 
but whose demonstration depends essentially upon psychological pos- 
tulates. The old, Socratic maxim, " Know thyself," forms the under- 
lying basis of all knowledge. A further question arises, however, 
concerning the extent to which even an objective apprehension of 
" the thing in itself " is possible to speculative philosophy — the great 
question to which various answers have continued to be returned 
since the days of Kant. This leads into fields which are often des- 
ignated by the names of ontology and metaphysics. The names have 
been exchanged for others, indeed ; but the departments to which 
they apply will constitute the field of so-called speculative philosophy. 

If we recur to the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian division of 
philosophy into physics, ethics, and dialectics, we obtain an ana- 
logue to the different branches of study treated of in § 5, which 
are also designated as philosophical studies in the broad sense. 
Logic (dialectics) will correspond to philology and mathematics, 
physics to the natural sciences, and ethics to history. If we apply 
the modern terminology, we have on the one hand a phenom- 
PMiosophy di- enology of nature, and on the other a phenomenology 

visible into that £ mind ; on the one hand natural philosophy, on the 
of nature and ' • j* t \ 

that of mind, other moral philosophy (the metaphysics of morality) 

and the philosophy of law (natural justice), of religion, and of his- 
tory. It must be left to philosophy itself to determine the relation 
sustained by the philosophy of nature to empirical natural science, 
or by the philosophy of religion to religion and its historical mani- 
festation in actual life. We likewise referred to the arts, in addi- 
tion to the sciences ; and we here find available a philosophy of the 
beautiful also — aesthetics the philosophy of art. 



PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 89 

The history of pMlosopliy is necessary to the study of philosoj^hy 
itself; but as an auxiliary to the history of religion, Church, and 
doctrine, its consideration is referred to another place. 

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. 



GERMAII LITERATURE. 

J. G. Fichte, Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung. 2. Aufl. Konigsb., 1*793. 
Imm. Kant, die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vemunft. Konigsb., 1793. 
F. W. J. V. Schelling, Philosophic und Religion. Tub., 1804. 
J, G. Fichte, Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder die Religionslehre. Berl., 1806 ; n. 

Aufl., 1828. 
F. Schleiermacher, iiber die Religion ; Reden an die Gebildeten unter ihren Yeraeh- 

tern, Berlin, 1799. Successive editions in 1806, 1821, etc. ; sixth, 1859. 
*F. H. Jacobi, von den gottl. Dingen u. ihrer Offenbarung, Lpz., 1811 ; also in his 

collected works (Lpz., 1812, f. 6 Bde). 
F. W. J. V. Schelling, Denkmal der Schrift von den gottlichen Dingen. Tiib., 1813. 

F. Koppen, Philosophic des Christenthums, Lpz., 1813-15; 2d ed., 1825. 2 vols. 

C. A. V. Eschemnayer, Religionsphilosophie. Tiib., 1818. 

G. W. Gerlach, Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie. Halle, 1818. 
W. Tr. Krug, philosoph. Religionslehre. Konigsb., 1819. 

X. Moller, Specul. Darstellung des Christenthums. Lpz., 1819. 

G. F. W. Hinrichs, die Religion in ihrem Verhaltnisse zur Wissenschaft, etc. (Mit 
Yorrede von Hegel). Heidelb., 1822. 

F. Bouterwek, die Religion der Yernunft ; Ideen zur Beschleunigung der Fortschritte 

einer haltbaren Religionsphilosophie. Gott., 1824. 
•Benj. Constant, de la religion, consideree dans sa source, ses formes et ses developpe- 

ments. Par., 1825. 3 vols. (Incomplete). 
L. J. Riickert, christl. Philosophic. Lpz., 1825. 2 Bde. 
Is. Rust, Philosophic und Christenthum, oder Wissen und Glaubcn. Mannh., 1825, 

2 Ed., 1833. 
W. M. L. de Wettc, Yorlesungen iiber die Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform- 

en und ihren Einfluss aufs Leben. Berl., 182Y. 
f A, Giinther, Yorschule zur speculativcn Theologie des positiven Christenthums. 

Yienna, 1828-29, 2 Bde. 
R. F. G. Goschel, Aphorismen iiber Nichtwissen und absolutes "Wissen im Yerhaltniss 

zur Christl. Glaubenserkcnntniss. Berl., 1829. 
Ghr. Herm. Weise, iiber den gegenwartigen Standpunkt philos. "Wissenschaft. Lpz., 

1829. 
Kasim. Conradi, Selbstbewusstsein und Offenbarung oder Entwicklung des rcligiosen 

Bewusstseins. Mainz, 1831. 

D. Th. A. Suabedissen, Grundziige der philosophischen Religionslehre. Marb., 1831. 
Jac. F. Fries, Handbuch der Religionsphilosophie. Heidelb., 1832. 

G. "W. F. Hegel, Yorlesung iiber die Philosophic der Religion, herausgeb. von Maf- 
heineke (in his collected works, vols. 11, 12). Berl, 1832, 2d ed., 1840. 

J. H. Fichte, Religion und Philosophic in ihrem gegenseitigen Yerhaltuissc. Heidelb., 

1834. 

iiber die Bedingungen eines speculativcn Theismus. Elberf., 1835. 

A. L. J. Ohlcrt, Religionsphilosophie in ihrer tJebereinstimmung mit Yernunft, Ge- 

schichte und Offenbarung. Lpz., 1835. 



CO GENERAL TriEOLOGlCAL ENCYCLOPxEDlA. 

C. II, Weisse, Grundziige der Metaphysik. Ilamb., 1835. 

J. H. Fichte, Satze der Vorschule und Theologie. Tiib., 1836. 

H. Ritter, iiber die Erkenntniss Gottes in der Welt, Hamb., 1836. 

J. G. F. Billroth, Vorlesungen liber Religionsphilosophie ; herausg. von Erdmann. 
Halle, 1837, 2 Aufl., 1842. 

J. E. Erdmami, Vorlesungen iiber Glauben und Wissen, als Einleitung in die Dogmatik 
und Religion. Berl., 1837. 

K. Ph. Fischer, die Idee der Gottheit ; ein Yersuch, den Theismus speeulativ zu be- 
griinden und zu entwickeln. Stuttg., 1839. 

Ileinr. Steffens, christl. Religionsphilosophie. Bresl., 1839, 2 Bde. 

M. W. Drobisch, Grundlehren der Religionsphilosophie. Lpz., 1840. 

G. F. Taute, Religionsphilosophie. Voni Standpunkte der Philosophie Herbarts. El- 
bing, 1840, 2d ed. Lpz., 1852, 2 vols. 

K. F. E. Trahndoi-flf, wie kann der Supranaturalismus sein Recht gegen Hegels Relig- 
ionsphilosophie behaupten? Eine Lebens- und Gewissensfrage an uusere Zeit. 
Berl., 1840. 

E. Schmidt, Vernunftreligion und Glaube, oder der Gott der Philosophie und der Gott 

des Christenthums. Rostock, 1842. 

F. Feldmann, Religionsphilosophie. KirchUche Zeit- und Lebensfrage. Gottb,', 
1843. 

A. E. Biedermann, die freie Theologie, oder Philosophie und Christenthum in Streit 

und Frieden. Tiib., 1844. 
L. Noack, der Religionsbegriff Hegels. Darmst., 1845. 
K. Sederholm, die ewigen Thatsachen. Grundziige einer durchgef iihrten Einigung des 

Christenthums und der Philosophie. Lpz., 1845 ; new ed., 1851. 
E. Rheinhold, das Wesen der Religion und sein Ausdruck im evang. Christenthum. 

Jena, 1846. 
J. Frauenstiidt, iiber das wahre Yerhtiltniss der Vernunft zur Offenbarung; Prolego- 
mena zu jeder kiinftigen Philosophie des Christenthums. Darmst,, 1848. 
E. A. V. Schaden, iiber den Gegensatz des theistischen und pantheistischen Stand- 

punktes, Sendschr. an L. Feuerbach. Erl., 1848. 
J. P. Romang, der neueste Pantheismus und die junghegel'sche Weltanschauung nach 

ihren theoretischen Grundlagen und praktischen Consequenzen. Berne, 1848. 
A. E. Biedermann, unsere junghegel'sche Weltanschauung oder der sog. Pantheismus, 

Ziirich, 1849. 
J. P. Lange, philos. Dogmatik (f. unten Dogmatik). 

Ludw. Fiirst Solms, zehn Gesprache iiber Philosophie und Religion. Hamb,, 1850. 
A. Gladisch, Religion und Philosophie in ihrer Stellung zu einander. Bresl., 1852. 
f L. V. Beckedorif, Offenbarung und Vernunft. Regensb., 1853. 
H. M. Chalybaus, Philosophie und Christenthum. Kiel, 1853. 
L; Noack, die Theologie als Religionsphilosophie. Liib., 1853. 
K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems der speculativen Theologie. Frankf., 1855. 
* A. Carlblom, das Gefiihl in seiner Bedeutung fiir den Glauben, im Gegensatz zu dem 

Intellectualismus innerhalb der kirchlichen Theologie unserer Zeit. Berl., 1857. 
J. Stovesand, das Mysterium der Sprache Gottes im Menschen oder der Glaube in 

seiner Wahrheit. Gotha, 1857. 
Ch. C. J, Bunsen, Gott in der Geschichte oder der Fortschritt des Glaubeas an eine 

sittliche Weltordnung. 3 Thle. Lpz., 1857, 1858. 
X. Schmidt, chi'istliche Religionsphilosophie. Nordl., 1857. 
H. Ritter, die christl, Philosophie nach ihrem Begriff, ihren aussern Verhaltnissen u; 

in ihrer Geschichte bis auf die neueste Zeit. Gott., 1858, 2 Bde. 



MORAL PHILOSOPHY— LITERATURE. 91 

Ad. Biihler, Theokrisis, Ideen iiber Gott u. Welt. Zur Versohnung des Theismua 

uml Pantheismus, Berl., 1861. 
H. LTlriei, Gott in die Natur. Lpz., 1862; 2d ed., 1866. 
J. W". Hanne, die Idee der absoluten Personlichkeit, oder Gott und sein Verhaltniss 

zur Welt, insonderheit zur menschlicheii Personlichkeit; eine speculativtheolo- 

gische Untersuchung iiber Wesen, Entwicklung und Ziel des cliristl. Theismus, 

2d ed. Hanover, 1865, 2 vols. 

C. W. Opzoomei', die Religion, Aus d, Holland, von Fr. Mook. Elberfeld, 1868. 
J. P. Roraang, iiber wichtigere Fragen der Religion, Reden an die Gebildeten unter 

dem Volk. Heidelb., 1870. 

D. Pfleiderer, die deutsche Religionsphilosophie in ihrer Bedeutung fiir die Theol. 
der Gegenwart. Berl. 1875. 

— — Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtl. Grundlage. Berl., 1878. 
A. Lasson, iiber Gegenstand und Behandlungsart der Religionsphilosophie. Lpz., 
1879. 

A. Peip, Religionsphilosophie. Edited by Th. Hoppe. Giitersl. 1879. 

W. Herrmann, die Rel. in Verhaltniss zum Welterkennen und zur Sittlichkeit. Halle, 
1879. 

B. Piinjer, Geschichte der christl. Religionsphilosophie seit der Reformation. 1 Bd. 

Braunschw., 1880. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Imm. Kant, Kritik der prakt. Vernunft, Riga, 1788, 8 ; new ed., Lpe., 1827. 

Anfangsgriinde der Tugendlehre, Riga, 1792; new ed., Konigsb., 1797. 

K. Ch. E. Schmid, Versuch einer Moralphilosophie, Jena, 1790; 4th ed., 1802. 3 vols. 

(Of the school of Kant). 
J. G. Fiehte, System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre. 

Jena, 1798. 
J. H. Tieftrunk, Philos. Untersuchungen iiber die Tugendlehre. Halle, 1798-1801. 

2 Bde. (Of the school of Kant). 

F. Schleiermacher, Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre. Berl., 1803 ; 

2d ed., 1834. 

C. A. V. Eschenmayer, System der Moralphilosophie. Stuttg., 1818. 
W. Tr. Krug, Tugendlehre. Konigsb., 1819. 

G. W. Gerlach, Grundriss der philosoph. Tugendlehre. Halle, 1820. 
L, Henning, Principien der Ethik. Berl., 1824. 

f Jac. Salat, Grundlinien der Moralphilosophie. Munich, 1827. 
P. J. Elvenich, die Moralphilosophie. Bonn, 1830. 2 vols. 

F. Schleiermacher, Entwurf eines Systems der Sittenlehre; aus dessen handschr. 
Nachlasse von Al. Schweizer. Berl., 1835. (Third vol. of his philosophical works). 
J. C. A. Heinroth, Orthobiotik oder die Lehre vom richtigen Leben. Lpz., 1839. 
f J. N. Jager, Moralphilosophie. Vienna, 1839. 

D. Th. A. Suabedissen, Grundziige der philos. Tugend- und Rechtslehre. Marb., 1839. 
J. U. Wirth, System der speculativen Ethik. Heidelb., 1841-42. 2 vols. 

■fV. Gioberti, Grundziige eines Systems der Ethik, Aus dem Ital, von Sudhoff. 

Mainz, 1844. 
Gust. Hartenstein, die Grund-begriffe der ethischen Wissenschaften. Lpz., 1844. 
L. Striimpell, die Vorschule der Ethik. Mitau, 1844. 
H. Martensen, Grundriss des Systems der Moralphilosophie Kiel, 1845. 
J. H. Fiehte, System der Ethik. Lpz., 1850-52. 2 vols. 
Arthur Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme der Ethik. 2. Aufl. Lpz., 1860. 



92 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Theod. Allihn, die Grundlinien der allgemeinen Ethik. Lpz., 1861. 

C. Aeger, Moralphilosophie nach Christl. Principien. Schaff., 18*73. 

M. Carriere, die sittl. Weltordnung. Lpz., 1877. 

Landau, System der gesammten Ethik. Berlin, 1877, 1878. 2 vols. 

J. Bauman, Handb. der Moral nebst Abr. der Rechts-philosoph. Lpz., 1879. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1, The Philosophy of Religion in its strict sense. 

Balfour, Arthur James. A Defence of Philosophic Doubt. Pp. 355. London, 1879. 

Caird, John. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion. 8vo, pp. xii, 358. 
New York, 1880. 

Clarke, James Freeman. Ten Great Religions. An essay in Comparative Theology. 
8th ed., 8vo, pp. 528. Boston, 1871. 

Gould, S. B. The Origin and Development of Religious Belief. New York, 1870. 
(Ascribes religious beliefs to a process of natural evolution.) 

Hardwicke, Charles. Christ and other Masters. The chief Parallelisms between 
Christianity and the Religious Systems of the Ancient World. London and Cam- 
bridge, 1868. 2 vols., pp. 383, 461. (A Contribution to Comparative Theology.) 
Also, 8vo, pp. xviii, 592. London, 1875. 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. Boston, 1875. (Makes all the argu- 
ment for religion intuitional as distinguished from historical.) 8vo, pp. iv, 458. 

Mansell, H. L. The Limits of Religious Thought. 12mo, pp. 364. Boston, New 
York, and Cincinnati, 1860. 

Moffatt, James C. A Comparative History of Religions. Parts I and II. 2 vols. 
12mo. New York, 1874. 

Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1849. 

Mulford, Elisha. The Republic of God. An Institute of Theology. 8vo, pp. viii, 
261 Boston, 1881. 

Miiller, F. Max Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated in the 
Religions of India. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1879. (Holds that religion is a 
natural growth.) 

Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Religion. With a paper on Buddhist Nihil- 
ism. 12mo, pp. 300. New York, 1872. (Rejects revelation and finds the prim- 
itive religion in man's nature.) 

Chips from a German Workship. 4 vols. 12mo. New York, 1869. (The first 

vol. treats of the " Science of Religion.") 

Renouf, P. Le Page. The Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Re- 
ligion of Ancient Egypt. Hibbert Lectures for 1879. (Holds that religion is a 
natural growth.) 12mo, pp. 270. New York, 1880. 

Smyth, Newman. The Religious Feeling. 12mo. New York, 1877, pp. vii, 191. 

Old Faiths in New Lights. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Upham, Thos. C. Absolute Religion. A view based on Philosophical Principles and 
Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 312. New York, 1873. 

Whedon, D. D. The Freedom of the Will as a basis of Human Responsibility and a 
Divine Government. 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1869. (Argues that the "doc- 
trine of Necessity is incompatible with any valid theory of religion.") 

2. Theism — TJie Proof of the Being and Attrihites of God — Natural Theology. 

Ackermann, C. The Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic Philosophy. Bvo, 
pp.280. Edinburgh, 1861. 



NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 93 

AlH.ott, Richard. Psychology and Theology ; or, Psychology Applied to the Investiga- 
tion of Questions relating to Religion, Natural Theology, and Revelation. 12ino, 
London, 1855. 

Argyll, The Duke of. The Reign of Law. Fifth ed. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 462. London, 
1868. (A Contribution to the Argument for Theism.) 

Auberlen, Carl A. The Divine Revelation ; an Essay in Defence of the Faith. To 
which is Prefixed a Brief Memoir of the Author. Translated by A. P. Paton. 
8vo, pp. 441. Edinburgh, 181^. 

Aydelott, B. P. The Great Question. The Sceptical Philosophy Examined. 16mo. 
Cincinnati, 1868. 

Bell, Sir Charles. The Hand : Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing 
Design. Vth ed., revised, 8vo, pp. xxxv, 260. London, 1860. 

Berkeley, George. Principles of Human Knowledge, With Prolegomena, and with 
Annotations, select, translated, and original, by Charles P. Krauth. Philadelphia, 
18Y4. 8vo. 

Blackie, John Stuart. The Natural History of Atheism. 12mo. New York, 1882. 

Boston Lectures. Christianity and Scepticism. 12mo. Boston, 1870. 

Bowen, Francis. Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences 
of Rehgion. Lowell Lectures pp. 465. Boston, 1849. (Lectures VITI and IX 
present the argument from Design.) 

Bowne, Borden P. Studies in Theism, New York and Cincinnati. 12mo. pp. vi, 
444. 1879. (A Refutation of Atheism.) 

The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Being an Examination of the First Prin- 
ciples of his System, New York and Cincinnati, 12mo, pp. 283. 1874. (Deals 
vigorously witli Spencer's Atheism.) 

Bradin, Clark. The Problem of Problems ; or. Atheism, Darwinism, and Theism. 
Cincinnati, 1877. 12mo, pp. 480. 

Breckinridge, R. J. The Knowledge of God. 2 vols. 8vo. Vol. I. : Objectively Con- 
sidered. Vol. II. : Subjectively Considered, New York, 1858-59. 

Bremen Lectures, (The,) on Fundamental, Living, Religious Questions, by Various 
Eminent European Divines, Translated by D. Heagle. With an introduction by 
Alvah Hovey. 12mo. Boston, 1871. 

Brown, John. A Compendious View of Natural and Revealed Religion. 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1817. 

Brown, Robert. The Gospel of Common Sense ; or. Mental, Moral, and Social Science 
"in Harmony with Scriptural Christianity. 12mo. London, 1864. 

Buchanan, James. Analogy as a Guide to Truth and as an Aid to Faith. Pp. 126. 
Edinburgh, 1864. (Part III discusses the Natural Proofs of Theism.) 

Modern Atheism under its forms of Pantheism, Materialism, Secularism, Devel- 
opment, and Natural Laws. 12mo. Boston, 1867. Pp. iv, 423. 
Faith in God and Modern Atheism, Compared in their Essential Nature, Theoretie 



Grounds, and Practical Influence. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1857. 
Burr, E, F. Pater Mundi ; or, the Doctrine of Evolution. First and Second Series. 

Boston. Second Series, 1873. 
Calderwood, Henry. Philosophy of the Infinite. A Treatise on Man's Knowledge of 

the Infinite Being. In Answer to Sir WiUiam Hamilton and Dr. ManseL 2d ed., 

enlarged. 8vo, pp. 539, London, 1872. 
Candlish, Robert S. Reason and Revelation. 12mo. London, 1867. 
Chadbourne, P. W. Natural Theology. Lectures before the Lowell Institute. 12mo. 

New York, 1867. 
Chalmers, Thomas. Natural Theology. 2 vols. 12rao. New York. 



94 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Chalmers, Thomas. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual 

Constitution of Man. 12mo. New York, 1880. 
Child, G. C. Benedicite. Illustrations of the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, 

as Manifested in his Works. 12mo. New York, 1870. 
Christianity and Modern Thought. 12mo, pp. 394. Boston, 1881. (Essays of Mar- 

tineau, Hedges, etc.) 
Christlieb, Theo. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. A Series of Apologetic Lect- 
ures addressed to Earnest Seekers after Truth. 8vo, pp. 549. New York, 1874. 
Clarke, James Freeman. Steps of Unbelief; or. Rational Christianity maintained 

against Atheism, Free Religion, and Romanism. 12mo, pp. 311. Boston, 1870. 
Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy ; or, the Relation between Spon- 
taneous and Reflective Thought in Greece and the Positive teachings of Christ, 

and his Apostles. 8vo, pp. 531. New York, 1870. (An argument for Theism.) 
The Theistic Conception of the World. An essay in opposition to certain 

tendencies of modern thought. New York and Cincinnati, 1875. 8vo, pp. 

X, 426. 
Cook, Joseph. Transcendentalism. 12mo. Boston, 1880. 
Cooke, Josiah P. Religion and Chemistry ; or, Proofs of God's Plan in the Atmosphere 

and its Elements. 8vo, pp. 348. New York, 1864. (A Contribution to Natural 

Theology.) 
Cudworth, Ralph. The True Intellectual System of the Universe ; wherein all the 

Reason and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted. 2 vols. 8vo, Andover ; New York, 

1837. 
Cunningham, William. Theological Lectures on subjects connected with Natural 

Theology, etc. 8vo, pp. 625. New York, 1876. 
Diman, J. Lewis. The Theistic Argument, as affected by Recent Theories. A Course 

of Lectures delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston. Pp. 390. Boston, 1882. 
Dix, Morgan. Lectures on the Pantheistic Idea of an Impersonal Substance — Deity 

as Contrasted with the Christian Faith concerning Almighty God. 12mo. New 

York, 1864. 
Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity ; with an Introduction on the Exist- 
ence of God and the Immortality of the Soul. 12mo, pp. 244. Boston, 1869. 
Dove, P. E. The Logic of Christian Faith. Being a Dissertation on Scepticism, 

Pantheism, etc. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856. 
Dyer, David. Tests of Truth. Replies to Letters of a Sceptical Friend on the 

Teachings of Natural and Revealed Religion. 12mo. New York, 1866. 
Ecce Coelum, A Parish Astronomy. Six Lectures by a Connecticut Pastor. Boston, 

1857. (The last lecture is on the question : " Is there an Author of Nature ? ") 
Ferrier, James F. Institutes of Metaphysics. The Theory of knowing and Being. 

12mo. Edinburgh, 1856. 
Fisher, G. P. Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief. New York, 1 883. 
Flint, Robert. Anti-Theistic Theories. Baird Lectures for 1877. Edinburgh and 

London, 1879. 12mo, pp. 555. 
Gillespie, William Honyman. The Argument a joWon for the Being and the Attributes 

of the Absolute One, etc. Fifth ed. 12mo, pp. 166. London, 1871. 
Gillett, E. H. God in Human Thought ; or, Natural Theology traced in Literature, 

Ancient and Modern, to the time of Bishop Butler. 2 vols. 8vo, pp. 416, 418. 

New York, 1874. 
' The Moral System, with an Historical and Critical Introduction. New York, 

1874. 12mo. 
Goodwin, B. Lectures on the Atheistic Controversy. 12mo. Boston, 1836. 



NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 95 

Guizot, M. Meditations on the Actual State of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 390. New 
York, ISe^. (Examines the attacks of modern unbelief upon Christianity.) 

Hamilton, Sir William. Lectures on Metaphysics. 8vo, pp. xx, 718. Boston, 1859. 

Harris, Samuel, The Philosophic Basis of Theism. Svo, pp. 564. New York, 1 883. 

Haven, Joseph. Studies in Philosophy and Theology. 12mo, pp. 512. Andover, 1869, 
(Contains an Essay on Natural Theology.) 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Ways of the Spirit, and other Essays. 12mo, pp. 367. Bos- 
ton, 1877. (Essay VI is a Critique of proofs of the Being of God.) 

Hickok, Laurens P. Creation and Creator. 12mo, pp. 360. Boston, 1872. (A 
Theistic Account of Creation.) 

Rational Cosmology ; or, the Eternal Principles and Necessary Laws of the 

Universe. 8vo. New York, 1871. 
The Logic of Reason, Universal and Eternal. 8vo, pp. 192. Boston, 1874. 



Hicks, L. E. A Critique of Design Arguments. A Historical Review and Examination 

of the Methods of Reasoning in Natural Theology. Crown Svo. New York, 

Scribners, 1883. (Classifies the design arguments and shows their respective 

provinces.) 
Hill, Thomas. A Statement of the Natural Sources of Theology ; with a discussion 

of Modern Sceptical objections. Pp. 139. Andover, 1877. 
Hinton, James. Philosophy and Religion. Selections from the Manuscripts of the 

late James Hinton, edited by Caroline Haddon. 12mo, pp. xix, 288. London, 

1881. 
Ingham Lectures. (R. S. Foster, A. Mahan, and others.) On the Evidences of Natural 

and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 365 New York and Cincinnati, 1873. 
Jackson, William. The Philosophy of Natural Theology, etc. Prize Essay. Pp. xviii 

and 398. New York, 1875. 
Janet, Paul. Final Causes. Translated from the French by Wm. Afleck, with a 

preface by Robert Flint, of Edinburgh University. Svo, pp. 508. (A restatement 

of the teleological proof for the Being of God against modern Atheism.) Edin- 
burgh, 1879. 
Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. 12mo. New York, 1880. 
Kidd, J. On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. 

Svo, pp. xvi, 332. New York, 1833. 
Lange, F. H. History of Materialism, and Criticism of its Present Importance. 3 vols. 

Svo. Second edition. Boston, 1880. Vols. I and II, pp. xx, 330, and viii, 

397. 
Lee, Luther. Natural Theology. The Existence of God demonstrated by arguments 

drawn from the Phenomena of Nature. 24mo, pp. 186. Syracuse, 1866. 
Leitch, Alexander. Ethics of Theism. A Criticism and its Vindications. Svo. 

Edinburgh, 1868. 
Lewis, Tayler. Plato against the Atheists ; or, the Tenth Book of the Dialogues on 

Laws. With Critical Notes, etc. New York, 1859. 
Lord, Charles E. Evidences of Natural and Revealed Theology. Svo. Philadelphia, 

1869. 
M'Cosh, James. Christianity and Positivism. A Series of Lectures on Natural 

Theology and Apologetics. 12mo, pp. 369. New York, 1871. (A Reply to 

Spencer and Darwin.) 

Energy, Efficient and Final Cause. Pp. 55. New York, 1883. 

and Dickie, George. Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation. (An 

argument for Theism, drawn from the evidences of design in Creation.) Svo, pp. 

viii, 539. New York, last ed., 1881. 



96 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Mahan, Asa. The Science of Natural Theology ; or, God the Unconditioned Cause as 
revealed in Creation. Boston, 186*7. 12mo, pp. 399. 

Manning, J. M. Half Truths and the Truth. Lectures on the prevailing forms of 
Unbelief. 12mo, pp. 398. Boston, 1872. (Traces Modern Unbelief to Spinoza.) 

Martineau, James. Essays, Philosophical and Theological. 12mo, pp. 424. Boston, 
1866. 

Masson, David. Recent British Philosophy. A Review with Criticisms. 12mo, pp. 335. 
New York, 1866. (The Criticism is Antitheistic.) 

Mill, John Stuart. Three Essays on Religion. (The third essay is on Theism, and 
admits, with qualifications, the argument from design.) New York, 1874. 8vo, 
pp. xii, 302. 

Modern Scepticism, A Course of Lectures Delivered at the Request of the Christian 
Evidence Society. With an Explanatory Paper, by C. J. EUicott. r2mo. New 
York, 1871. 

Murphy, Joseph J. The Scientific Basis of Faith. 8vo. London, 1873. 

Naville, Ernst. The Heavenly Father, Lectures on Modern Atheism, translated 
from the French by Henry Downton. 12mo, pp. x, 375. Boston, 1866, 

The Life Eternal, From the French. 12mo, pp. 253. London, 1867. (An argu- 
ment against materialism.) 

Paine, Martyn. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct, as Distinguished from Material- 
ism, 8vo, New York, 1872, 

Paley, William. Natural Theology. London and New York, Many editions. 

Parsons, Theophilus, The Infinite and the Finite. 12mo. Boston, 1872. 

Physicus. A Candid Examination of Theism, Crown 8vo. Boston, 1880. 

Pirie, W. R. Natural Theology. An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Re- 
ligious, Moral, and Political Science. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Porter, Noah. The Human Intellect. Pp. 693. New York, 1869, (Chapter V, 
Part iv, treats of Design or Final Cause.) 

Potter, Alonzo. Religious Philosophy; or, Nature, Man, and the Bible Witnessing 
to God and to Religious Truth. Lowell Institute Lectures for 1845 and 1853. 
8vo. Philadelphia. 

Questions of Modern Thought ; or, Lectures on the Bible and Infidelity, by Drs. 
M'Cosh, Thompson, and others. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1871. 

Raby, William. Natural Theology. New York, 1824, and often. 

Rogers, Henry. The Eclipse of Faith; or, a Visit to a Religious Sceptic. 12mo. 
Boston, 1860. 

A Defence of the Same. 12mo. Boston, 1854. 

Saisset, M. Emile. Essay on Religious Philosophy (with essay by the English trans- 
lator.) Edinburgh, 1863. 2 vols, 12mo, pp. vi, 310, 273. 

Samuelson, James. Views of the Deity. Traditional and Scientific. A Contribution 
to the Study of Theological Science, 12mo. London, 1871. 

Schmid, Rudolph. The Theories of Darwin and their Relation to Philosophy, Relig- 
ion, and Morality, translated by G. A. Zimmerman, Ph.D. 12mo, pp. 410. Chi- 
cago, 1883. (Holds that revealed religion and theories of development may be 
harmonized.) 

Sexton, George. Theistic Problems. Being Essays on the Existence of God and his 
Relationship to Man, 

Shairp, J, C. Culture and Religion in Some of their Relations. 16mo, pp. 197. New 
York, 1871. 

Somerset, (The Duke of.) Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. 1 6mo. New 
York, 1872. 



NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 97 

Spinoza, Benedict de. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. A Theological and Political 
Treatise. Showing under a series of Heads that Freedom of Thought and of Dis- 
cussion may not only be granted with safety to Religion and the peace of the 
State, etc. From the Latin. 2d ed., 8vo, pp. viii, 360. London, 1868. 

Stillingfleet, Bishop Edward. Origines Sacrae ; or, a Rational Account of the 
Grounds of Natural and Revealed Religion. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1836. 

Taylor, George. The Indications of the Creator ; or, the Natural Evidences of Final 
Cause. 12mo. New York, 1851. 

Thompson, Robert A. Christian Theism, The Testimony of Reason and Revelation 
to the Existence and Character of the Supreme Being. 12rao, pp. xxii, 4'77. New 
York, 1855. 

Wharton, Francis. A Treatise on Theism and on the Modern Sceptical Theories. Phila- 
delphia and London, 1859. 12mo, pp. 395. (A discussion by a distinguished 
lawyer.) 

Wilson, A. Chapters on Evolution. With 259 Illustrations. 8vo, pp. 370. Lon- 
don, 1882. 

Wright, G. Frederic. The Logic of the Christian Evidences. (Second part discusses 
the Evidences of Theism.) Andover, 1880. 

Young, John. The Province of Reason ; a Criticism of the Bampton Lecture on " The 
Limits of Religious Thought." Pp. 305. 

3. The Philosophy of the Christian Religion. 

Bowen, Francis. Modern Philosophy, from Descartes to Schopenhauer. New York, 

1877. (Treats modern philosophy both historically and analytically from the 

orthodox Christian point of view.) 
Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Together Constituting the one 

System of God. New ed., 8vo, pp. 534. New York, 1867. 
Butler, Bishop. Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and 

Course of Nature, edited, with an analysis, by J. T. Champlin. 12mo, pp. 194. 

Boston, 1860. 
Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology, revised by Robert Ernest Wallis. 

8vo, pp. 585. Edinburgh, 1867. (Aims to ^how the harmony of the psychology 

of the Bible with modern science and philosophy.) 
Huntington, F. D. The Fitness of Christianity to Man. Bohlen Lectures. 12mo, pp. 

127. New York, 1878. 
Liefchild, John R. The Higher Ministry of Nature Viewed in the Light of Modem 

Science, and as an Aid to Advanced Christian Philosophy. 8vo, London, 1872. 
Peabody, A. P. Christianity the Religion of Nature. 12mo, pp. 256. Boston, 1864. 

(Aims to show that Christianity has a foundation in the human constitution.) 
Reid, Rev, John. Voices of the Soul answered in God. 12mo, pp. 374. New York, 

1865. (A philosophy of Christianity.) 
Smith, Henry B. Faith and Philosophy, edited by George L. Prentiss, 8vo, pp. 496. 

New York, 1877. (The first essay is upon the reconciliation of philosophy with 

Christian faith. 
Shuttleworth, Philip W. The Consistency of Revelation with Itself and with Human 

Reason. 18mo, New York, 1856, 
Walker, James Barr. Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. With Introduction by 

Calvin E, Stowe. 12mo. Chicago, 1874. 
Doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; or, Philosophy of the Divine Operations in the Re- 
demption of Man. 12mo. Chicago, 1873. 

7 



C8 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION X. 

THE PREVAILING TENDENCIES OF THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT. 

The estimate to be formed of the various theological tendencies 
and the choice of a position with regard to them, are naturally con- 
nected with the determination of the relation of philosophy to the- 
ology, though not dependent on it alone. A characterization of 
these tendencies becomes necessary at this point, because their in- 
fluence makes itself felt throughout the entire science; but this is 
by no means designed to lead to a definite conclusion, which is 
rather to be attained through the medium of theological study 
itself. 

The history of the subject enables us to recognize in the early 

^^ , . ,, Church two tendencies which came into frequent con- 

Theological ten- n, ^ rr^i 

dencies in the flict with each Other (comp. § 3). I he one was more 

early Church. particularly inclined to hold fast to the legal, literal, 
traditional; the other, more independent, tended to pass beyond 
these limits. A Petrine and a Pauline tendency were manifest even 
among the primitive Christians. The earliest heresies took the 
form of Ebionitism on the one hand, and of Gnosticism on the 
other; but transitions from the one to the other (Clementines), or 
modifications of them (Montanism as a modification of Ebionitism?), 
took place even at this stage. The same contrast was repeated 
within the pale of the catholic orthodox Church, Justin, Irena)us, 
and Tertullian being on the one side, and Clement and Origen on 
the other. The succeeding controversies in the Church likewise 
presented the two opposing tendencies, though yet undeveloped 
and unconscious, in contrast with each other, until in a later day 
they assumed the forms of rationalism and supernaturalism. The 
strict Arians (Eunomius), for instance, insisted that Divine things 
could be comprehended, while the great defenders of orthodoxy in 
that age sought to guard their incomprehensible and mysterious 
character by the development of awe-inspiring formulas. In like 
manner, ISTestorius, and with him the school of Antioch, represented 
a sober, intelligently discriminating tendency, pervaded by the 
breath of a mild piety, while Cyril of Alexandria and his party 
comprehended religious ideas in compact forms of expression cal- 
culated to challenge contradiction on the part of reason, e. g., God 
has died, and similar expressions. The same contrast appears in 
the practical field, where Pelagius gave the first place to human 
liberty, while Augustine assigned the first place to the grace of God. 
In the domain of ethics, the former is an atomist, and the latter 



THE MIDDLE x\GES A:N"D THE REFORMA.TION. 99 

a dynamist. Farther on, in the Middle Ages, the sacramental con- 
troversy shows an inclination on the part of some (Ra- Theological 

tramnns, Bereno^arius) toward intelligent reflection, tendeucies in 
' ® .-r» T- \ 'theMiddle 

while others (Paschasius Kadbertus, Lanfranc) hold fast Ages. 

the transcendental and incomprehensible even in outward things, and 
endeavor to embody it to the senses. John Scotns Erigena, a phe- 
nomenal character, but isolated and unappreciated, combined in 
himself both rationalistic and mystical elements. Among scho- 
lastics, Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Roscelin, although not 
absolute rationalists, yet belong to the class of rational theologians, 
while Anselm emphasizes faith, at the same time, however, striving 
to apprehend it by the reason. Bernard of Clairvaux supported 
strictly the positive doctrines of the Church by the weight of his 
personal influence. The mystics sought to intensify and give dej^th 
to the doctrines of the Church, but in their hands the positive was 
often transformed into the ideal, and history, as in the case of 
Origen, became a symbol and an allegory. They were thus uncon- 
sciously borne in the direction of rationalism. It is worthy of note 
that in the last period of scholasticism the prevalent nominalism 
introduced a sceptical spirit, which was counterbalanced by a pure- 
ly external supernaturalism, based, however, on authority. The 
relation between faith and knowledge thus became unnatural, the 
renunciation of scientific apprehension on the part of faith resulting 
in blind credulity, while irreverent thought and speculation degen- 
erated into frivolous unbelief. 

The Refonnation cannot be regarded as exclusively the precursor 
of rationalism or the founder of supernaturalism. Least of all Was 
it the precursor of rationalism in its broad manifesta- theological 
tion and its immediate results. Luther was decidedly sririt of the 
opposed to all subtleties (comp. § 7). Erasmus mani- ^ o^^^ers. 
fested far more rationalistic tendencies. Many have attempted to 
class Zwingle with the founders of rationalism, but certainly with- 
out cause, if the language is employed in the absolute or even the 
popular sense. It cannot be denied, however, that Zwingle, who 
combined soberness of judgment, with all his impulsive energy, and 
sympathized with the classical humanism of the Erasmian school, 
stands, at first sight, more nearly related to rationalism, than the 
realistic and positive Calvin, with his leaning toward strict super- 
naturalism; but the latter was, at the same time, by no means in- 
ferior to his opponents in the critical spirit, nor even averse to the 
employment of such weapons as rationalism subsequently used in 
its conflict with the orthodoxy of the Church (comp. his dispute 
on the Lord's Supper with Westphal). The rationalistic principle 



100 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

was clearly manifested, on the other hand, by the antitrinitarians 
and their open and concealed friends, and it finally became settled, 
although as yet not fully developed, and combined with a formal 
supernaturalism, in Socinianism. Seb. Franck, Schwenkfeld, and 
Theobald Thamer, the latter especially, combined rationalistic ele- 
ments with their mystical and theosophic tendencies. 

In the Reformed Church Arminianism broke through the limits 
Theological of strict orthodoxy in the seventeenth century; and the 

tendencies of influence of Enoflish Deism soon after the beginning of 
the 17th cen- ^ cd <=> 

tury. the eighteenth, led Christian apologists to grant many 

concessions to the spirit of the age. A system of natural (rational) 
theology took root beside the revealed (positive, Scripturally eccle- 
siastical), while the demonstrative method (beginning with Wolf, 
comp. § 7). drew the meshes of rationalistic categories through the 
substance of orthodoxy. Pietism, which had formerly been at odds 
with orthodoxy, now entered into a league with it for the defence 
of Biblical supernaturalism, which was being shattered by the at- 
Theoiogyinthe tacks of criticism (Lessing, Semler). This continued 
18th century, until the appearance of Kant, who unravelled all that 
had hitherto been woven, discharged the pure reason from all par- 
ticipation in theology while assigning to the practical reason the in- 
herited doctrines of God and immortality, and assigned to morality 
the categorical imperative as its basis. The more definite use of 
the terms rationalism and supernaturalism dates form that period 
(more particularly from the issue of the work. Die Religion inner- 
halb der Grenzen der blossen Yernunft, 1793). Kant makes a 
sharp distinction between rationalism and naturalism, which should 
always be observed.' German rationalism, as it was developed 

^ . . . .. . throuo^h the tendencies of that aare, thoug:h not through 

Chief traits of f . . . 

modern ration- the direct influence of Kant, is, in its formal character, 
^ ''^' distinguished from supernaturalism chiefly in that it 

considers as identical with the demands of reason, what the latter 
conceives to be a supernatural revelation, and in that it consequent- 
ly endeavors to explain away by tricks of interpretation all that is 

' A distinction similar to that between radicalism and liberalism in the field of 
politics, although they often pass into each other. Comp. Kant, Kel. innerhalb d. 
Grenz. d. bloss. Yernunft, p. 216 sq. The designation "rationalist" is, however, of 
earlier date. The terms Rationistse and Ratiocinistae were employed as early as the 
beginning of the seventeenth century, during a controversy at Helmstedt between the 
orthodox and the humanists (comp. Henke, Georg Calixt, p. 248). A sect whose ad- 
herents denominated themselves "rationalists," existed in England in 1646; and 
Sucro, during a disputation in A. D. 1706, classed " Rationalistae, Naturalistae, Liber- 
tini, Sceptici, quin imo Athei " together. Comp. Lechler, Gesch. des englischen Deis- 
mus, p. 61, and Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, ii, p. 26. 



INFLUENCE OF HERDER AND SCHLEIERMACHER. 101 

supernatural in the Scriptures, or else seeks to obviate its force as be- 
ing merely the opinion of the time and people in question. It holds 
fast chiefly to the ethics of Christianity. This formal difference nat- 
urally implies the material, with reference to the specifically Christian 
doctrines of the person of Christ, the Trinity, original sin, the merits 
of Christ, redemption, eschatology, etc. Frequent approximations of 
the two systems to each other became apparent, however. Approaches of 
at an early day. Biblical supernaturalism departed in nationalism and 
many respects from the ancient orthodox doctrine of to each other. 
the Church, and often agreed with Socinianism in simply retaining 
the merely formal idea of a revelation, so that the controversy turned 
not so much upon the contents of doctrine as upon the way by which 
it had been reached. Rationalism, on the other hand, sought to 
demonstrate its agreement with the Bible in essential points, and 
established itself as Biblical rationalism, in opposition to doctrines 
of the Church as developed beyond the Scriptures, as well as to the 
more recent speculations. Mutual concessions led to a rational 
supernaturalism and a supernatural rationalism. Meanwhile, the 
active intellect of theologians like Herder, had already j^^^ direction 
solved the contradiction in the last century, by regarding given to theoi- 
Revelation, not as an abstractly imparted doctrine from and scweier- 
God to men, but as a Divine and human fact, to which macher. 
the Bible gives a living testimony, without attempting to place 
in the hands of the systematic theologian a finished corpus doc- 
trince. Kleuker, too, insisted upon the recognition of the divine- 
ly given facts, while entertaining freer views respecting the inspir- 
ation of the Scriptures which had been identified with revelation 
itself.' 

But it was reserved for Schleiermacher, more than all others, 
to allay the conflict between rationalism and supernaturalism,'^ 
by making the historical manifestation of Christ, and acknowl- 
edgment of him as the Saviour of the world, the criterion by 
which to judge. The contrast between sin and grace, which had 
received a superficial treatment at the hands even of many Biblical 
supernaturalists, was again apprehended in its profound significance, 

^ Compare S. Ratjen, Johann Friedrich Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde, Gottin- 
gen, 1842. 

"^ " I, for my poor part," says Schleiermacher, " begin to feel uncomfortable as soon 
as I listen to the on-rush of the 'ra-, irra-, and supra-,' because to my mind this ter- 
minology simply serves to increase the tangle of the confusion," (Zugabe zu Schreiben 
an Herrn Ammon, Berlin, 1818, p. 14). Concerning the influence of Schleiermacher 
on the development of modern theology, comp. K. Schwarz Gesch. d. neuesten Theol- 
ogie, p. 29 sqq., 1st ed 



102 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and the jDroper manifestation of God was seen to be his manifesta- 
tion in Christ for the redemption of the world. Subsequent specu- 
lation likewise rendered material aid to the introduction of a more 
spiritual conception of the idea of revelation, and the whole of 
recent theology — to whose development, in addition to 
tives of there- Schleiermacher, de Wette, Marheineke, Daub, Nitzsch, 
cent theology, rj^^^^^^^^ jj^^g^^ Ullmami, Jul. Muller, Dorner, Ah 

Schweizer, Schenkel, Liebner, Martensen, Rothe, and Lange con- 
tributed,, though occupying very different points of view — must be 
considered as having passed beyond the ancient controversy be- 
tween rationalism and supernaturalism. It does not follow, how- 
ever, that the antagonism has. been removed, but merely that it has 
entered on a new stage. For, 

1. The more modern tendency, generally speculatively mediat- 
Id trif ^^^> ^^ suspected by both the older rationalistic and the 

in its newer older supernaturalist schools of imposing a new sense 
forms. ^^ ^^^ ancient teachings of the Church, and of using 

words to conceal dishonest practices. At this point everything 
depends upon a correct apprehension of the relation of the undevel- 
oped to the developed, the immediate contents of the Scriptures to 
what has been historically and intellectually inferred, as also upon 
a proper distinction between the religious element and the ever- 
changing forms of scientific expression. 

2. It cannot be denied that the pantheistic spirit has often 
donned the garb of superior orthodoxy in an insulting compar- 
ison of itself with rationalism, although the latter honestly de- 
nied what it believed itself compelled to deny, while, at the same 
time, it decisively retained a belief in God and immortality ac- 
cording to the theistic view.^ The reproaches of j^antheism do 
not apply in every case, however; and, for itself, rationalism has 
often found it difficult while opposing pantheism, to deny the charge 
of sheer deism and naturalism. The vulgar rationalism, having 
fallen behind in the march of progress, is, with all its understand- 
ing and practical thoroughness, deficient in intellectual mobility 
when engaged upon details, and is deficient also in a profound ap- 

^ "It should be credited to the memory of rationalism, that it did not reject the 
idea of personality, nor teach an impersonal God, ah impersonal Christ, an impersonal 
hmnan soul, i. e., one incapable of existing after death. In its more noble representa- 
tives, at least, the disciples and successors of Kant, it displays the praiseworthy am- 
bition to secure dogmatic recognition for an absolutely perfect, personal God, who 
governs the world in the interests of moral ends, an ethically perfect Christ, who is 
educating the world for moral purposes, and a human personal soul, which is capable 
of endless moral perfection, and is being trained on earth by Chi'istianity for the here- 
after." Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit, p. 6. 



THE POSITION OF PIETISM. 103 

prehension of the nature of religion and Christianity, while, despite 
its praiseworthy morality, it also lacks the devout disposition in 
which all religious inspiration has its rise. This applies also, though 
in a different manner, to the older Biblical supernaturalism, which 
rests upon a more solid foundation, indeed, but without deriving an 
adequate benefit from this advantage. 

In the current conflict modern pietism has taken the place of the 
older supernaturalism. The earlier pietism ' contrasted 
with the orthodoxy of its time, in that it represented pteu^m iHhe 
the independent, active principle in the Church, and ^«^^^c*- 
the interests of practical Christianity (Spener, Francke). It as- 
sumed a weaker position after the days of the Wolfian philosophy, 
and often assailed science at improper points (the pietistic opposi- 
tion at Halle against Wolf). Pietism joins the older supernatural- 
ism in holding strongly to the Scriptures; but what was a dead 
form with the latter, has become a living body with the former. It 
regards the Bible as the word of life, and like the later theology, 
it attaches great importance to the contrast between sin and grace, 
with the difference that it rejects the speculative element and con- 
fines itself wholly to the practical. It is only too prone, however, 
to commit the error of confounding dogmatic Christianity with 
practical, in its zealous defense of the letter, or to be led astray, 
while striving to be piously intelligent, into insipidity and arbitrari- 
ness. To this must be added a fondness for dabbling with philos- 
ophy and natural science without honestly examining their claims, 
or, in case it renounces every pretence to scientific character, a dis- 
position to vaunt itself in pious phraseology, which naturally assumes 
the appearance of cant. 

^ The name, as is well known, came into cmTent use in the time of Spener and 
Francke. At that time the pietists (as liberals) stood opposed to the strictly orthodox. 
Their buoyant and pious spiritual life soon, however, gave way to ascetic formalism. 
This was pietism on its practical side (affected piety) ; our concern is with dogmatic 
pietism. The latter clings emphatically to the fundamental doctrines of 'Protestant- 
ism, both the formal, as involved in the principle of the authority of the Scriptures, 
and the material, of sin and justification, in which connexion it strongly emphasizes 
the natural corruption of man and his moral inability Avhen not aided by grace (comp. 
von Colin and Bretschneider in the passages cited below). In these respects it can- 
not be justly charged with sectarianism ; it has, on the contrary, always appealed to 
its orthodoxy, when brought into comparison with rationalism. But its devotion to 
the letter is not yet a proof of the Protestant spirit; and the words will apply here, 
"Duo cum faciunt idem, non est idem," and, "C'est le ton, qui fait la musique." 
Luther's energetic nature certainly wrought out the doctrine internally with different 
results, and gave to it a different outward bearing, from what a sickly languishing 
pietism is able to furnish. The entire life-conception of the Reformation was sound- 
ly pious, but far from being morbidly pietistic. 



104 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Mysticism/ which has been improperly confounded with pietism, 
The mystic ten- P^'^sents a more attractive appearance. It is more an- 
dency in theoi- cient than pietism, being as old as the Church, and 
^^^' even older. It is really religion itself in the exact 

sense, as the latter appears when restricted to its immediate self 
and not aided by intelligent knowledge, or when, guided by the im- 
agination, it wanders off into the labyrinths of theosophy, while in 
the practical field it either gives way to the contemplative inactivity 
of quietism or manifests itself as enthusiasm. Mysticism is super- 
naturalism, inasmuch as it rests on the assumption of an immediate 
enlightening influence from above and of an actual communion of 
the Divine with the human; it can never, therefore, come to terms 
with the vulgar rationalism.'^ But it differs from the formal Bibli- 
cal supernaturalism in not limiting revelation entirely to the writ- 
ten word, listening rather to the internal word, and evincing a strong 
inclination to convert the positive features into allegory, and the 
historical facts into ideal vagaries. It has this tendency in com- 
mon with the idealistic rationalism, as may be seen, e. g.^ in Swe- 
denborg. 

Another new form of supernaturalism is the ecclesiastical posi- 
Ecciesiastieai tivism and confessionalism, which again asserts itself 
confessionaiism. ^j^j^ power. This tendency, not content with Bibli- 
cal orthodoxy, lays stress upon assent to the teachings of symbol- 
ical books as the necessary criterion of a correct belief, and aims 

^ The derivation is from yuvcj, fivarTjg, fivarrjpiov, hvotiko^. Tlie examination of 
what is mysterious involves neither praise nor blame, aside from other considerations. 
Inasmuch as religion is itself the mystery of godliness, it will involve a mystical char- 
acter to the apprehension of the average human understanding ; and it was not, there- 
fore, wholly an error, to distinguish between a true and a false mysticism, as some 
have done. The corruption of mysticism has been designated by many as fanaticism 
(from fanum, fanaticus) ; but there are fanatics of every kind, even rationalistic ones. 
The characteristic traits of a fanatic are a cold heart and a hot head. Enthusiasm is 
sometimes substituted for this term; but common usage attaches a more innocent 
idea to that word. The enthusiast is capable of martyrdom in the defense of his 
principles; the fanatic erects the stake. (Bretschneider describes fanaticism as the 
paroxysm of enthusiasm). Nitzsch remarks, in entire correspondence with our view, 
that " fanaticism is, in its inner nature, unqualifiedly cold ; every fanatic is, in his in- 
most being, a cold nature; Avhatever heat he has is superficial; a passionate bearing 
within the limits of the external and the empirical, is cultivated as a compensation 
for his coldness and indifference." Akadem. Vortrage iiber Christl. Glaubenslehre, 
p. 28. 

^ " In the meantime," says Hase (Theol. Streitschriften, No. 3, page 90), " it would 
not harm rationalism, if it were to receive into itself as much of mystical unction as 
it could contain without injury to its sound common sense ; and mysticism likewise 
would not necessarily suffer the loss of its vessel of grace, were it to receive on board 
a measure of good sense, as ballast, if not as a compass." 



COURSE OF THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND. 105 

in Germany to destroy the existing union between Protestant 
denominations. 

England in the latter part of the seventeenth century was pro- 
foundly stirred by the Trinitarian controversy, which began with 
the publication of tracts on the Unitarian side, by Thomas Firmin, 
a wealthy London merchant. Dr. John Wallis defended the Atha- 
nasian Creed, in his Letters on the Trinity (1690). In the same year 
Dean Sherlock contributed A Vindication of the Doctrine of the 
Holy and Ever-blessed Trinity, in which he approached tritheism, 
and was answered by Dr. South (1693) and Dr. Wallis. Bishop 
Bull's Defensio Fidei Isficeanae (1685), collected the testimonies 
of the Fathers to the pre-existence of Christ and his divinity. In 
1694 appeared his Judgment of the Catholic Church, in which he 
justified the anathema of the Nicene Creed. In Primitive Chris- 
tianity Revived (1711), and the Council of Nice Vindicated from 
the Athanasian Heresy (1713), Professor Whiston, of Cambridge, 
set forth semi-Arianism. Whitby's Disquisitions criticised Bishop 
Bull's argument from the ante-Nicene Fathers. Dr. Samuel Clarke 
followed in the same line of argument, although he refused to be 
called an Arian. These works elicited Waterland's Vindication of 
Christ's Divinity; Defence of the Divinity of Christ; Critical His- 
tory of the Athanasian Creed, etc. (1719-1724). After this contro- 
versy had run its course the attention of English theologians was 
directed to the Deistic controversy, already noticed (pp. 76, 77). 

A marked change in the tendencies of theological opinion in 
England may be dated from the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. The Wesleyan revival led to .a concentration of rpj^^gowig^i 
thought upon the atonement, justification by faith, tendencies in 
and the work of the Holy Spirit in the heart of ^^^^^^d- 
man. The effects of the revival were felt throughout the Eng- 
lish Church in the rise of the evangelical party, and beyond 
the Church in the general diffusion of Wesleyan theological 
ideas. At the same time the attack upon the internal contents of 
Christianity passed on to its external evidences and called forth 
a corresponding apologetic literature. In this literature Lardner 
(1684-1768), Leland (1691-1766), Paley (1743-1805), and Lyttleton 
(1709-1773), became conspicuous. Towards the close of the cen- 
tury English Deism became infected with the French spirit, of 
which Gibbon, the historian, and Thomas Paine are striking exam- 
ples. The evangelical movement having relaxed church principles 
and prepared the way for political liberalism, awakened a counter 
movement, which announced itself in 1833 in the issue of the first 
" Tract for the Times." From this series, which was finished in 



106 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1840, the movement has taken the name of Tractarian. It maintains 
the regenerative efficacy of the sacraments, and the absolute au- 
thority of the Church over the individual. At the same time the 
penetration of the English mind by German culture has produced 
a rationalism which has run parallel with that of Germany. Liter- 
ary Rationalism has found a brilliant representative in Thomas 
Carlyle, who, while urging his countrymen to give heed to the 
moral order of the universe, seems to deny the possibility of at- 
taining to distinct theological conceptions. The disciples of Cole- 
ridge have endeavored to adjust modern philosophical thought 
and the creed of the Church of England to each other, and have 
produced a Broad Church party. The critical rationalistic spirit in 
the State Church is represented in the " Essays and Reviews," and 
the attacks of Bishop Colenso on the Credibility of the Pentateuch 
and the Book of Joshua. Two of the theological tendencies of the 
age are well typified by the lives of the brothers, John Henry and 
Francis William Newman, one of whom passed from th6 evan- 
gelical school, through Tractarianism to Rome, and the other, from 
the same starting-point, through Unitarianism to a religious idealism 
which denies all historic Christianity. During the past few years a 
call has been made among the Non-conformists of England and 
Scotland for a revision of Church standards. 

In the United States the Wesleyan revival spread more widely 
than in England, and created a theological tendency corresponding 
with its distinctive religious ideas. The Unitarian movement, 
which dates from the time of Stoddard's proposal of a "half-way 
covenant," obtained fresh importance under the leadership of Will- 
iam Ellery Channing (1780-1842). Since the time of Channing it 
has shown both a conservative and a radical tendency, the radical- 
ism going to the length of wholly destructive criticism (Theodore 
Parker and O. B. Frothingham). The Tractarian movement has 
also been repeated in the United States, but without the vigor 
which has marked its progress in England. The Churches of the 
Reformed faith, under the leadership of the American Presbyte- 
rians, have formed an alliance, which has secured a collation of all 
the Reformed creeds. 

As one extreme, however, always calls forth the other, rational- 
The modern i^m, which was supposed to have been forever buried, 
rationalism. i^ag again arisen, but in a different form, and, in conse- 
quence, assumes the designation "modern." It is remarkable that 
the same philosophical school to which the defenders of modern 
supernaturalism belong, originated the speculative rationalism, which 
agrees with its older brother in denying the supernatural and the 



THE STUDENT'S RELATION TO DOUBT. 107 

miraculous, but in other respects is materially different, inasmuch 
as it denies with emphasis the very doctrines which the earlier ra- 
tionalism energetically maintained, viz., the doctrines of a personal 
God and a personal immortality, to which it adds incessant effort 
to undermine the historical basis of Christianity. Although this 
rationalism considers spirit a reality only as it attains to conscious- 
ness in man, it has yet often been confounded — by both friend and 
foe, and not always without its own fault — with the other tendency 
which ends with wholly denying the existence of spirit, and passes 
over into bald materialism and nihilism, theories wliich manifestly 
constitute the negation of all theology. 

SECTION XI. 
RELATION OF THE STUDENT TO THESE TENDENCIES. 

The pupil will find no scientific charm, by the use of wliich he 
may avoid these opposing influences, and escape the mental conflict 
they naturally excite. On the other hand, let none who are con- 
scious of being governed by upright intentions in the sight of God, 
permit mere theoretical doubts to frighten them from the study of 
theology. A pious disposition will be strengthened by rj.^^ jj.jj ^^ 
the continued study of the Holy Scriptures as con- wwch these 
nected with the Church and its history, by acquaint- dencies should 
ance with the great heroes who stood for the truth, i>emet. 
and who, in the midst of the most diverse complications, strove 
to secure the one thing needful, by sincere prayer to God. Love, 
which knows how to bear with divergent tendencies and how to ap- 
propriate to itself all that is good in any form, will increase with 
the growth of faith, and faith will hold fast the truth which has 
been secured; and wherever a living faith and love are found, hope 
in the full triumph of the truth will not be wanting. 

Many approach theology with false expectations; either they 
have retained an unthinking faith, or they are affected by doubts 
conceived in the course of their preliminary studies. The former 
are easily disturbed in this study, when its critical processes threat- 
en to destroy what they have hitherto cherished with devoted love. 
The latter become impatient when knotty doubts become still more 
involved, instead of giving way. Shall hard questions be concealed 
from sight, and the untenable be represented as admitting of de- 
fense? Shame on the science which would lend its aid ^^^ method 
to the attempt! Others advise, on the contrary, that of dealing with 
persons who cannot keep from doubting should leave 
the study of theology untouched. They urge that believing theo- 
logians are needed, particularly in this age. The latter is certain- 



108 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

ly true ; but we prefer a faith that has been tested in the conflict, 
to the dullness of spirit which is often confounded with a believing 
disposition. Accordingly, eminent theologians, possessing the most 
loyal faith, have always valued courage in youthful aspirants. So 
. Bengel,' who expresses the idea that "all doctrinal ten- 
great theoiogi- ets must needs pass through a conflict, and th^ir truth 
^°^* be won afresh." Harms, the man of robust faith, re- 

marked while standing by the grave of a rationalistic student, " He 
who doubts religiously, has the true religion." ^ Neander is said to 
have expressed an analogous sentiment, with reference to a young 
theologian who died before the age of youthful doubts had passed, 
to the effect that he died in his calling, and that to die thus is to 
die well. But let the questioning be in a religious spirit, and with 
a holy determination of heart which consents to part with every 
thing for the sake of securing a single pearl of truth. 

An earnestly religious character, even if it exists only in its most 
Sound theoioff- g^^^^'^l form, will assuredly become more positively 
icai study will Christian under the influence of a sound course of the- 

increase faith. i*i.t a'-t t,* £ r^\. • ^ 

ological study. A vivid apprehension oi Christ, even 

in his human nature alone, will, if joined with enthusiasm for the 
ideal, erelong beget in the heart faith in his Divine character, al- 
though the intellect may yet be struggling to find a satisfactory 
expression of its views. Such idealism^ is at all events, better than 
the dry prosaic disposition of a mind wholly given up to the influ- 
ence of ordinary outward realities, which, precisely because of un- 
belief, demands that every thing shall be signed and sealed and 
trebly hypothecated, and which prefers to confine its attention to 
what lies on the surface, to the end that its sleep may be undis- 

^ See Leben Bengel's, by Burk, p. IT, and comp. the Gottingen Memorial, TJeber die 
gegenwartige Krisis des kirchlichen Lebens (G5tt., 1854), p. 18: "As in the field of 
morals importance attaches not simply to what is done, but even more to the reasons, 
purposes, and motives of our action ; so in the religious field the great question is in 
no wise chiefly, wJio beheves, but more especially how and ^ohy he believes;" and 
page 20 : " Inasmuch as the spiritual office, however important its relation to the or- 
ganism of the Church may be, does not ask to be considered a talisman before whose 
very appearance the diseases of our age must fly, it follows, that theological faculties 
will be required still further to impress upon the future servants of the Church, en- 
trusted to their guidance and care, to the utmost of their ability, the necessity for in- 
Avard religious and moral culture rather than the mere memorizing of the tenets of the 
creed, in order that they may not merely attain to a correct belief, but also come to 
hold it in a correct manner, and that thus a clergy firmly established in the faith of 
our Church be perpetuated among us." 

'^See Rheinwald's Repertorium, xxx, p. 54. 

^ Comp. Kahler, Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 23, where genuine ideality is emphasized, as 
against a mere giddiness of ideas. 



THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 109 

turbed. Let, therefore, the picture of a living Christ, adapted to 
compel the attention of every human soul struggling after God be 
made the central feature of the theological school. It will then be- 
come speedily apparent that " to love Jesus is the true supernatur- 
alism, to comprehend Jesus the true rationalism, and to illustrate 
Jesus in personal character the true mysticism; and that these 
three constitute true Christianity." ^ 

Let the student remember, too, that the question of ration- 
alism is largely a question of method. He who has, through a 
Christian experience, attained a clear Christian consciousness, is 
iixed upon a rock, from which he cannot easily be moved. Anselm 
has taught us that we must believe in order to understand, and has 
also reminded us that we are negligent if, " after we are established 
in the faith, we do not seek to understand what we believe." ^ We 
may be rational and yet not rationalistic ; inquiring and yet thor- 
oughly believing; philosophical and yet not unchristian. In the 
spirit of Anselm Coleridge has pointed out that "in order to an 
efficient belief in Christianity, a man must have been a Christian ; 
that this is the seeming argumentum hi circulo incident to all 
spiritual truths, to every subject not presentable under the forms 
of time and space, as long as we attempt to master by the reflex 
acts of the understanding what we can only know by the act of 
becoming."^ Christ's words will furnish the student a sure clue 
through the tangled thicket of rationalism : " If any man will do 
his will, he shall know of the doctrine whether it be of God." 

Respecting the extent to which the theological school may con- 
tribute to the cultivation of a right disposition, comp. § 22. 

THE LITERATURE OF THE CONFLICT. 

Compare K. G. Bretschneider, Systematische Entwicklung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommen- 
den Begriffe, etc. (vol. 4, Lpz., 1841, p. 189) ; and die Literatur fiber Religionsphllosophie, p. 75. 

L ON RATIONALISM AND SUPERNATURALISM. 

a. ON THE SIDE OF RATIONALISM. 

J. F. Rohr, Brief e iiber den Rationalismus. Aachen (Zeitz.), 1813. 

J. Schulthess und J. K. v. Orelli, Rationalismus und Supranaturalismus ; Kanon, Tra- 
dition, und Scription. Zurich, 1822. 

J. r. Rohr, Grund- und Glaubenssatze, der evang. -protest. Kirche. 1832-34. (Vgl. 
Bretschn. a. a. 0. S. 194.) 3. Aufl. Neustadt a. d. 0. 1843. 

Ch. F. Fritzsche, de rationalismo commentat. II; in den opuscul. academ. (Tur,, 
1846) p. 85 ss. 

L. J. Riickert, der Rationalismus. Lpz,, 1859. 

* Kahler, i/iifra^ p. 334. "^ Cur Deus Homo? book i, chap. iL 

2 Biographia Literaria, chap, xxiv, p. 349, 



110 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ExponenU of the Extreme Modem Rationalism : — 

Kradolfer, iiber Glauben und Unglauben. Bremen, 1868. 

Schwalb, der alte und neue Grlaube und Christus. Ebend. (In reply : Zahn, der alte 

und der neue Christus, oder Glaube und Unglaube. Sendschreiben an Schwalb. 

Bremen, 1868.) 
The best known organ of the older rationalistic tendency for a long time was Rohr's 
Predigerbibliothek (Neustadt a. d. Orla), 1820-1848, twenty-eight volumes and some 
pamphlets, continued by L. Lange until 1851 in nearly two volumes. Earlier still were 
Schulthess' Annalen, Paulus' Sophronizon, der Denkglaubige, and other periodicals ; 
also die Darmstadter Kirchenzeitung, under the editorship of Bretschneider. A 
product of the vulgar Rationalism (which is partly mixed with pantheistic young He- 
gelian ideas) is the so-called Deutsch-Katholicismus, and the Lichtfreundthum. Com- 
pare the writings of Ronge, Uhlich, Wislicenus, Konig, Rupp (Brun's Repertor. 1845, 
vol. iv, page 26). Organs of the same tendency are : Hoflerichter und Kampe : Fur 
freies religioses Leben, Breslau, 1848; Blatter fur christl. Erbauung, by R. Fischer 
and afterwards by Zille ; Lucifer, Fliegende Blatter fur Kirchen- und Schulreform by 
C. Schaffer. Much different from the above-named tendency is the Rationalism which, 
more or less connecting itself with the results of the Hegelian philosophy and Tu- 
bingen criticism, adopted as its highest standard "the modern consciousness." Its 
organs were the Zeitstimmen aus der ref. Kirche der Schweiz (from 1859), and the 
(Berne) Reformblatter (from 1866), both published since 1872 as Reform, Zeitstim- 
men aus der Schweizerischen Kirche. See also § 69. 

•; 5. ON THE SIDE OF SUPERNATURALISM. 

J. A. H. Tittman, iiber Supranatur., Rational., und Atheismus. Lpz., 1816. 

CI. Harms, Thesen Luthers mit andern 95 Satzen. Kiel, 1817. (For the controversy 

arising therefrom, see in Deegen's Jahrbuch der Litera., ii, p. 139, and iii, p. 73.) 

dass es mit der Vernunftreligion nichts ist. Kiel, 1819. 

Ch. T. Zollich, Briefe iiber den Supranaturalismus, eine gegenschrift zu den briefen 

iiber den Rational. Sondershausen, 1821. (In reply thereto Gebhard, die letzten 

Griinde des Rationalismus. Arnst., 1822.) 
T. F. Kleuker, iiber das Ja und Nein der bibl. -christl., und der reinen Yernunfttheol- 

ogie. Hamburg, 1819. (Compare also iiber die Altonaer Bibel, 1818.) 
H. Steffens, von der f alschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben ; eine Stimme aus 

der Gemeinde. Breslau, 1831. 
E. Sartorius, die Religion ausserhalb der Grenzen der blossen Yernunft. Mai^burg, 

1822. 
iiber die Unwissenschaftlichkeit und innere Yerwandtschaft des Rationalismus 

und Romanismus in den Erkenntnissprincipien und Heilslehren des Christenthums. 

(Beitrage zur Yertheidigung der evangelischen Rechtglaubigkeit. Heidelberg, 

1825.) 
A. Hahn, de rationalismi, qui dicitur, vera indole et qua cum naturalismo contineatur 

ratione. Lips., 1827. (Compare also the polemical treatises which were called 

forth by it from Hase, Krug, Richter, Clemen, and others. Bretschneider, Syst. 

Entw., p. 192.) 
iiber die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit, und das Yerhaltniss des christ- 

lichen Theologie zur Wissenschaft, iiberhaupt. Lpz., 1832. 
T. A. Yoigtlander, der Rationalismus nach seinen philosophischen Hauptformen und 

in seiner historischen Gestalt. Lpz., 1830. 
W. Steiger, Kritik des Rationalismus in Wegscheiders Dogmatik. Berlin, 1830. 



LITERATURE OF THE MEDIATING THEOLOGY. Ill 

With Sharp Antagonism to Uie Modern Teridencies : — 

Agenor de Gasparin, les ecoles du doute et I'ecole de la foi. Paris, 1853. 

Vilmar, die Theologie der Thatsachen wider die Theologie der Rhetorik. 4th edit. 
Marburg, 1876. 

Scheele, die trunkene Wissenschaft und ihr Erbe an die evangelisehe Kirche. Ber- 
lin, 1867. 

Periodical Organs of Supernaturalism : — 

Hengstenberg's Evangel. Kirchenzeitung (Berlin, 1827); since 1869 by L. 11. Tausch- 
er; earlier, Bengel's Archiv (continued by Steudel); Heidenreich's and Huffell's 
Zeitschrift ; Schwarz's Jahrbiicher ; Tholuck's Literar. Anzeiger. 

Organs of the Extreme Orthodox (Lutherans) : — 

The Erlanger Zeitschriften by Harless, Rudelbach, and Guericke (Guericke and De- 
litzsch to the end of 1878) ; by Dieckhoff (earlier, Meyer) and Kliefoth ; Luthardt's 
Allgem. evang. luth. K. Z. (Lpz., 1868). 

An organ of the extreme reformed tendency is, die Evang. Ref, Kirchenzeitung, by 
Thelemann (Detmold, 1851); in place of which has appeared lately the Elber- 
felder Reform. K. Z. As an organ of the now so-called " positive Union," the 
Neue evang. K. Z., by H. Messner and others (Berl., 1859), may be consulted. 

C. THE MEDIATING THEOLOGY. 

1. From the Standpoint of nationalism. 

H. G. Tzschirner, dass die Yerschiedenheit der dogmatischen Systeme kein Hinderniss 

des Zwecks der Kirche sei. (Ygl. Bretschneider S. 191.) 
Ch. F. Bohme, christl. Henotikon. Halle, 1827. 
K. G. Bretschneider, iiber die grundprincipien der evangel. Theologie. Altenburg, 

1832, (The same author's two letters to a statesman. Lpz., 1830.) 

C. G. W. Theile, Christus und die Yernunft. Lpz., 1830. 

Aphorismen zur Yerstandigung iiber den sogenannten alten und neuen Glauben. 

Lpz., 1839. 

D. G. K. V. Colin and Dav. Schulz, iiber theologische Lehrfreiheit auf. den evangel- 
ischen Universitaten. Breslau, 1830. 

2. From the Standpoint of Supernaturalism. 

E. L. Mtzsch, iiber das Heil der Theologie durch Unterscheidung der Offenbarung und 

Religion als Mittel und Zweck. Wittenb., 1830. 
L. Hiiffell, Friedensvorschlage zur Beendigung des Streits zwischen bibl. christlichen 

Theologen und Rationalisten (Zeitschrift fiir Predigerwissenschaften, vol. II). 
K. Ruthenus, der formale Supernaturalismus oder der einzig mogliche weg zu einer 

Ausgleichung der streitenden theol. Parteien. Lpz., 1834. 
von der Goltz, die Grenzen der Lehrfreiheit in Theol. u. Kirche. Bonn, 1873. 

3. From the Speculative Standpoint. 

de Wette, Religion und Theologie. Berl, 1817; 2. 1821. 

liber den Yerfall der protestantischen Kirche in Deutschland und die Mittel, ihr 

wieder aufzuhelfen (Reformationsalm. 1817. Pp. 296 fif.). 
Theodor oder des Zweiflers Weihe. Berlin, 1822, 28. 2 Bde. 



L. A. Kahler, Supernaturalismus und Rationalismus in ihrem gemeinschaftl. Ur- 
sprunge, ihrer Zwietracht und hohern Einheit. Lpz., 1818. 

K. Ullmann, theolog. Bedenken, auf Yeranlassung des Angriffs der evang. Kirchen- 
zeitung auf den Hallischen Rationalismus. Halle, 1830. 



112 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Alex. Schweizer, Kritik des Gegensatzes zwischen Kationalismus und Supranaturalis- 

mus. Zurich, 1833. 

Nach Rechts und nach Links. Lpz., 18'76. 

K. Hase, theolog. Streitschriften. Lpz., 1834-37. 3 vols,' 

Jul. Wiggers, kirchlicher oder rein biblischer Supernaturalismus ? Lpz., 1842. 

K. R. Hagenbach, liber die sog. Vermittlungstheologie, zur Abvvehr und Verstand- 

igung. ^iir., 1858. 

liber Glauben und Unglauben ; two lectures delivered at Basel. Berne, 1872. 

* R. Rothe, zur Dogmatik. Gotha, 1863. 2. ed., 1869. 

A. E. Krauss, die Lehre von der Offenbarung. Gotha, 1868. 

Dan. Schenkel, Christenthum und Kirche im Einklang mit der Culturentwicklung. 

Wiesbaden, 1867. 
J. W. Hanne, der Geist des Christenthums, seine Entwickelung und sein Verhaltniss 

zu Kirche und Cultur der Gegenwart. Elberf., 1867. 

Periodical Organs of the Mediating Theology : — 

Theolog. Studien und Kritiken, by Ullmann and Umbreit, with the co-operation of Gies- 
eler, Liicke, and Nitzsch, now conducted by Riehm, Kostlin, and Beyschlag (Ham- 
burg, now Gotha); also the Deutsche Zeitschrift fiir christl. "Wissenschaft und 
christl. Leben, conducted by K. T, Th. Schneider, with the co-operation of Jul. 
Miiller, Aug. Neander, K. I. Nitzsch, later by W. Hollenberg. Other organs are : 
die Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theologie, by Liebner and others (1858 until the end 
of 1878); die Jahrbiicher fiir protest. Theologie (Lpz,, 1875), by Hase, Lipsius, 
Pfleiderer, and Schrader ; Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift fiir wissensch. Theologie (Lpz., 
1858). 

An organ of the freest critical tendency is the famous Tijdschrift of Leyden by A, 
Kuenen and others (1867); on the other hand there are the alike famous Tijd- 
schrift of Groeningen (1875); also Kalkar's Danish Tidskrift (Copenhagen, 1871), 
belonging more to the mediating tendency. 

The more practical tendencies are represented by the Allg. Kirchl. Zeitschrift, by 
Schenkel and others (1860-72), and lately as the Protest. K. Z., the chief organ of 
the Protestant Union. The Protest. Kirchenzeitung fiir das evang. Deutschland, 
was founded in 1854 by Jonas, Sydom, Krause, Pischon, and others. It opposed 
reactionary tendencies, but held fast to the results won since Schleiermacher (yet 
disposed more to the left than to the right). A mediating position was held also 
by the Kirchenblatt fiir die ref, Schweiz, which ceased at the end of 1868 ; com- 
pare among others the treatise Zur Orientirung iiber die gegenwartigen theol. Par- 
teien. (Jahrg., 1859. Nos. 22-25.) Holding the same position, yet still more 
popular, is, at Berne, the Volksblatt fiir die ref. Kirche der Schweiz (since 1872). 

Historical : — 

E. F. Staudlin, Geschichte des Rationalismus und Supranaturalismus. Gott,, 1826, 
Amand Saintes, krit. Geschichte des Rationalismus in Deutschland, Lpz., 1845-47. 
In English, London, 1849. Schenkel, die religiosen Zeitkampfe. Hamb., 1847. 
Tholuck, Gesch. des Rationalismus. Gotha, 1865. J. F, Hurst, History of Ra- 
tionalism, New York, 1865; London, 1867. G. Frank, Gesch. des Ration, und 
seiner Gegensatze. Lpz,, 1875. 

n. ON MYSTICISM, PIETISM, ETC. 

J. Spalding, iiber den Werth der Gefiihle im Christenthume. Lpz., 1764 u. 6. 
J. L. Ewald, Briefe lib. die alte Mystik u. den neueren Mysticismus. Lpz., 1822. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 113 

E. A. Borger, disputatio de mysticismo. Hague, 1820. From the Latin by Stange, 

with preface by Gurlitt. Altona, 1826. 
Dn. von Colin, histor. Beitrage zur Erlauterung und Berichtigung der Begriflfe Pietis- 

mus, Mysticismus und Fanaticismus. Halberst., 1830. 
G. Chr. R. Matthai, der Mysticismus nach seinem Begriffe, Ursprung und Unwerth. 

Gott., 1832. 
Mad. de Stael, de la mysticite. Ed. ster. Paris, 1815. In her work on«Germany, 

vol. iii, p. 290. 
A. Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor. Lpz., 1832. Pp. 222. 
K. G. Bretschneider, die Grundlage des evang. Pietismus. Lpz., 1833. 
J. H. V. Wessenberg, iiber Schwarmerei. Heilbronn, 1834. 2. ed., 1848. 
G. Binder, der Pietismus und die moderne Bildung. Stuttg., 1838. 
Chr. Merklin, Darstellung und Kritik des modernen Pietismus. Stuttg., 1839. 
J. A. Dorner, der Pietismus, insbes. in Wiirtemb., und seine speculativen Gegner, 

Binder, und Marklin. Hamb., 1846. 
L. Hiiffell, der Pietismus, geschichtl. und kirchl. beleuchtet. Heidelb., 1846. 
K Ullmann, das Wesen des Christenthums und die Mystik (against Gasparin) ; theol. 

Stud. u. Krit., 1852. Heft 3. Pp. 535-614. 
J. P. Romang, iiber Unglauben, Pietismus, u. Wissenschaft. Bern u. Ziirich, 1859. 
H. Schmid, Geschichte des Pietismus. Nordlingen, 1863. 
H. L. J. Heppe, Gesch. der quietistischen Mystik in der kath Kirche. Berlin, 181 o. 

F. Nippold, zur geschichtl. Wiirdigung des Quietismus (Jahrb. f. protest. Theologie. 

1877, 2). 
A. Ritschl, Prolegomena zu einer Gesch. des Pietismus (Zeitschr. f. Kirchengesch., 
1877, 1). 

e;n^glish and American liteeature. 
1. On the side of Rationalism. 

Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Dogma. An Essay toward a better appreciation 

of the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. 
God and the Bible. Review of objections to Literature and Dogma. 12mo. 

New York, 1875. 
Bellows, Henry W. Restatements of Christian Doctrine. In Twenty-five Sermons. 

12mo, pp. 434. Boston, 1882. 
Channing, W. E. Works. 3 vols. Boston, 1874. 
Clarke, James Freeman. Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors. 12mo, pp. xi, 512. 

Boston, 1866. 

Common Sense in Religion. A Series of Essays. 12mo. Boston, 1880 

Essentials and Non-Essentials in Religion. Boston, 1878. 

Colenso, John William. The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically .examined. 

12mo, pp. 229. New York, 1863. (For answers to Colenso, see (2.) and also 

Hurst's History of Rationalism, pp. 599, 602.) 
Dewey, Orville. Discourses in Defence of Unitarianism. Works. 3 vols. New 

York, 1876. 

Why I am a Unitarian. In Pitts St. Chapel Lectures. 12mo, pp. 866. Boston, 

1858. 

Eliot, Wm. G. Doctrines of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 168. Boston, 1882. 

Farley, Frederick A. Unitarianism Defined. The Scripture Doctrine of the Father, 

Son, and Holy Ghost. 12mo, pp. 272. Boston, 1882. 
Froude, John Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjects. 12mo, pp. 534. New 

York, 1868. (Takes the rationalistic view of the authenticity of the gospels.) 
8 



114 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Furness, W. H. Jesus and his Biographers. Boston, 1838. 

Greg, W. R. Enigmas of Life. 12mo, pp. xix, 332. Boston, 1873. 

The Creed of Christendom. Its Foundation Contrasted with its Superstructure. 

2 vols., 8vo. Boston. 

Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. 12mo, pp. 458. Boston, 1865. 

and Associates. Unitarian Affirmations : Seven Discourses given in Wash- 
ington^ by Unitarian Ministers. 12mo, pp. I'ZS. Boston, 1879. 

Lamson, Alvan. The Church of the First Three Centuries ; or, Notices of the 
Lives and Opinions of some of the Early Fathers, with special reference to the 
Doctrine of the Trinity. Svo, pp. 352. Boston, 1860. 

Martineau, James. Rationale of Religious Inquiry. 12mo. London, 1839. And 
8vo. 1845. 

Lectures : part of a series in answer to Lectures against Unitarianism by thir- 
teen Clergymen of the Church of England. 8vo. London. 

Metcalf, Richard. Letter and Spirit. Winchester Lectures, 16mo, pp. 198. Bos- 
ton, 1882. 

Miller, John. Questions awakened by the Bible. I. Are Souls Immortal ? II. Was 
Christ in Adam? III. Is God a Trinity? Philadelphia, 1877. 

Newman, Francis Wm. Phases of Faith; or. Passages from the History of my 
Creed. 12mo, pp. 234. London, 1850. 

The Soul: Her Sorrows and Aspirations. An Essay towards the Natural His- 
tory of the Soul, as the basis of Theology. 12mo. London. 

Norton, Prof. Andrews. Statement of Reasons for not Believing the Doctrines of 
Trinitarians Concerning the Nature of God and the Person of Christ. 12mo, 
pp. 550. Boston, 1882. 

Parker, Theodore. Discourses of Matters pertaining to Religion. 12mo. Boston, 
1853. 

Sermons on Theism, Atheism, and Popular Theology. 12mo. Boston, 1853. 

' Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons, 3 vols. 12mo. Boston. 

Powell, Baden. The Order of Nature Considered in Reference to the Claims of 
Revelation, Svo. London, 1860. 

Smith, G. Vance. The Bible and Popular Theology. A Restatement of Truths and 
Principles, with special Reference to recent works of Dr. Liddon, Lord Hatherly, 
the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, and others. 12mo, pp. 340. Boston, 1882. 

Strauss, David Friedrich. The Old Faith and the New Faith. A Confession, From 
the German. 12mo. New York, 1874. 

Temple, Frederick, and Associates. Recent Inquiries in Theology: being Essays 
and Reviews. 2d Am. ed., with Introduction by F. H. Hedge. 12mo, pp. xiv, 
498. Boston, 1861. 

Ware, Henry. Letters to Unitarians and Calvinists. 12mo. Cambridge, 1820. 

Wilson, John. Unitarian Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies. 12mo, 
pp. 520. Boston, 1882. 

Worcester, Noah. Bible News ; or, Sacred Truths relating to the living God, His 
Only Son and Holy Spirit. 12mo. Concord, 1810. 1812, and 1825. 

2. Against Rationalism. 

Auberlen, Carl August. The Divine Revelation. An Essay in Defence of the 
Faith. From the German. 8vo, pp.441. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Bushnell, Horace. God in Christ. Three Discourses delivered at New Haven, Cam- 
bridge, and Andover. (Properly a mediating work ; the second essay offers 
SaDeiHanism as a ground of union between Unitarianism and Trinitarianism.) 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 115 

Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as together constituting the one 

system of God. 12mo, pp. 528. New York, 1864. 
Cairns, John. Romanism and Rationalism, as opposed to Pure Christianity. 12mo.- 

London, 1866. 
Christlieb, Theodore. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. A Series of Apologetic 

Lectures. From the German. 8vo, pp. 549. New York, 1874. 
Dorchester, Daniel. Concessions of Liberalists to Orthodoxy. 16mo, pp. 843. 

Boston, 1878. 
Fisher, Geo. P. Faith and Rationalism, with short supplementary essays on related 

topics. 12mo, pp. 188. New York, 18Y9. 
The Supernatural Origin of Christianity etc. 8vo, pp. 586. New York, 

1866. 
Hare, Edward. The Principal Doctrines of Christianity defended against the Errors 

of Socinianism. 12mo, pp. 396. New York, 1837. 
Maurice, F. D., and Associates. Tracts for Priests and People. By Various Writers. 

12mo, pp. 372. Am. ed. Boston, 1862. (A Broad-School Reply to Essays and 

Reviews.) 
Oxford, the Lord Bishop, Editor. Replies to Essays and Reviews, with a Pref- 
ace by the Lord Bishop of Oxford. Am. ed. 12mo, pp. 443. New York, 

1862. 
Parkinson, Richard. Rationalism and Revelation ; or, the Testimony of Moral 

Philosophy, the System of Nature, and the Constitution of Man to the Ti-uth of 

the Doctrine of Scripture. Hulsean Lectures for 1837. 8vo, pp. 223. London, 

1838. 
Scott, W. A. The Christ of the Apostle's Creed : the Voice of the Church against 

Arianism, Strauss and Renan, with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 432. New York, 

1867. 
Thompson, William, Editor. Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays by sev- 
eral writers, being a reply to Essays and Reviews. Am. ed. 12rao, pp. 538. 

New York, 1862. 
Ulrici, Herman. Strauss as a Philosophical Thinker. A RevieAv of "the Old 

Faith and the New Faith." From the German. 16mo, pp. 167. Philadelphia, 

1874. 
Woods, Leonard. Letters to Unitarians, occasioned by the Sermon of Rev. W. E. 

Channing, etc. 8vo. Andover, 1820, 1822. 
Worcester, Samuel. Letters to the Rev. W. E. Channing, on Unitarianism. 8vo. 

Boston, 1815. 

Although Strauss, in his life of Jesus, jfirst demolishes the rationalistic interpre- 
tation of the gospels in order to prepare the way for his mythical theory, he has 
yet been the occasion of the writing of lives of Christ in which the supernatural 
view of the person and work of our Lord is maintained, and which are therefore 
directed against rationalism. Among these are : 

Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. Christ and Christianity. A Vindication of the Chris- 
tian Religion, founded on the historical events of the life of Christ. 12mo, pp. 
314. New York, 1854. 

Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Christ to Christianity. 12mo, pp. 195. Boston, 
1862. 

Neander, Angustus. The Life of Jesus Christ in its historical connexion and histor- 
ical development. From the German by John M'Clintock, and Chas. E. Blumen- 
thal. 8vo, pp. 450. New York, 1848. 



116 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Pressense, E. D. Jesus Christ: His Times, Life, and Work. From the French. 

12mo, pp. 496. New York, 1868. (The first chapter discusses the objections to 

the supernatural in the gospels.) 
Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ: The Miracle of History: with a reply to 

Strauss and Penan, and a collection of testimonies of Unbelievers. 16mo, pp. 

375. New York, 1816. 
Tulloch, John. The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of Modern Criticism. 

16mo, pp. 266. Cincinnati, 1865. (See for other titles, p. 282.) 

Some replies to Colenso : 
Benisch, A. Bishop Colenso's Objections to the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua 

critically examined. London, 1863. 
Briggs, F. W. The Two Testimonies. Being a reply to Bishop Colenso's Pentateuch 

and Book of Joshua. London, 1863. 
Fowler, C. H. Fallacies of Colenso Reviewed. Cincinnati. 
Green, Wm. Henry. The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop 

Colenso. 12mo, pp. 195. New York, 1863. 
Mahan, M. Spiritual Point of View ; or, the Glass Reversed. Answer to Bishop 

Colenso. New York. See also Hurst's History of Rationalism. Pp. 599, 602. 

See Harman's Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture. Pp. 215-219. 

3. Mysticism. 

Tulloch, John. Henry More. Christian Theosophy and Mysticism : Chap. Y of 
Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England, in the Seventeenth 
Century. Yol. II, 8vo. London, 1872. (See also Poole's Index to Periodical 
Literature, p. 890, for review articles on several branches of the subject.) 

Vaughn, Robert Alfred. Hours with the Mystics. A Contribution to the History 
of Religious Opinion. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 372, 383. London. 

4. History of Rationalism,. 

Allen, Joseph Henry. Our Liberal Movement in Theology, chiefly as shown in 
Recollections of the History of TJnitarianism in New England. 16mo, pp. 220. 
Boston, 1882. 

Cairns, John. Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century as Contrasted with its earlier and 
later history. (Lect. V treats of Rationalism in Germany.) 12mo, pp. 216. 
New York, 1881. 

Ellis, Geo. E. Half-Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with particular refer- 
ence to its Origin, etc., 8vo, pp. 536. Boston, 1857. 

Farrar, "Adam Storey. A Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the 
Christian Religion. Bampton Lectures for 1862. 12mo, pp. 487. New York, 1863. 

Hagenbach, K. R, German Rationalism. Its Rise, Progi^ess, and Decline. From 
the German. 8vo, pp. 405. Edinburgh, 1865. 

Hurst, John F, History of Rationalism. Embracing the Present State of Prot- 
estant Theology. 8vo, pp. 643. New York, 1865. 

Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in 
Europe. 8vo, 2 vols. New York, 1873. 

Leland, John. A View of the Principal Deistical "Writers that have appeared in 
England in the Last and Present Century. 8vo. London, 1836. 

Saintes, Amand. A Critical History of Rationalism in Germany, from its Origin to 
the Present Time* 8vo, pp. x, 379. London, 1849. 

Saisset, Emile. Manual of Modern Pantheism. Essay on Religious Philosophy. 
2 vols., 8vo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1862. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 117 

Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the 
Seventeenth Century. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 463, 500. Vol, I. Liberal Churchmen. 
Vol. II. The Cambridge Platonists. Edinburgh and London, 1872. 

For an account of the Dodwell Controversy on the Natural Immortality of the Human 
Soul, and also the Literature of the Controversy, see Dr. Noah Porter's Appen- 
dix to Ueberweg's History of Philosophy. Vol. II, pp. SYl-SVS, See also Dr. 
Ezra Abbott's Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Titles 2114-2129 in- 
clusive. 

For the Bibliography of the Unitarian Controversy in New England, see the Appendix 
to H. M. Dexter's Congregationalism as seen in its Literature. The list of the 
titles extends to the year 1879. Chap. VI of 0. B. Frothingham's Transcen- 
dentalism in New England conteins a brief account of the rise of New England 
Unitarianism, See also " Historical Introduction " in Sprague's Annals of the 
Unitarian Pulpit, and, for review articles on both sides, Poole's Index, pp. 
1340, 1341. 

On the Trinitarian Controversy in England during the last years of the Seventeenth 
Century, and the first years of the Eighteenth, see Hunt's History of Religious 
Thought in England from the Reformation etc, VoL II, pp. 200-221, and 
Vol. Ill, pp. 20-23. 



118 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



APPENDIX TO PART FIRST OF THE ENCYCLOPJIDIA. 



THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THEOLOGICAL 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

F. Zyro, Revision der christL-theologiscti. Encycklopadik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 3, p. 689, 
and Hagenbach's art. in Herzog, Eucykl., vol. Iv. 

The encyclopaedia of a science as a whole can only come into 
being after the science has been rounded into a kvkXo^ ; and Theo- 
logical Encyclopaedia, accordingly, could not originate before the- 
ology had been an organism of various departments. The begin- 
nings of this science were apparent in the Church, however, at quite 
an early period, though rather in connexion with other branches of 
theological study, than as a distinct subject of inquiry. Their most 
natural expression Avas found in connexion with practical theology. 
The installation of a clergyman in his office, would involve, in ad- 
dition to remarks relating to its particular duties, the necessity of 
pointing out the kinds of knowledge and ability required. Chry- 
Beginnings of sostom (Trepi leQCjavvrjg) already furnishes hints as to 
theoiogica^ en^ ^j^^^ would be proper qualifications for the servant of 
Chrysostom. God, in the matter of scientific acquirements, as well as 
with respect to his religious and moral character, adding many 
beautiful reflections on the manifold gifts required for a worthy 
administration of the spiritual office (Books v and vi).^ Augustine 
likewise (De doctrina Christiana) indicates the scientific acquire- 
ments needed for the exposition of the Scriptures and the duties 
Qualifications of the pulpit, among which he already places a knowl- 
^^, ording^^^*^to ^^E^ ^^ ^^® languages in which the Bible was originally 
Augustine. written; and he recommends, as helps, the use of the 
Septuagint and the old Latin (Itala) versions. He also insists that 
natural sciences, e. g., natural history, botany, etc., should be ad- 
mitted into the course of study, but only so far as they can aid in ex- 

^ The passage in v, 5, is remarkable, as already distinguishing between the empiric 
and the cultivated minister, and between the diiferent degrees of obligation devolving 
on them, "^gte toTc ao<po)Tspoi^ fidXTiov tj rolg o.fia'&eaTFpoig /uei^cov 6 irhvog. Ovdi yap 
VTzep Tuv avTuv rj l^rjjiia a/ieXovGL Tovroig kukeLvoi^, d/lAd tooovtov avrrj 7r?.ei(ov, onov 
Kol TJjc KTTjaecj^ kKarepac to fieaov. KaKsivoic fiev ovS' uv kytcaXeaeu nq, prj6ev u^inv 
Inyov Tcapexovcjiv ovtol 6'e el jirj (leL^ova tt]^ ^o^VC, VC aTravrec exovai nepl avTuv, an 
npndepoiev, iro'X'ka Tzapa izavruv eKSTai to, syKX^^fxara, (ed. Tauchn., p. 66). Comp. 
Neander, Der heil. Chrysost., i, 5Y, sq^. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 119 

plaining the Scriptures. The writings of the Greeks and Romans 
should receive judicious attention, and dialectics should be mas- 
tered. Rhetoric, and its employment in sacred eloquence are con- 
sidered in Book iv, which may be regarded as an essay on Christian 
homiletics. The work of Ambrose (De Officiis Ministrorum), is, on 
the contrary, rather morally edifying than scientific. 

The work, De Disciplina Scholarium, which is attributed to 
Boethius (the pupil of Augustine, f 525), belongs to a later age; 
but the De Institutione Divinarum Literarum of M. Aurelius Cas- 
siodorus, which follows the precedent of Augustine in urging the 
study of the Scriptures, and indicating a method for that work, is 
deserving of attention (0pp., ed. Garet, Rouen, 1679, and Venice, 
1729, 2 vols, fol., p. 537, sqq.). It also recommends the study of 
the Church Fathers, the decisions of oecumenical councils, and Jo- 
sephus and Eusebius, and attaches importance to a knowledge of 
natural science. 

A sort of general (real) encyclopaedia, in which a place was as- 
signed to theoloa:y, was undertaken by Isidore of Seville ^^ ^ 

y ^•" ... *^ The Encyclo- 

(sixth and seventh centuries), in the work, Originum paedia of isi- 

sive Etymologiarum libri xx. He also wrote instruc- ^^^^' 
tions for monks and clergymen, which, however, are, like those of 
Ambrose, of a more practical than scientific character. More, 
though still a very moderate, stress, is laid upon the scientific ele- 
ment, by Rabanus (Hrabanus) Maurus, the abbot of Fulda, in his 
work, De Clericorum Institutione, (in the first half of the ninth 
century); but even he was far in advance of his age.^ In the third 
book he urges the study of the Scriptures, and especially of their 
hidden meaning, and also familiarity with the liberal arts and with 
preaching, generally in harmony with Augustine. In the Middle 
Ages the mystic and schoolman, Hugo of St. Victor, (f 1141), 
published the Didascalion (Eruditio didascalica), a work ^^^ cidasca- 
which obtained for him the honourable epithet of Did- lionofHugost. 
ascalus. The work was designed to embrace an outline 
of the whole circle of studies preparatory to the higher theology, 
and fell into two principal parts, the first of which (books i-iii) 
contained a methodology of the secular sciences (propaedeutics), and 
the second (iv-vi) an historical introduction to the books of the 
Bible and the ecclesiastical writings, besides a methodology of 
Scripture study.^ The Dominican sub-prior, Vincent of Beauvais, 
(Bellovacensis, f about 1264), did meritorious work for encyclo- 

^ Comp. the biography by Kunstmann (Mayence, 1841), p. 55, sqq. 0pp., ed. Col- 
venerius, 6 vols., fol, Cologne, 1627. 

^ See Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor, p. 96, sqq. 



120 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

paedia and methodology as a whole, in his Speculum Doctrinale, and 
added useful hints for the study of theology, generally agreeing 
with Augustine and the school of St. Victor.^ Toward the close of 
the Middle Ages John Gerson (De Reformatione Theologiae)^ and 
Nicholas of Clemange (De Studio Theologico) ^ furnished practical 
hints on the study of theology. 

While encyclopaedia thus connected itself with practical theol- 
ogy, it could readily combine with the Introduction to the Study 
of the Bible. When, therefore, the latter regained in the time 
of the Reformation the independence of which the influence of 
scholasticism had long deprived it, the opportunity was given 
for discussing the new culture needed to adapt theologians to 
the character of the age. It was improved by Erasmus, in con- 
nexion with the publication of his New Testament. He pref- 
Erasmus's pref- aced the second edition of 1519 with his Ratio seu 
tionofthfeNew ^ethodus Compendio perveniendi ad veram Theolo- 
Testameut. giam, an essay which was soon after (1522, Basle) given 
to the public, in a somewhat enlarged form, as an independent 
work,* and which after subsequent republications and revisions,^ be- 
came the basis of similar undertakings. Erasmus determines the 
proper aim of theological study to be that the learning acquired in 
a pious spirit and with prayer should exercise influence upon the 
student's personal experience, and, so to speak, be moulded and 
transformed into life, hence, that the Christian and moral cul- 
ture should keep pace in all respects with the scientific. He speci- 
fies as particularly important the study of the Latin, Greek, and 
Hebrew, the latter of which had seemed necessary even to Augus- 
tine, though he was not personally well acquainted with it. Dia- 
lectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, and music are considered useful to the 
theologian; but also, for interpreting the Scriptures, natural phi- 
losophy, cosmography, and astronomy. On the other hand, he cen- 
sures an excessive regard for Aristotle and scholastic philosophy, 
however useful such studies might be for preparatory practice. 

With reference to dogmatic studies, he recommends that the 
student should personally make a collection of passages from the 

^ Comp. Schlosser, Yincenz von Beauvais, Frankfort, 1819, vol. ii, p. 240. The 
teachings of Yincent esp., p. 257, sqq. 

^ 0pp., T. I., with which comp. Epp. diiae ad Studentes Collegii Navarrae, etc. 

^ In d'Acherii Spic, i, 473, sq. (Staudlin, Gesch. der theol. Wissenschaften, i, pp. 
9-14). 

* See vol. V of his collected works, Basle, 1540. 

^ By Halbauer (1724) and Semler (1782). The work of Jacob Latorniis of Lieven 
(De trium linguarum et studii theologici ratione, 1519), written against Erasmus, ex. 
perienced no such revivifications. 



THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE REFORMATION. 121 

Scriptures and the Fathers, and arrange them into a definite sys- 
tem. The theologian should be thoroughly familiar with the Scrip- 
tures, so as even to be able to repeat them from memory; but this 
result will not be attained by a parrot-like rehearsing of passages; 
a living acquaintance with the Word and a profound penetration of 
its mysteries are necessary to this end. Many correct and sensible 
thoughts are added, relating to the method of study, the use of 
commentaries and other books, etc. He gives the first place among 
the Christian Fathers to Origen. The love of fruitless disputation 
is to be avoided ; for it is " not merely from the syllogism, but 
rather from the life, that the theologian receives his attestation." 
The work of Erasmus, however, is no longer adequate to the 
demands made upon encyclopaedia in the present age, 
beautiful and appropriate as much of its matter is work of Eras- 
found to be. It is impossible that it should be adequate, °^"^' 
for the theology of which it furnishes a sketch, was itself only be- 
ginning to emerge from chaos and assume a definite shape. Under 
such circumstances the scholarly author named much that is no 
longer included in encyclopaedia, being relegated to the history of 
the canon, to patristics, to the life of Christ, to exegesis, dogmatics, 
or ethics. But despite this fact, the little book may still be read 
with profit. 

Among the reformers the learned Melanchthon would naturally be 
the first to feel moved by his own inclinations and the obligations of 
his station, to direct the adherents of the new school into the right 
course of study. His Brevis ratio discendae theologiae, 
limited to three folio pages, ^ breathes the Protestant of Meianch- 
spirit in recommending an intimate acquaintance with the ^^' 
Bible as of primary importance. With an almost undue preference 
Melanchthon places the Epistle to the Romans at the head of the list 
of exegetical studies, assigning to it the service of introducing the 
theologian to the body of St. Paul's teaching, which, in turn, is to 
conduct the learner back to the teachings of our Lord. The Gospel 
by St. John is to close the cycle as the Epistle to the Romans be- 
gins it, so that the doctrines of faith and justification may constitute 
the beginning and the end of the scriptural theology of Christianity. 
The 'New Testament is to be completed and its loci communes to be 
systematized, in order to throw light upon the contents of the Old 
Testament, the study of which is to follow. Melanchthon also 
recommends the study of the Fathers with that of the Bible, but 
assigns to Origen, whose allegorical mode of interpretation he con- 
demns, a much lower place than is allowed him by Erasmus, while 
* In the Basle ed. of his works (1541), vol. iii. pp. 287-89. 



123 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

he exalts Augustine with a certain degree of favoritism. He de- 
mands, however, and with entire propriety, that practice shall be 
added to study, and makes the cultivation of style obligatory on the 
religious teacher, to which end the study of the classics is above all 
recommended. Nor should philosophy be slighted, as is customary 
with many who are ignorant of its character ; but care is to be 
taken that worldly wisdom be not substituted for the teachings of 
Christ, or the ethics of society (politics) for the ethics of Chris- 
tianity. 

Although the outward form of such guides gave them but little 
claim to the name of scientific encyclopaedias, they yet contained 
indications of a newly awakened scientific spirit, and involved the 
elements of an encyclopaedia which should be adequate for its needs. 
Accordingly, a pupil of Melanchthon, Theobald Thamer, who subse- 
quently separated from the evangelical Church, published an Adhor- 
A^v, * tatio ad theolosiae studium in academia Marbure^ensi, 

The Adhorta- & ^ ' 

tio of Theobald 1543, in which he welcomes the theology of Protestant- 
amer. ^^^ ^^ ^ glorious product of tlfe times, in contrast with 

the earlier fiaratoPioyla, and particularly recommends the study of 
the Bible, of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and of the vernacular as 
well, the latter for the sake of preaching. To these he adds natural 
science, in order that the Bible may be correctly understood and 
applied, when it treats of the works of God in nature ; and eth- 
ics, rhetoric, dialectics, and history. He characterizes the study 
of theology as difficult, but encourages students not to be repelled 
from it on that account, but rather to make greater effort. (Com- 
pare A. Neander, Theobald Thamer, der Reprasentant und Yor- 
ganger moderner Geistesrichtung in dem Reformationszeitalter. 
Berlin, 1842.) 

The age immediately following the Reformation contented it- 
self with mechanically recapitulating, and constructing far-fetched 
expositions of, what its predecessor had provided, or with reviv- 
ing the former scholasticism, instead of seeking to rear an organic 
intellectual edifice upon the given basis and out of the existing 
materials. 

David Chytrseus at Rostock,^ a disciple of Melanchthon, and 
Jerome Weller,^ a pupil of Luther and inmate of his home, pub- 
lished instructions closely harmonizing with those of their great 

^ Orat. de studio theol. recte inchoando, (1557,) and Regulae studiorum seu de 
ratione discendi in. pvaecipuis artibus recte instituenda. Lips., 1565. Comp. Schuetzii 
Vita Dav. Chytraei, (Hamb., 1720-28, 3 vols.,) lib. i, p. 171, sq. ; Pelt, Encykl, p. 51; 
Krabbe Chytraeus, pp. 50, 51. 

^ Consilium de theologiae studio recte constituendo, Norimb., 1565. 



LUTHERAN AND REFORMED ENCYCLOPEDIA. 123 

masters. In the seventeenth century the great dogmatical Johann 
Gerhard published an encyclopaedia, entitled Methodus 
studii theologici publicis praelectionibus in acad. Je- paedia of John 
nensi a 1617 exposita, (1st ed., 1620, 2d ed., 1622, 3d ^^^^^^^• 
ed., posthumous, Jena, 1654.) He demands adequate preliminary 
studies in language and philosophy (Aristotle's especially), and af- 
terwards a theological course of five years, three of which should be 
devoted almost exclusively to the Holy Scriptures. In the third 
year attention should be directed to questions in controversy be- 
tween Koman Catholics and the Reformed, while the fourth should 
be divided between such studies and practice in preaching ; and not 
before the fifth (!) year were Church History and the writings of 
the fathers, the schoolmen, and Luther, to receive attention.^ 

In the Reformed Church,^ Bullinger (f 1575) wrote a Ratio 
studii theologici, which is distinguished by sound practical judg- 
ment, and affords admirable methodological hints, reaching to the 
minutest details — among other things, to the diet of the student. 
The naturalist and man of multifarious learning, Conrad Gessner, 
published a general encyclopaedia, the last book of which is devoted 
to theology.^ Andrew Gerhard, of Ypres (Hyperius), professor at 
Marburg, also wrote a Theologus seu de ratione studii ^^^ Theoio us 
theologici (libri iv).* The latter work affords the first of Andrew 
indications of a future division into departments, the ^^ ^^ ' 
book treating first of exegetical, next of systematic, and finally of 
practical theology, the last in connexion wil:h historical ; but no 
attempt is made to clearly distinguish the several branches from 
each other or give them suitable names, nor yet to apprehend and 
describe them in their relations to each other. The material already 

^ Pelt, Encykl., p. 52, Among Lutheran writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries the following deserve mention : J. Andreae, Oratt. de studio sacrarum lite- 
rarum, Lips., 1567 ; N. Selnekker, Notatio de studio theol. et ratione discendi doctrinam 
coelestem, Lips,, 1579, Abr. Calov, Isagoge ad s. theol., Vitemb., 1652, 85; Das 
gute Leben eines rechtschaffenen Dieners Gottes von J. V. Andreae, (copied as a 
poetical supplement in Herder's Briefe.) A closer examination of the above works is 
found in Pelt, p. 53, sq. 

2 Many elements are scattered through the works of Zwingle, (the very history of 
his life is a living encyclopaedia.) Conip. his work, Der Hirt, etc., 1524, (ed. Schul- 
thess and Schuler, vol. i, p. 631.) Respecting Bullinger, comp. his letters to his son 
Henry (on the study of theology) in Pestalozzi, Heinrich Bullinger, p. 594, sqq. 

3 Pandectarum universalium Conr. Gessneri liber ultimus de theologia, (Tiguri, 1549.) 
Comp. Hanhart, Conr. Gessner, (Winterthiir, 1824,) p. 160, sqq. 

4 Balse, 1572, 82. The first ed, (Basle, 1556) bears the title De recte formando 
theologiae studio. It should not be confounded with Methodus theologiae, etc., Basle, 
1567, the latter being a systematic theology and by no means a methodology, as the 
title would suggest. 



124 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

becomes unmanageable because of its abundance, the whole of bibli- 
cal and ecclesiastical dogmatics being discussed in the limited com- 
pass of the book, and likewise other matters, which belong more 
properly to criticism and hermeneutics. The work is, however, 
characterized by sound judgment, which looks upon learning as an 
aid to true piety, and directs attention to the connexion between 
theology and the Church. 

The dogmatist Joh. Heinr. Alsted, wrote a work in eight books 

mr- ,r xx. ^ cntitlcd, Mcthodus sacrosanctae theolo2:iae (Hanov., 

The Methodus ' , . . 

of John Henry 1623, 4) ; to this he prefixed Praecognita in two books, 
^ ® ' which afford a noteworthy review of the science, as 

wholly governed by a new scholasticism.^ The second book (De 
theologiae studio recte formando) alone demands notice in this 
connexion, as treating of the object of theological study, which 
is made to consist in the promotion of the glory of the triune 
God, and in the working out of man's salvation, together with the 
perfecting of his nature. A distinction is made between the the- 
ology of the schools and the practical theology of the Church, and 
the advice is given to students, " Scholasticam theologiam ex pro- 
fesso et semper evolves, et auctores, qui illam scriptis comprehend- 
erunt, tibi reddes quam familiarissimos." The period of study 
should be neither too extended nor too brief (although no limit is 
fixed), and special attention should be given to prayer, the study of 
the Scriptures, and a godly walk. Detailed prescriptions concern- 
ing this militia Christi are given. Among the requisite natural 
qualifications the author includes sound health, a clear and flexible 
voice, a well-organized brain, and a good bodily constitution, to 
which a good memory, etc., must be added. 

Among preparatory requisites he reckons acquaintance with the 
vernacular (" dicunt theologi nostri : a preacher should not make 
use of town-clerks' German") for the study of which he recom- 
mends, with assured judgment, Luther's version of the Bible ; and 
to the mother-tongue he adds Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The re- 
lation between philosophy and theology is stated to be such that 
they can never reasonably come into conflict with each other. Logic 
is considered a prime necessity, and after it physics and mathemat- 
ics (which are included under philosophy), and also metaphysics and 
practical philosophy ; nor should the theologian be ignorant of ju- 

^ Mention is made, for instance, in the first book, in addition to the theologia falsa, 
of a theologia archetypa, (quae est sapientia indubitata rerum divinarum,) theologia 
ectypa, (in which the archetypa is actualized,) theologia unionis in Christo, theologia 
visionis in coelis, (which includes the theologia angelorum,) theoligia viatorum, (the 
theology of the present world,) etc. 



SCHOOLS OF SAUMUR AND BASLE. 125 

rispriidence and medical science. Upon this follow a guide to the 
study of the Scriptures and a tabular view of the contents of the 
several books, together with the entire dogmatic locus de scriptura 
sacra ; farther, a grammar of the Bible, hermeneutics, and rhetoric 
(on the figurative language of the Scriptures), the whole in a very 
prolix and artificial style ; also history of the canon and other mat- 
ters pertaining to the science of Introduction, biblical topography, 
archaeology, chronology, and mingled with typology, a brief char- 
acterization of the different books of Scripture, and, finally, a few 
additional words on dogmatics (loci communes) and practical the- 
ology (paedia theologica, declamatio, disputatio theologica, and ex- 
ercitatio ecclesiastica). 

An Encyclopaedia philosophise (Herborn, 1630, 2 vols, fol.) and 
an Encyclopaedia omnium scientiarum (ibid., 1630, and Lugd. Bat., 
1640, 4 vols, fol.) by the same author are in existence, in which 
vol. ii. p. 1555, sqq., is devoted to theological (real) encyclopaedia 
(theologia naturalis, catechetica, didactica polemica, theol. casuum, 
theol. prophetica, and moralis). 

The school of Saumur was distinguished in the Reformed Church 
by the mildness of its spirit and its unbiassed judgment 
in theological matters, as compared with the rigid dog- ans of saumur 
matism and formalism of which Alsted was a represent- 
ative.^ It produced the dissertations of Stephen Gaussen,^ in w^hich 
we occasionally observe an active, youthful disposition, joined to a 
manly energy sharpened by the salt of a biting wit ; mental quali- 
ties which render more enjoyable the heart-felt, childlike piety 
which is apparent. Much that is here laid down would still be ap- 
plicable in our day. 

The writings of the theologians J. L. Frei and Samuel Werenf els of 
Basle, in the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eight- 
eenth centuries, breathe a spirit kindred to that of the above work. 
The Meletemata de officio doctoris Christiani (1711-15, four disser- 
tations that deserve to be better known) by the former resolve the 
activity of the Christian teacher, both academical and parochial, 
into the three functions of interpreting the Scriptures, explaining 
the creed, and confuting opponents, thus dividing theological science 
into exegesis, dogmatics, and polemics. This work contains many 
correct ideas concerning the exposition of Scripture, the employ- 

* Comp. J. H. Heidegger, De ratione studiorum theol. Tur., 1690, 12mo,, a mere 
reprint of Bullinger and of works on Introduction by various authors. 

^ Stephan. Grausseni dissertationes : 1. De studii theologici ratione; 2. De natura 
theologiae ; 3. De ratione concionandi ; 4. De utilitate philosophiae in theologia ; 
6. De recto use clavium. Ultraj., 16'78; 6 ed. cur. J. J. Rambach, Hal. 1726. 



126 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ment of reason on theological questions,^ the relation of dogmatics 

to ethics, etc. The Opuscula of Werenfels,^ though he did not 

write an encyclopaedia in the proper sense, likewise present much 

that is adapted to lead the young theologian into the right way. 

This is especially true of the sixteenth dissertation, De scopo doc- 

toris theologi, which contains many a golden counsel, not only for 

the future teacher of theological science, but also for ministers of 

the word. 

Within the bounds of the Lutheran Church a twofold opposition 

was brouffht to bear upon the scholastic spirit which 
Encyclopaedia ^ ^ i \ o 

in the Luther- had again become powerful — on the one hand irom the 

an Church. practically pious tendency of Spener, and on the other 
from the liberal scientific spirit whose representative was George Ca- 
lixtus. Both tendencies aided in introducing a new period for the- 
ological learning, and, accordingly, for theological encyclopaedia. 
In the Apparatus theologicus,^ which was designed to be a great 
theological dictionary covering the whole ground of the science, 
Calixtus leads theological study back to its exegetical and historical 
basis, from which it had again gradually removed, and endeavours 
to compose the quarrel of the humanists and the realists (gramma- 
rians and barbarians). Philip Jac. Spener wrote several works which 
come under our notice. The Pia desideria and the Theologische 
Bedenken frequently refer to the needs of the young theologian ; 
but his views upon this question are principally found in the preface 
to the tables compiled by him from Danhauer's Hodosophie, written 
in 1690, and published under the title De impedimentis studii 
theologici.* 

Among preparatory sciences, philosophy is rated far lower by 
Spener's con- Spener than by other theologians, a prejudice that may 
tributions to be excused in view of the, spirit that pervaded the phi- 
cyciopgedia. losophy of the time. This prejudice subsequently be- 

^ Comp. Smith's Hagenbach : Hist. Doctrines, ii, p. 464. Pelt. Encykl., p. 53, calls 
attention to the fact that the Reformed theologians especially discussed the application 
of philosophy to theology, and in that connexion elucidated many questions of import- 
ance to theological encyclopaedia. Comp. also Al. Schweizer, Glaubenslehre der 
evang.-ref. Kirche, Zurich, 1844. 

^ Sam. Werenfelsii Opuscula theolog., philosoph. et philologica. Balse, 1728, 
2 vols., 4to. ; 1*782, 3 vols., 8vo. Also J. Ch. Beck (f 1785), who prefaces his Synop- 
sis institutionum universae Theologiae, Basle, 1765, with a brief encyclopedia and 
methodology. 

2 Helmst., 1628, and by his son, enlarged from the MS., 1661, 4. Comp. Henke, 
Georg Calixt, und seine Zeit, p. 420, sqq. 

^ Comp. Hossbach, Ph. J. Spener u. seine Zeit, i, p. 290, sqq. New ed. (Berlin, 1861), 
by Schweder, p. 211, sqq. 



THE WORK OF SPENER. 127 

came more apparent, in connexion with a pietistic empiricism, 
which falsely based itself on the authority of Spener. Philology, 
too, although its utility was recognized, was regarded by him from 
a too restricted point of view, in consequence of which he would 
not allow so wide and unrestrained a range to the study of so-called 
profane writers as was conceded by Erasmus and Melanchthon. Sa- 
cred philology alone, in its immediate bearing upon exegesis, 
received the recognition it deserved as an important auxiliary to 
theological science. He termed exegesis the "architect, who ar- 
ranges all the remaining parts, and from whom they derive 
nearly all their ground and material." Upon the basis of exegesis 
dogmatics should be reared ; but in harmony with his mild practi- 
cal tendency he was less partial to scholastic quibbling and harsh 
polemics. He did full justice to Church history, though he recom- 
mended the thorough examination of its sources only to such stu- 
dents as might intend to reach the higher grades of learning. 

Ethics, which he regarded as having the same importance as dog- 
matics, in this agreeing with Calixtus, should in like manner, he 
thought, be drawn from the holy Scriptures. Homiletics, on the 
other hand, whose deep foundations he suspected from the scriptural 
teaching, but which he was unable to clearly apprehend in a scien- 
tific way, seemed to him " one of the chief hindrances to theological 
study," while catechetics held a higher place in his estimation. At 
all events, to Spener belongs the inestimable honour of having not 
only restored to the science the union with the conditions of actual 
life, from which it had been separated, but also of hav- yai^e of spe- 
ing led the way to a new state of the science itself, ^^^'^ ^^^^• 
through his efforts to secure a connected course of exegetical study, 
which, contrary to the spirit of the Reformation, had again been ne- 
glected during an extended period.^ 

J. J. Breithaupt,'^ A. H. Francke,^ and Joachim Lange,^ followed 
in the footsteps of Spener. Of these, the first especially " combined 
genuine piety with elegant culture" (Pelt., p. 55), while the horta- 
tory element predominated with Francke, and a certain confusion 

' " Such exegetical lectures as were still sustained in the universities of that period, 
confined themselves simply to the philological or polemical treatment of the more dif- 
ficult or controverted passages." Hossbach, p. 304. 

"^ Exercitationes de studio theol. Hall., 1702. 

2 1. Definitio studii theologici, etc. Halle, 1708 ; 2. Idea studiosi theologiae oder 
Abbildung eines der Theologie Beflissenen, ibid., 1717; 3. Methodus studii theologici, 
ibid., 1723 ; Timotheus, zura Fiirbilde alien studiosis theologiae. Comp. Guericke, 
A. H. Francke (Halle, 1827), p. 290, sqq. 

* Institutiones studii theologici literariae. Hal., 1723, and De genuina studii theolog. 
praecipue thetici indole ac methodo, ibid. 1712, 4to. Comp. Staudlin ii, p. 309. 



138 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of ideas is manifest in Lange. On the other hand the two able 
Encyclopaedia men, Christ. Matthias Pf aff, chancellor at Tubingen, and 
pfaff"^and Bud- *^^^* ^^^^^ Buddaeus, at Jena, occupied an intermediate 
daeus. position between Pietism and the learned theology of 

the schools, and their works present a more definite arrangement of 
the several branches, in their outward structure. Exegetical, dog- 
matic, historical and practical theology, and the subdivisions, polem- 
ical, thetical, patristic, etc., were distinguished by name, and their 
nature and relation to the whole of the science were described, 
though the order in which they are arranged is not the same with 
the two writers. Pfaff ' correctly assigns the first place to exeget- 
ical theology, while Buddaeus ' places immediately after the pre- 
paratory studies, dogmatics, symbolics, patristics, ethics, ecclesias- 
tical law. Church-history, and polemics, and introduces exegesis at 
the end. The feature is common to both, however, that they com- 
bine with encyclopaedia an extended history of the literature which 
is stated on the title-page of Pfaff, certainly a meritorious feature, 
since it provided for an existing want. But encyclopaedia itself was 
thereby exposed to the danger of becoming a mere bibliographical 
guide, or at least of being so largely bibliographic that its leading 
object could no longer be conveniently accomplished; this, too, at a 
time when encyclopaedia had scarcely attained to a measure of in- 
dependence, after dissolving its accidental connexion with other 
branches of learning. The excessive importance attached to the 
department of literary history manifested itself, as was to be ex- 
pected, in the Einleitung in die Theologischen Wissenschaften, by 
J. G. Walch (Jena, 1753), and evidences of its presence have not 
been wanting in several valuable works of more recent times. 

The history of science reveals certain highly endowed spirits, 
whose rays stream forth in different directions in order to throw 
light upon the fields that lie extended to the view. Such was the 
Contributions Chancellor Lorenz von Mosheim,^ who became eminent 
of Mosheimand in the development of ethics and homiletics, no less than 
cyclopaedia. ^^ Church history, though less so with regard to ency- 

^ Introductio in historiam theol. literariam, Tiibing., 1Y24, 3 vols., 4to. 

* Isagoge historico-theol. ad theologiam universam singulasque ejus partes, Lips., 
1727, 2 vols., 4to. Hossbach, p. 382, says that this work "is the product of profound 
and comprehensive learning, and of enlightened and tolerant theological views, and 
far superior to all former works of this character." Comp. also Danz, p. 129 ; 
Staudlin, p. 311. 

^ F. Liicke, Narratio de Jo. Laur. Moshemio, Gott., 1837, 4to. It is to be observed 
that Mosheim, with his sound historical judgment, was the first to draw the line of 
distinction between the work of the scientific theologian and that of the preacher, 
though he may have gone too far in demanding a separate training for the two (p. 29). 



THE INFLUENCE OF HERDER. 129 

clopaedia. The Kurze Anweisung, die Gottesgelalirtheit Yernunf- 
tig zii Erlernen (published by his son-in-law, Windheim, Helmst., 
1756, 63) illustrates the clear, benevolent, gentle mind of its author, 
but bears the marks of too great haste. In the arrangement of the 
several branches {e. g., in placing dogmatics at the head), it rests 
too little upon thoroughly comprehended principles, to possess great 
importance in comparison with such predecessors as have already 
been mentioned. The higher merit of having introduced a new ele- 
ment, the critical, into theological science, and of having thereby put 
new life into encyclopaedia, which might otherwise have become a 
mere dead aggregate of bibliographical knowledge, belongs to John 
Solomon Semler. His criticism frequently degenerated into h3'per- 
criticism, and his questioning spirit into scepticism; but it is certain- 
ly unjust to charge him with entertaining hostility to religion and 
Christianity. Theology is indebted to him for much of stimulating 
influence, if for but little of assured results. His works, encyclo- 
paedic and methodological, as Avell as others,^ failed to receive a cor- 
dial reception however, because of their involved descriptions, and 
the author's difficult and heavy style in the use of both German and 
Latin. The essence of Semler's writings should be extracted into 
a monograph, and thus a correct estimate of his merits might be 
brought into a convenient form, within the reach of a frequently 
ungrateful posterity. A similar want of arrangement is apparent 
in the work of the Reformed theologian, S. Mursinna (f 1795),- who 
first introduced the term "encyclopaedia" into theology, although 
it had been previously employed by jurists (Putter) and medical 
scholars (Boerhave) in connexion with their respective sciences. 

It was reserved, however, for the broadly cultured and versatile 
J. Gottfried Herder, to impress himself with incalculable (.^eat influence 
energy upon the theological youth and the earnest men of Herder upon 
of his own and future ages, by the exercise of an influ- ®° ^^^' 
ence which was stimulating in manifold directions, exciting to both in- 
tellect and feeling, every- where urging the attainment of the high- 
est ends, and as exalted above all meanness as it was free from the 
control of timid prejudice. A genuine supernaturalist and also 
rationalist, both orthodox and heterodox, or, if it be preferred, 

^ Versuch einer nahern Anleitung zu niitzlichem Fleisse in der ganzen Gottesgelehr- 
sarakeit, etc., Halle, 1837; Institutio brevier ad liberalem eruditionem tlieologicam, 
ibid., 1765, 2 vols.; Institutio ad doctrinam Christianam liberaliter discendara, ibid,, 
1774 (rather a systematic theology than an encyclopgedia) ; Yersuch einer freiern 
theologischen Lehrart, ibid., 1777. The title "Encyclopaedia and Methodology" came 
into currency at this time. It appears in an anonymous work (Leips., 1 778) cited by 
Danz, p. 134, and somewhat earlier in the works of Mursinna, Robert, Yogel ; eomp. ibid. 

^ Primae linese encyclopaediae theoL, Halle, 1784, ed. 2, 1708 ; comp. Pelt, p. 57. 
9 



180 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

neither, versed in Oriental mysticism and likewise in the mysteries 
of human nature and of human history, grasping, with a magnifi- 
cent enthusiasm, every thing in which the genius of a pure human- 
ity is portrayed, and jDunishing with noble indignation all that is 
shameful, deceitful, vapid, or sickly — he was thoroughly fitted to 
aid the struggling and ambitious mind in reaching the path over 
which, with trusty staff in hand, it must pass. The remark has 
frequently been made that Herder's efforts were rather stimulating 
to others, than productive of assured gains which might be stored 
in everlasting garners. But this is precisely what was needed; and 
if much that, with too venturous courage, he sought to establish 
has been already overthrown, it is to be hoped that, God willing, 
the spirit of profound investigation, and the clear, independent 
habit of thought belonging to that more beautiful age — the flourish- 
ing period of " German manners and German art " — which he aided, 
in connexion with others, to introduce, shall nevermore be lost.^ 

It must be confessed that the Letters upon the Study of Theol- 
DefectsofHer- ogj (Weimar, 1V80 ; 2d ed., 1785, 4 vols.),' by no 
der's Briefe. means fulfil the scientific purpose of a theological en- 
cyclopaedia in the strict sense. They adopt the light tone of social 
intercourse and friendly conversation; and the author enters too 
largely into the discussion of the different subjects themselves (e. g., 
of his favorite theme, Hebrew poetry), to admit of a clear demon- 
stration of the formal inter-connexion of the various branches. All 
that he says, however, tends toward that connexion, and serves to 
illuminate with color the picture which a stricter method places be- 
fore us in bare outlines. The smaller work by Herder, Anwendung 
dreier akademischer Lehrjahre, has more of the form of a proper 
methodology and introduction; and with this should be connected 
his Theophron, and his Gutachten tiber die Vorbereitung junger 
Geistlichen, as also the Provinzialblatter.^ 

In 1791, soon after the first publicati-on of Herder's Letters (1785), 
No self Intro ^^ ^^^® ^^^ thorough work by the judicious J. A. Nos- 
ductiontoThe- selt appeared, which has been improved by A. H. Nie- 
o ogy. meyer, and put into the form of a text-book, that still 

* Comp. J. G. Muller, in the Herder Album (Weimar, 1845), and Bunsen, Hippoly- 
tus, i, p. 264: "Hei^der made the transition from Romanic negation to Germanic af- 
firmation, and began to build anew. Himself a theologian, he generalized Semitic 
tradition and inspiration into Japhetic science and philosophy. Religion and language 
are to him the original manifestations of the Divine life in man." Comp. also the 
work by Werner, adduced below (among the monographs). 

^ In the Sammtliche Werke zur Religion u. Theologie (original ed. by Cotta, Tiib., 
1808), vols, ix and x. 

^ The whole in vol. x of the Religion u. Theologie. 



SUCCESSORS OF HERDER. 131 

renders useful service.' The Einleitung in die theologischen Wis- 
senschaften (Leips., 1794, 2 vols.), from the pen of the learned G. J. 
Planck, is likewise still esteemed, because of its historical matter 
and good judgment, although its methodological value is but small. '^ 
In like manner, the encyclopaedias which have since appeared in 
considerable number deserve notice, rather because of single obser- 
vations of value, or because of the soundness of view displayed in 
them, than because of a clear presentation of the edifice of theolog- 
ical science, or of the connexion existing between its parts. J. Fr. 
Kleuker, who was first inspired by Herder, but was afterwards alien- 
ated from him through a dislike of the rationalizing tendencies of 
the century, with which Herder was in sympathy, wrote a Grundriss 
einer Encyclopadie (Hamb., 1800, 1801, 2 vols.), in which he sought 
to promote the restoration of a theology possessed of vigorous 
faith. The strange forms of expression in which he often clothed 
his ideas (in other works as well as this) gave him widespread 
notoriety as a " foggy brain ; " but he must be credited with having 
energetically uttered many profound ideas which were subsequently 
brought to greater clearness by other minds. ^ 

•A higher and more ideal point of view from which to compre- 
hend theology and encyclopaedia, is occupied by K. Daub in an ar- 
ticle in the Studien, published by Kreuzer and himself.* To crude 
empiricism he opposes a holy enthusiasm for the things of God, 
and to mere learning a childlike, contemplative disposition, which 
alone is able to penetrate into the mysteries of religious faith. The 
writer, influenced by his speculative views, does not, however, 

^ Anweisung zur Bildung angehender Theologen, 3d ed., Halle, 1818, 19, 3 vols. 
Niemeyer has expressed his own views relating to theological studies and methods of 
instruction in the Anti-Wilibald (a memorial, issued in connexion with the jubilee of 
G. Ch. Knapp), Halle, 1825; in the Zuschrift an Theologie Studierende liber die Yor- 
bereitung des theol. Examens u, die Benutzung d. Candidaten-jahre, Halle, 1801 ; in 
Grundriss d. unmittelbaren Vorbereitungswissenschaften zur Fuhrung des Predigt- 
amtes, Halle, 1803; and in the Bibliothek fur Prediger, which he published in con- 
nexion with Wagnitz. 

"^ His smaller work, Grundriss der theol. Encyklopaedie, Gott., 1813, is (althougl- 
antiquated) better adapted to beginners. Among Encyclopaedias of this period comp 
L. Wachler, Grundriss einer Encykl. d. theol. Wissenschaften, Lemgo, 1795; J. F, A^ 
Thym, Theol. Encykl. u. Methodologie, Halle, 1797; J. A. H. Tittmann, Encykl. d. 
theol. Wissenschaften, Leips., 1798. With regard to these works comp. Pelt, p. 61. 
K. Ch. E. Schmidt, Grundriss, Jena, 1810 (Kantian); Sim. Erhardt, Vorlesungen tiber 
Theologie, Erlangen, 1810 (pervaded by Schelling's philosophy); J. E. Ch. Schmidt, 
Theol. Encykl., Giessen, 1811. 

^ Comp. H. Ratjen, J. H. Kleuker, Gott., 1 842, 8vo. 

* Theologie u. ihre Encykl. im Yerhaltniss zum akadem. Studium beider, etc., in 
Studien, vol. ii, pp. 1-69. 



13^ GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

regard faith simply as belief, but as an objective appreliension 
of matters that are too high for ordinary sense. With moral ear- 
nestness he combats both the clumsiness of obstinate bigotry and 
the fickleness of a trifling disposition, and draws with steady hand 
the portraiture of the true theologian; but he treats the necessity 
for a regeneration of theology by drawing prophetic outlines indic- 
ative of its future accomplishment, rather than by presenting an 
accurate survey of the actual state of the science. 

To perform this duty was the work of another mind. Friedrich 
Encyclopaedia Schleiermacher was the first to raise encyclopaedia to 
S^b ^"scWeier- ^^ independent position, and deliver it from the extra- 
macher. neous material, historical, and bibliographical elements 

in which it was involved, as well as to impress upon it the mark of 
the peculiar spirit which began to pervade theological science as a 
whole. This work was accomplished in the few pages of the Dar- 
stellung des theologischen Studiums (Berlin, 1811; Outline of the 
Study of Theology, Edinburgh, 1850). The purely formal charac- 
ter of the book attests an artistic spirit. It is a cartoon drawn by 
a steady hand, which only needs the pencil of a Herder to render it 
a grand and beautiful picture. While lacking this, it is matter for 
gratitude that the later and revised edition of 1830 contains hints, 
though few, for an easier understanding of a book which has the 
additional importance of having become the key to the entire sys- 
tem of Schleiermacher's theology, 

Encyclopsedia continued to be written in the iisua. ^^J, however, 
Encyclopaedia even after the Darstellung had appeared. Leonhard 
partlnheSth Bertholdt's Theologische Wissenschaftskunde, at any 
century. rate (Erlangen, 1821-22, 2 vols.), is no model of "archi- 

tectonic " procedure, however much importance the author may at- 
tach to that phrase, and however strongly he may urge the correct 
principle that " a science should be restricted to itself and not em- 
brace too much of foreign matter." Preliminary and auxiliary sci- 
ences occupy two thirds of the space in a work glutted with learned 
stuff, while its proper subject is discussed in the remaining third. 
The unfinished Encyclopaedia of G. S. Francke, (Altona, 1819,) gives 
evidence of greater regard for an organic arrangement of the dif- 
ferent branches of study ; but a " really scientific arrangement " 
seems to have been an undefined thought with the author, which 
was never clearly developed (Pelt, p. 65). K. F. Staudlin's Ency- 
klopaedia und Methodologie (Hanover, 1821) is combined with a his- 
tory of the dijBPerent theological sciences, and is more especially a 
work of historical reference. This is also true of the Encyklopsedia 
und Methodologie by J. T. L. Danz (Weimar, 1832), in which a 



SCHLEIERMACHER AND HIS METHOD. 133 

new arrangement of the contents and new appellations give evidence 
of a reorganizing purpose, but nevertheless suggest the question, 
"Did the author understand his ground and object?" It might be 
difficult for a stranger to find his way through "the labyrinth of lit- 
erary wealth " ^ 

The author of the present work,'' incited thereto by Schleier- 
macher, sought in its first edition (Leips., 1833) to so The present 
develop the principles of Schleiermacher, with not unim- "^'^"^^^ s^weier" 
portant modifications, that a somewhat empirical mind macher. 
might comprehend them, though not as yet familiar with logical 
discriminations — which is the case with most persons who approach 
the study of theology. His object was to lead on a transition from 
the method of the past to that which should be followed in the 
future. He sought to combine the practical aim of stimulating and 
encouraging with the scientific spirit, in following out which plan 
the point and connexion of ideas were not infrequently sacrificed to 
perspicuity,^ and the entire book received a subjective colouring 
that can only be understood from the immediate surroundings of the 
author, and from the design with which he taught. He was more 
concerned to convey a knowledge of the science than to aid mate- 
rially toward its further development. But on the first appearance 
of his book he saw himself overtaken by the advance of a new 
period in the form of an Encyclopaedia of the Theological 
Sciences, by K. Rosenkranz, Halle, 1831. This work Theological 
indicated the fact, which subsequent history has illus- encyclopaedia 
trated, that the Hegelian tendency considered itself spirit of Hegei- 
entitled to the privilege enjoyed by that of Schleier- ianism. 
macher, of opening for itself a victorious way through the newly 
cultivated regions of theology, and also that speculative philosophy, 
which Schleiermacher had separated from theology, was inclined 
to involve the latter in the mighty transformation of its character. 
The formal work of encyclopaedia was of inferior importance to the 
purpose of Rosenkranz however. He was more particularly con- 
cerned with the contents of theology, especially its speculative con- 
tents; and these he discussed in the spirit of that school, with life 

* Other works are, L. S. Jaspis, Hodegetik, Dresden, 1881 ; R. Konig, Yersuch einer 
kurzen Anleitung zum Studium der Theologie, Berne, 1830; A. F. Unger, Reden an 
kiinstige Geistliche, Leips., 1834 ; G. K. P. Hessenmiiller, Theol. Propaedeutik, ibid., 
1838, etc. 

^ The original German work of Hagenbach. 

^ This probably explains the charge of " rhetorical indefiniteness " raised by Harless, 
p. 20, and that of "lack of system," by Pelt, p. 69; but it likewise explains the en- 
comium spoken by others, and emphasized by Pelt, that it is "a perfect book for 
students." 



134 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and energy, so that he must be considered a skillful representative 
of the Hegelian tendency. In the second thoroughly revised edi- 
tion (Halle, 1845) Rosenkranz declares that "he has not hesitated 
to sacrifice even such developments of thought in the old edition, 
as had, by their novelty and also by the freshness of his youthful 
enthusiasm, secured no little favor for the book in its time." In the 
language of its author, the work "was written in the consciousness 
1) that the Christian religion, as being the religion of truth and lib- 
erty, is the absolute religion; 2) that Protestantism is not the dis- 
solving of religion into nihilism, but rather its develo23ment into 
an affirmative self -consciousness of its rational character; and 3) 
that the reconciliation of Christian theology with philosophy is 
possible." 

Other tendencies also became gradually apparent, as, the strictly 
Encyclopedia orthodox on the basis of the confessions, in G. C. A. 
as treated by jjarless' Tlieoloscische Encyclopaedia und Methodoloo^ie, 

Harless, Lange, ^ j r ^ o ? 

and Pelt. etc. (Nilremburg, 1837, Lutheran), which contains many 

excellent ideas, but allows too much of its limited space to the his- 
torical element ; the contrary, rationalistic tendency, in Lobegott 
Lano:e's Anleituno^ zum Studium der christl. Theoloo^ie nach den 
Grundsatzen des biblischen (!) Rationalismus, Jena, 1841; and the 
mediating tendency, which found a worthy organ in A. F. L. Pelt's 
Theologische Encyclopaedia als System, im Zusammenhange mit der 
Geschichte der theolog. Wissenschaft und ihrer einzelnen Zweige, 
Hamb., 1843. A rich material, which has been judiciously selected 
and intelligently handled, a constant effort to combine the variety 
of matter into a systematic whole (to which, however, the dry de- 
velopment of the plan in the department of dogmatics, extending 
down to the Hebrew alphabet, would hardly seem to be an aid), a 
keen eye for the artistic element in the theological profession, a 
warm interest in Christianity, and a sound and liberal judgment, 
are advantages to the book that deserve recognition, though they 
would unquestionably be heightened by being forced into a nar- 
rower compass. 

While it must be acknowledged that the literature of German 
Protestantism is in advance of others, in this as in the other de- 

^^ , . , partments of theolos^y, it cannot be said that the 

Theological i_^ ^ -^ ' 

encyclopedia Protestant s of other lands, and even less the Roman 
France^^'swe- ^''^tholics of Germany, have fallen behind in the march 
d3n, and Eng- of recent progress. The Encyclopsediae theologicse epi- 
tome, by J. Clarisse of Holland (Lugd., Bat., 1832, 
1835), still bears the stamp of the age before Schleierraacher; but 
the Encyclopaedia of Hof stede de Groot, on the other hand, represents 



THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA IN ENGLAND. 135 

the more modern tendency of the so-called Groningen school.' An 
excellent preliminary work in French was published by H. G. Kien- 
len (a German) : Encyclopedie des Sciences de la Theologie Chre- 
tienne, Strasburg, 1842. It followed Schleiermacher in the main, 
and was afterward republished, with additions, in German, with the 
title, Encykl. der Wissenschaften der Protestantischen Theologie, 
Darmstadt, 1845. A Swedish Encyclopaedia by the provost 11. 
Reuterdahl of Lund (1837), likewise follows the principles of 
Schleiermacher. 

The English, however, have hitherto paid very little attention 
to theological encyclopaedia. So little has been done in this de- 
partment that M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia says Theological 

with truth that " No book professing to be called En- encyclopedia 

r^ n m England and 

cyclopaedia of Theology has appeared in English, and America. 
no book is more needed, as the English theological literature is al- 
most wholly neglected by the Germans." (Article Encyclopaedia.) 
Since this statement was made, however, a volume on Theological 
Encyclopaedia, compiled from the lectures of Dr. M'Clintock to his 
students, has been published (New York and Cincinnati, 1873). It 
is a posthumous work, and necessarily incomplete. Dr. Henry B. 
Smith also had begun, before his death, an Encyclopaedia and Meth- 
odology, but did not live to carry out his purpose. In English lit- 
erature instruction of this kind is usually found in treatises on 
pastoral theology. Thus handled encyclopaedia holds a very sub- 
ordinate position. In Bishop Marsh's Course of Lectures on Divin- 
ity (Cambridge, 1809; London, 1838) an encyclopaedic outline is 
given. Bickersteth's Christian Student (London, 1832, 4th edition, 
1844) is characterized by a devout spirit, but is unscientific in form.- 
Doddridge's Lectures on Preaching and the Ministerial Office (Lon- 
don, 1830, and Andover, 1833) are wholly practical. 

The earliest American work of this type was by Cotton Mather: 
The Student and Preacher; Manductio ad Ministerium, etc. (Pub- 
lished in London only; 2d ed., 1781.) Some of Tholuck's Lectures 
on Encyclopaedia and Methodology are translated by Professor 
E, A. Park, in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Sacra. Professor 
Shedd, of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, has pub- 
lished an essay on the Method and Influence of Theological Studies 
(New York, 2d ed., 1878). J. W. Alexander's Thoughts on Preach- 

^ Encyclopaedia Theologi christiani a Hofstede de Groot et L. G. Pareau, Groningae, 
1851, 3d ed. 

"^ Bickersteth conceived of theology as a Divine science. Page 20 : " Theology is, 
like the heavens, full of stars, which appear not to the careless spectator, but a dili- 
gent conteraplator, with suitable helps, will find new worlds of glory in every part." 



136 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ing contain valuable suggestions upon the studies of the preacher 
(pp. 168-216), although nothing systematic is attempted (New York, 
1860). Professor Shedd's Homiletics and Pastoral Theology (New 
York, 1878), presents in chap, iii, of the second part, an excellent 
outline of a course of study suitable for a clergyman. James M. 
Hoppin, in The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry (New 
York, 1869), offers good suggestions for theological culture. Most 
of these works, however, treat the subject in an incidental way. 

A brief review of the progress of Roman Catholic encyclopaedia 
remains to be given. 

Protestant text-books on encyclopaedia generally have reference 
^ .^ to the academical course of instruction in universities : 

Roman Catho- , . . , ' 

lie encyciopae- but Roman Catholic authors give this only occasional 
^^' consideration. Much that they have written (espec- 

ially during the earlier part of the seventeenth century) was de- 
signed for use in the seminaries for priests and the institutions of 
the monastic orders. The historical development of modern Roman 
Catholicism affords positive proof that in this as well as other mat- 
ters the Jesuits hold the first place. The Italian Jesuit, Ant. Posse- 
vin, wrote a Bibliotheca selecta de ratione studiorum (Colon., 1607, 
fol.), whose arrangement opens a view into the methods of the 
order. First stands the cultura ingeniorum, which is favored by 
the current age (the sixteenth century) more than by any other, 
despite its excessively heretical character. Heresy really hinders 
true culture, and must be opposed in its very beginning. Special 
praise is lavished on the institutions of the order, particularly that 
of Salamanca. The second book treats of the Divine history, i. e., 
the holy Scriptures and their study, in connexion with which w© 
notice that the study of Hebrew is recommended. Jerome and 
Augustine should be the principal guides. With reference to the 
study of the Bible much that is excellent is said, upon the whole, and 
much that recalls to mind the similar works of Reformed theolo- 
gians in this period.^ The third book treats of the scholastic the- 
ology, whose leading representative is Thomas Aquinas ; and the 
same section includes the theologia practica sive de casibus con- 
scientiae docendis. Book four deals with Catechetics, sive de juvandis 
domesticis fidei. Book five discusses Roman Catholic military (?) 
sacerdotal and monastic schools (seminaries), and also treats of 
legends, the ritual, and whatever relates to discipline and asceticism. 
The sixth and seventh books point out the course to be pursued 
with schismatics (Greeks and Russians), and with heretics (Wal- 

* Possevin forms a remarkable parallel to Alsted in the Reformed Church, comp. 
supra. 



ROMAN CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. 137 

denses, Hussites, and Protestants), and the eighth indicates the 
mode of combating atheism, that of the Socinians among the rest. 
The ninth book has to do with Jews, Mohammedans, and Pagans in 
general, while the tenth and eleventh deal with the Japanese and 
other Asiatic nations in particular. The twelfth book, which begins 
the second volume, brings us to philosophy and and its relation to 
religion and theology, ancient philosophy being derived from Moses. 
The philosophies of Plato and Aristotle are then considered, the 
latter especially in great detail. Jurisprudence and medicine, 
mathematics and history, poetry and painting, occupy the space of 
the remaining books, except the last, which finally becomes a letter 
writer. This may suffice to indicate the methodically unmethodical 
character of the work.^ 

The learned Benedictine, J. Mabillon, wrote his Traite des etudes 
monastiques (Paris, 1691,) in opposition to the ascetic tendency which 
the order of Trappists and its founder Armand Jean de Bouthillier 
de Ranee ^ sought to impress upon the entire system of monastic 
orders. The work by Lud. Ellies du Pin, Methode pour etudier la 
theologie (1716), which was translated into several languages, had 
a more general aim. The publisher of Sarpi, Pierre Francois de 
Courayer, Avrote, in an anti-Roman spirit, a criticism of the theolog- 
ical method followed by the schools, entitled Examen des defauts 
theologiques, oti Ton indique les moyens de les reformer. Amst., 
1744, 2 vols. The reform, however, proceeded from Germany, in 
this field also. A movement toward increased indepen- German cath- 
dence prevailed among German Roman Catholics during ?^^ T'^^^l ^^ 
the latter half of the eighteenth century, of which Denina cyciopsedia. 
(1758), Gerbert (1764), Braun (1777), Brandmayer (1783), and Rau- 
tenstrauch (1781) were representatives: while Fr. Oberthur, the 
learned editor of Josephus, wrote an Encyclo239edia et Methodologia, 
(vol. i, Solisb., 1786,) which was long afterward remodelled into 
a German text-book (Augsb., 1828, 2 vols.), and which gave him 
rank with Nosselt, Planck, and Niemeyer, in the Protestant Church. 
A meth'odology of the theological sciences, especially dogmatic, by 
his hand, followed the above work in the same year.^ NTor did the 
Roman Catholic Church in Germany seek to resist the influence of 

* They who are acquainted with Petri Annati Methodieus theologiae apparatus (IVVO) 
may determine whether it renders more efficient service in these respects. 

'Traite de la saintete et des devoirs de I'etat raonastique, 1683, Comp. the mono- 
graph by F. A. de Chateaubriand, Par., 1844. 

' Additional w^orks are by Gnieiner and Leutwein (1786), Wiesner (1788), Sartori 
1796), Dobmayer (1807), and Thamer 1809). The influence exerted by Mich. Sailer 
in his Beitrage zur Bildung der Geistlichen (1819) and other writings was chiefly 
practical. 



135 GENERxiL TIIi:OLOUlCAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Schleiermacher's method, as appears from the Kurze Einleitung in das 
Studium der Theologie, mit Rilcksicht auf d. wissenschaftl. Staiid- 
punkt u. d. kathol. System, by J. S. Drey (Tub., 1819 ; comp. Pelt., 
p. 66, sqq.). The philosophical ideas in H. Klee's Encyclopasdie 
(Mayence, 1832) are not thoroughly digested ; but F. A. Stauden- 
maier in his Encyk. der theol. Wissenschaften, etc. (Mayence, 1834, 
2d, 1840) displays a decided talent for speculation, together with 
an immoderate propensity to ramble. Staudenmaier resembles Ros- 
enkranz in regarding encyclopaedia as a philosophy of theology, and 
in disregarding the importance of the Methodological element.* 

Senarate con- Separate contributions to encyclopaedia were furnished by : — 

tributions to H. K. Sack, Werth u. Eeiz d. Theologie u. d. Geistlichen Standes, 

tlieological en- Berlin, 1814; Fr. Strauss, Glockentone: Erinnerunoren a. d. Leben 
cyclopaedia. . . ^, . ,. , J ^ , , t . -,... 

ernes jungen Geistlichen, 3 parts, 7th ed. Leips., 1840. 

W. M. L. de Wette, Theodor, oder des Zweifler's Weihe, Berlin, 1822, 28. 2 vols. 
(Theodore, or the Sceptics' Conversion. Boston.) 

E. W, Krummacher, Expectorationen iiber d. Studium der Theologie, etc. Essen., 
1847. 

De Wette, Idee iiber das Studium der Theologie, edited by A. Sti.eren. Leips,, 
1850. 

To these may be added the numerous idealistic romances on ministerial life, e. ff.:—' 

Hase, Des alten Pfarrer's Testament ; Erhards, Volkmar's Bekenntnisse ; Tobler, 
Gotthold; Planck, Erstes Amtsjahr, etc., which contain hints adapted to encyclopaedia. 

^ Recent Roman Catholic works : A. Genzler, Das Ideale der Wissenschaft, etc. 
(Bamb., 1834); A. L. Buchner, Encyklopaedie u. Methodologie (Sulzb., 183*7); and A. 
von Sieger, De natura fidei et methodo theol ogiae ad ecclesiae catholicae theologos 
(Monast. Westphal., 1838); concerning which see Pelt., p. 72. 



PART II. 
SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

THE DEPARTMENTS OF THEOLOGY AND THEIR RELATION 
TO EACH OTHER. 



SECTION L 
DIVISION. 

The study of positive theology is required by its nature to con- 
form to the four leading divisions of Exegetical, Historical, Sys- 
tematic, and Practical theology, and must be pursued in that order. 

As positive theology has for its source the fact of the institution 
of the Christian religion (revelation), its beginnings demrt- 

will coincide with that fact, and must be found in the ments of posi- 
documents relating to such institution or revelation. ^^^ eoogy. 
Starting thus from the beginning, it traces the progress of historical 
development down to our own time, and then combines into a 
mental picture of the present what history has furnished. It obtains 
by this process a clear idea of the connexion running through the 
whole, and deduces therefrom the necessary principles for convert- 
ing theory into practice.^ 

The division into four departments was generally adop4:ed by the 
earlier encyclopaedists, as Noesselt, Thym, Staudlin, Schmidt, and 
Planck, although the above order was not always observed ; but 
later writers have, for scientific reasons, and with but few excep- 

^ The above distribution may also be justified in the following nianner : The asser- 
tion is warranted that all knowledge is based either on personal (physical or mental) 
observation, or on report and tradition, and is, therefore, either theoretical (philosoph- 
ical) or historical in its nature. Historical knowledge, however, must be obtained 
by investigation, and for the latter acquaintance with languages and philological criti- 
cism is necessary ; while theoretical knowledge leads to its practical application. In 
like manner Christianity is, in its positive character, both a history and a doctrine ; 
but its history is based on the Bible, which must, first of all, be exegetically exam- 
ined ; and its doctrine is not pure knowledge, but practical. The truth of revelation 
is to be applied in the Church and the various departments of Church activity, to 
which practical theology has regard. The two departments of learning are thus con- 
fined between two fields of applied art, the exegetical at the beginning, and the prac- 
tical at the end. 



140 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

tions, departed from that arrangement, despite its advantages in a 
methodological and practical point of view. Schleiermacher pre- 
schieiermach- ferred to make three departments, and divided the 
er's division of ggjgj^QQ i^^Q philosophical, historical, and practical the- 
ogy. ology (root, trunk, and crown). The range of philo- 

sophical theology is limited by him to apologetics and polemics ; but 
he extends the domain of historical theology so as to include on the 
one hand exegesis, and on the other dogmatics and ethics — the lat- 
ter of which would seem more properly to belong to philosophical 
theology. Within that domain, however, separate places were 
assigned to exegetical and systematic theology, in order that the 
special field of historical theology proper might not be encroached 
Danz's division ^pon. Danz attempted still another division, by which 
of theology in- he separated the whole of theology into two classes of 

to a religious . . ,. . , , 

and a ctiurciiiy sciences, namely, such as pertam to religion and such 
science. ^^ relate to the Church. Religious learning is sub- 

divided into theoretical and practical, the former of which embraces 
heuristic (exegetical) and technical theology (systematic theol- 
ogy and the history of doctrines). Ecclesiastical science is like- 
wise either theoretical or practical, the former section including 
Church history. Church law, statistics, archaeology, etc., while the 
latter comprehends the " sciences of Church practice," or such as 
relate to the practical work of the Church, embracing polemics, 
irenics, liturgies, etc. This method may, at first sight, seem to pre- 
sent many advantages ; but the difiiculties it involves when reduced 
to practice appear to be equally numerous. The separation of the 
religious from the Churchly element is of itself fraught with serious 
evils, since in actual Christianity the two interj)enetrate each other. 
Christ founded both religion and the Church, and the Bible is as 
important to the Church as to religion. It follows that exegesis, 
for instance, is as much an ecclesiastical as a religious science. 

Still other objections arise when the method is applied to details. 
The history of doctrines and patristics is introduced before acquaint- 
ance with Church history has been made, though a knowledge of 
the latter is necessary to an understanding of the former ; both 
practical and historical theology are broken into fragmentary parts, 
and the relation between apologetics and polemics is destroyed. 
This may suffice to indicate the difficulties of this division in its 
practical applications ; and the author has, at all events, failed to 
Rosenkranz's indicate the reasons which governed his action. Rosen- 
ion of positive ki'^^z approximates more nearly to Schleiermacher, in 
theology. that he likewise divides the entire science into phil- 

osophical (which he calls speculative), historical, and practical 



EXEGESIS A DISTINCT DEPARTMENT. 141 

theology, although his speculative theology substantially includes 
dogmatics, which term is further extended to embrace apolegetics 
and polemics ; but he conflicts with Schleiermacher in assigning the 
leading place to systematic, which evidently must grow out of his- 
torical theology, and thereby opens the way for speculation to dom- 
inate the whole in the Hegelian fashion. Staudenmaier, too, places 
speculative theology at the front, but, singularly enough, puts prac- 
tical theology in the centre, and makes historical bring up the 
rear ; and Zyro is also inclined to give the first place to speculative! 
theology.' 

Kienlen and Pelt have, on the other hand, restored the precedence 
to historical theology. They adopt the division into three parts — 
historical, including exegetical, systematic, and practical theology. 
It cannot be denied that in a broad sense exegetical theology may 
be properly included under historical, inasmuch as it is the work of 
exegesis to determine conditions essentially historical, Reasons why 
and even to elucidate the primitive history of Chris- exegetical the- 
tianity itself. But historical knowledge, considered in a separate de- 
itself, is not the only element that engages the attention partment. 
of exegetical theology. Exegesis in the proper sense is rather a 
certain readiness in the application of knowledge, as Schleiermacher 
himself confesses, which is based on scientific principles (hermeneu- 
tics) belonging, not to the historical, but to the philological, or, in 
the widest meaning of the term, philosophical, department. The 
historic value of the Scriptures themselves, is not, moreover, merely 
the same as that which attaches to other monuments of Christian 
and ecclesiastical antiquity. In their character, as documents of in- 
stitution or revelation, they engross our study in a very different 
manner from and to a far greater extent than do other historical 
sources. "Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna," applies to them 
with entire propriety. They rise, like the primeval mountains, 
above all the later formations of theological culture, and like the 
eternal granite rocks, they tower far above valley and hill. 

It may therefore be allowed that it is proper for Protestant 
theology, upon which devolves a special ministry of the w^ord, to 
establish a separate department of exegetical theology, and to 
assign to the study of the Bible a sufficient, unrestricted place within 
the domain of theological learning. The objection that the dis- 
tinction made between the original and the derived is only relative,'^ 
bears against every classification, for every thing, as we shall see, 
is relative. Or if it be said ^ that all science is either philosophical 

* Kritik der bisherigen Encyklopaedie, in Stud. u. Krit. 1837, No. 3. 
2 Pelt, p. 7G. 3 Kienlen, p. 13. 



142 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJEDTA. 

or historical, and that every particular science must belong to one 
of these categories, we acknowledge that the statement is correct, 
Additional rea- ^^ ^^^^ broad meaning by which exegesis itself becomes a 
sons for mak- historical science ; but if practical theology is entitled 
separate de- to a place beside historical and systematic (thetical), al- 
partment. though its very name indicates that it is neither purely 

historical nor purely j)hilosophical, we may, with equal propriety, 
assert the right of exegetical theology to a similar privilege. The 
truth is that both exegetical and practical theology are mixed 
sciences, which stand related not only to learning, but also to prac- 
tical skill (rexvT]), not only to knowledge, but also to ability ; and 
the fact that these very sciences form the boundary lines of the 
study, its beginning and end, points to the practical nature of the- 
ology as a whole, by which it is distinguished from pure science. 
If it should become necessary for purposes of observation to disclose 
the organism of theological science, as science simply, and without 
reference to practical needs, it would be proper to represent exegesis 
as merely an historical auxiliary science, as biblical exegesis is in 
fact for biblical theology,^ or patristic exegesis for the history of 
the Church and its doctrines. 

But the Protestant Church justly insists that, as a primary qualifi- 
cation, every theologian shall be thoroughly familiar with the Bible 
and be competent to deal with it, since more than all else, he is to be 
a well-grounded servant of the Word (verbi divini minister). This 
explains why special chairs of exegesis are every- where established ^ 
and exegetical lectures are delivered, even in Roman Catholic uni- 
versities, which have always been discriminated from the historical 
in the catalogues and in literature.^ The combination of the two — 
exegesis and history — is impracticable, confusing in a methodolog- 
ical point of view, and an innovation upon the ordinary usage of 
the terms in any language. The division we advocate may, aside 
from its practical utility, derive further support from the analogy 
of the distribution of the pure sciences, discussed above, where we 
have, first, the study of language and history, next philosophy, and 
finally professional culture. In the theological field, exegesis cor- 

1 Pelt., 1. c. 

2 There was even a time when, in the Reformed Church, theology was wholly resolved 
into exegesis. In Basle at least there were but two chairs of theology from the Ref- 
oi'mation down to the earlier period of the seventeenth century, viz., of Old and New 
Test, exegesis. Comp. Hagenbach, Die theol. Schule Easels u, ihre Lehrei\, 1860, 4to. 

^ Com., for example, Winer's Handbuch d. theol. Literatur. No well arranged 
library will class exegetical with historical works ; and no person will, for instance, 
place Ernesti upon the same level of merit with Mosheim. Over-keenness is eouiva- 
lent to dullness. 



THE PLACE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 143 

responds to philology/ historical to history, systematic to philoso- 
phy, and practical to art.'^ Thus much respecting the continued use 
of the ancient " four ruts," which, though worn, should not be held 
responsible for the faults of wretched drivers. 

SECTION II. 
ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR DEPARTMENTS. 

The greatest diversity j;revails also in the matter of arrangement. 

Everv person who is not governed by an a prioi^i preiu- 

-,. . ^. J, . . T r ^^ 1 1 Exegetical the- 

dice m lavor ot a priori modes oi thought, must see that oiogy the first 

to give the first place to systematic theology is utterly ^^ °^^®''' 
impracticable. The assertion that Church history cannot be mas- 
tered before the idea has been made clear by speculation,^ is almost 
sufficient to recall the boy in the fable who desired to wait until the 
stream should have passed by, before crossing over. On this plan 
there could be no history of the world before the world is under- 
stood ! Christianity itself would need to be mentally constructed 
before it could be examined as it appears in the Scriptures. To 
begin with dogmatics would assuredly deliver us again into the 
power of scholasticism, from whose control the human mind was 
emancipated by the Reformation. The reasons, therefore, which 
justify the assignment of a separate department to exegetical the- 
ology, justify, also, the placing of its study at the head. The the- 
ologian must begin with exegesis and first of all become acquainted 
with the foundations. Upon this principle Protestant theology 
must insist, unless it wishes to become untrue to its principles.* 

' Philology is likewise a historical science in the wide sense, and that very fact dis- 
criminates between it and mere linguistics ; but the progressive reading of an author 
will nevertheless always be considered philological rather than historical. Philologists 
and historians are likewise related, but not identical, classes of investigators. 

^ Individual qualifications likewise lead to distinct results, so that the student who 
excels in the study of languages usually becomes a good exegete, and he who has the 
historical faculty becomes a Church historian. Philosophical ability will find its 
proper field in systematic theology, and a talent for using the vernacular in artistic 
description, etc., indicates the coming preacher and liturgist. 

' Zyro, p. 694. 

* Jerome already expressed this idea in his Comm. ad Jesaiam, " Qui nescit scripturas 
nescit Dei virtutem ejusque sapientiam ; ignoratio scripturarum ignoratio Christi est." 
It may be said, perhaps, that in order to consider the Bible as attesting the faith of 
Christianity, it is essential that it be examined from the Christian point of view, and 
that therefore apologetics must be first gone over ; hence that theology as a whole 
should begin with apologetics. Regarded merely in its principles, the idea is not bad ; 
but how can apologetics be discussed without a previous acquaintance with the mate- 
rial to which it relates ? Only they who have become interested in the study of the 
Bible are capable of deriving profit from the study of apolegetics. 



144 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The only question that remains concerns the relative positions of 
systematic and historical theology ; for it is evident that practical 
The relative theology should close the course (though Staudenmaier 
positionsofsys- places it in the middle). The precedence of system- 
historical the- atic before historical theology is advocated on the 
oiogy. ground that in point of fact Christianity possessed a 

body of doctrine from the very beginning, which, accordingly, is 
not an aggregate resulting from the entire course of historical de- 
velopment, but, on the contrary, assumed a sort of systematic form 
at an early period, as the Apostles' Creed sufficiently attests.^ It is 
also contended that the history of doctrines can only be studied 
with proper interest, when it follows upon the study of dogmatics, 
and after the nature and true meaning of a doctrine has been appre- 
hended. With regard to this question every thing depends upon a 
separation of Biblical from ecclesiastical dogmatics (infra). We 
acknowledge that the former results from exegesis, and may be suc- 
cessfully studied without a preliminary course of Church history and 
history of doctrines ; but it will appear in our discussion of system- 
atic theology that Biblical dogmatics is simply a preliminary histor- 
ical branch, and not dogmatics in the proper sense, which latter 
Reasons why assumes the existence of Church doctrines as well as 
precede ^^doi- ^^^^^ doctrines, and constitutes the consummation of 
matics. the whole. It will also be seen, in connexion with our 

treatment of the history of doctrines, that Biblical dogmatics forms 
the natural point of transition from historical to systematic theol- 
ogy. Not until the mind has developed its powers by historical 
studies, and has acquired facility in the broad philosophical man- 
agement of thought, will it be fitted to attempt the study of dog- 
matics, that demands a robust intellect. The mind that, on the 
contrary, begins the study of theology with dogmatics, may be lik- 
ened to the bird which undertakes to fly before its wings have 
All divisions of grown, or the architect who attempts the erection of a 
ogf '""Viatrve building before its foundations have been laid. But that 
only. every division is only relative, and that in every single 

branch of theological study all the others are involved,^ even as in a 

^ Fleck, in a review of Pelt's Encykl., in the Allgem. Kirchen-Zeitung. 1844. 

"^ Exegetical theology involves historical elements (introduction, archaeology), and 
also doctrinal (criticism, hermenuetics) and practical (practical exposition) ; historical 
theology embraces exegetical functions (the study of sources, exposition of ecclesias- 
tical writers) and the dogmatic compilation of both Biblical and ecclesiastical dogmat- 
ics, and likewise has outlets leading into the practical field, e. g., through Church an- 
tiquities into liturgies, or through the history of the constitution of the Church into 
ecclesiastical law. Systematic theology falls back (in its proof passages) upon exe 



ALL THE DEPARTMENTS CO-RELATED. 145 

well-tuned musical instrument all the related chords will resound 
when any single one is struck, are truths that cannot be too strongly- 
impressed.^ No science has either an absolute beginning or an ab- 
solute end ; and the suggestion (in § 2) that encyclopaedia should, 
in justice, occupy a double place in the theological course, will ac- 
cordingly apply to any other special study. 

The student who is familiar with systematic and practical theology, 
and perhaps even ivith the practical experiences of ministerial life, 
as well as with the lessons of personal experience, will apprehend 
the Bible in a very different light from that in which the new be- 
ginner sees its truths — this, too, though he be governed by the most 
sublime "absence of predisposition." The same observation applies 
also to Church history, the history of doctrines, etc. We are not, 
however, inclined on that account to plant theology on its head, or 
to call the branches roots, because roots may be propagated from 
them ; the true rule is, to apply designations to the departments in 
harmony with the features which predominate in them, and to apply 
the same method to the settling of the order in which they are to 
succeed each other. 

gesis, and calls into recollection the history of doctrines and sjTnbolics, besides being 
required to treat the body of doctrine in its practical bearings and by its doctrine of 
the Church to furnish a sub-basis for practical theology. The latter, finally, is wholly 
dependent upon exegesis, on history, and on doctrine. The analogy of nature, which 
in its earlier formations prefigures those of a later age, and in later stages of devel- 
opment repeats the forms of an earlier period, holds good with reference to this sub- 
ject. It would not be difficult to discover the tendency to fall into four parts in each 
of the several branches specified in the text. Each takes the hand of the other ; each 
affords an outlook into "the other ; and whenever a single branch comes to a living 
development, the others are found to be involved with it and entitled to equal 
recognition. 

' Without a systematic connexion of ideas and a practical judgment both exegesis 
and history must continue to be capita mortua ; while, on the other hand, systematic 
a&d practical theology would, without the others, be founded on air. 
10 



146 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



CHAPTEE I. 

EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 



SECTION" L 

Exegetical theology embraces every thing that relates to the in- 
terpretation and exposition of the Old and New Testa- 
exegeticai the- ment Scriptures, and therefore includes both exegesis 
oiogy. itself, considered as an art, and the auxiliary sciences 

which enable us to apply that art. Its results appear in Biblical 
theology, which may be subdivided into historical and dogmatic 
elements (sacred history and Bible doctrines). 

Exegetical theology has the Bible for its object, for which reason 
The Bible the it has been denominated Biblical theology [e. g., by 
^eticai^the^oio- P^^^)- ^he latter, however, is simply the result ob- 
gy. tained by exegetical processes, the sum total of the gains 

secured through the investigations of the student of the Scriptures. 
Exegesis, in the proper meaning of the term, is the application of a 
method (hermeneutics) to existing writings ; ' but for the execution 
of its function the aid of an additional philological and critical ap- 
paratus is necessary, which, in all its extent, is likewise included in 
the domain of exegetical theology. The results of exegesis proper 
are partly historical and partly dogmatic in their nature ; and even 
practical theology depends on it for immediate advantages (the re- 
lation of the text to the sermon). The study of the Bible cannot be 
covered by exegesis alone, for the Scriptures command the entire 
range of theological learning, and cannot, accordingly, be forced 
within the limits of a special branch for purposes of study. Exe- 
gesis is simply the key, with which to unlock the sanctuary of Bible 
truth. Every thing, however, depends upon a proper use of the 

^ '* The term 'EfT^yj^rat was primarily applied by the ancients to persons who di- 
rected the attention of curious inquirers to the outwardly remarkable features of a 
city or a temple, for which reason they were also called irepiTjyriTaL ; but more espec- 
ially to persons of higher dignity, who brought the layman into sympathy with divine 
things, and who read the signs in the heavens and the auguries in the sacrificial vic- 
tim, and also interpreted the oracles." Creuzer, Symbolik, i, p. 15. Comp. Passow's 
Worterbuch. 



THE HUMAN ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. 147 

key, and exegetical theology is concerned to so master its peculiari- 
ties as to become able to seize upon the treasures of Biblical theol- 
ogy. The relation of exegetical to Biblical theology is, conse- 
quently, that of the journey to the destination, or of labor to its gains. 

SECTION IL 

OF HOLY SCRIPTURE CONSIDERED AS THE OBJECT OF EXEGESIS 

ITS IDEA AND EXTENT. 

Comp. the Art. Bibel in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklopaedie (also in a separate reprint, Leips., 
1823), and in Herzog, Encykl.— together with the corresponding articles, Bibeltext des A. u. N. T., 
Bibeliibersetzungen, etc.; *Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, art. 3, Die heil, Schrift • Holtzmann, Kanon 
u. Tradition, Ludwigsburg, 1859 ; * Herin. Schaltz, Stellung des christl. Glaubens zur heil. 
Schrift, etc., in Volksbl. f . d. Ref. Kircke d. Schweiz, 1872, Nos. 11-13. 

The Bible or the holy Scripture of Christianity (Biblia sacra, ra 
^i(3Xia -deia, legd yQa^ij, ^sia ypacj)?]) is a collection of documents re^ 
lating to religion and its history, which date from different periods 
and were written by different authors. When conceived as a unit 
comprehended under the higher designation of the word of God, 
and as concentrating its energies upon a common object in behalf 
of religion and the Church, that of giving direction to Christian 
faith and life — this collection forms the canon of the Scriptures, in 
distinction from the Apocrypha and all other writings of human 
origin. 

The nature of encyclopaedia requires that it should at the begin- 
ning appropriate to itself certain elements which according to its own 
principles belong to the science of Introduction. Its object is to se- 
cure a proper appreciation of the Scriptures by the stu- Relation of en- 
dent who enters upon their study, and to point out the sci- thes?udySthe 
entific methods appropriate for his work. Sound views Bible. 
respecting the Bible itself are first of all to be secured, for the 
attainment of which a partial intrusion into the fields of apologetics 
and dogmatics will certainly become necessary, though merely in a 
general way. It is of the highest importance that both the relig- 
ious character and the historical nature of the Scriptures should 
be examined with both holy zeal and unbiassed judgment, in order 
that the reverence due the book of God may not cause its humar 
side to be overlooked, or that the many and diverse subjects discov 
ered from the human point of observation may not lead to th^ 
rejection of its Divine character. Herder, the exponent of the 
purely human has demonstrated that in one point of view the Bible 
is a human book ; and no inquirer of later times will The human 
venture to controvert this human element, which is ap- ^^q^ beacon- 
parent in the variety of authors and of dates, in the sidered. 
language, in modes of expression, etc. To this must be added the 



1:48 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

reflection that the Bible did not fall from the heavens in its completed 
form, but was gradually collected, and that its different component 
parts did not escape the misfortune of all the written monuments of 
ancient times, by which what was genuine became mixed with ele- 
ments not genuine, and the text in occasional instances was cor- 
rupted. This human side presents matters of great interest to 
scientific investigation ; but such investigation becomes utterly im- 
possible on the rigid theory of a verbal inspiration of the Scriptures. 
The interest taken in philological and historical questions, does 
not, however, destroy all regard for the religious and theological 
elements, for the Divine character of the Bible, which constitutes 
Tbe tie which the ground of its importance to religion and theology.* 

^i^i^^Sl^^?^ An invariable religious reference to an institution 
of the Bible to- ^ p i i • i? t 

gether. founded by God and designed for the education ot the 

^ " The Bible, when viewed in its essence, is found to present only a single body of 
truth, not, however, in the form of unvarying and formally repeated dead traditions, 
which are handed down from age to age, but as displaying the most active Hf e, since 
the different truths continually develop with the progress of time, and assume differ- 
ent aspects and a more definite character, without becoming a confused mass or com- 
ing into conflict with each other. The truth, passing through manifold forms, is un- 
folded from the germ to the fruit on a single plan of development, a series of living 
intermediate members receiving what already exists into themselves and carrying it 
forward in harmony with their own nature, and transmitting it to their successors for 
a similar treatment, until the whole is rounded into completed truth — the ripened fruit 
produced by the entire tree, which possesses the developed power of germination, in 
order to a further development in which its inborn nature shall be reproduced." Tob. 
Beck, Einl. in d. System d. christl. Lehre, p. 216. — The religious investigation of the 
Bible belongs to the sphere of faith ; and in consequence persons possessed of robust 
faith, like Luther, have always expressed the judgment respecting the Bible which 
faith is still compelled to repeat, despite every freedom from preconceived views 
which scientific inquiry may have produced. " In summa, the holy Bible is the grand- 
est and best book of God — full of comfort in every tribulation, for it teaches much of 
faith, hope, and love, that is different from what reason is able to see, feel, conceive, 
or learn. And it teaches when misfortune comes, how such virtues are to shine forth, 
and that another and eternal life lies beyond this poor, wretched life. ... I beseech and 
faithfully admonish every pious Christian not to take offence or be disturbed at the simple 
discourses and narratives found in the Bible, and not to doubt its truth, however poor 
and silly they may seem to be ; they are yet simply the word, work, history, and judg- 
ments of the exalted majesty, might, and truth of God. In this book are found the 
swaddling-cloths and manger in which Christ has lain, whither the angel also sends 
the shepherds ; they are, no doubt, poor and mean swaddling-cloths, but precious is 
the treasure, Christ, which they enfold." Similar remarks by Luther on the Bible are 
scattered through his works. Gomp. J. G. Muellei-, Theophil., p. 235, .s-^-^. The strongs 
sense of the peculiar character of the Bible and its value above all other books enter- 
tained by Goethe also, is apparent in many passages of his works. Comp. Aus meinemi 
Leben, vol. i, book 4, and Farbenlehre, ii, p. 138: "The Bible owes the great venera* 
tion, in which it has been held by many nations and generations of the earth, to its-, 
inherent value. It is not merely a national book, but the book for the nations, be- 



THE PIVINE ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. • 149 

human race, forms the tender spiritual tie holding together the leaves 
which in their outward form are but loosely connected, and which 
if torn from the trunk of the theocracy and the historical root reach- 
ing back into the beginning of things, would cease to be what they 
are as parts of this whole. Such reference, however, is far more 
definite and apparent in one book than in another, and in some 
portions of the Scriptures seems to disappear or be( ome obscure. 
It follows, accordingly, that the Bible is still a sacred literature, 

not only as distinguished from the profane, if it be 

^11^ ^ 1 T The Bible con- 

thought proper to apply that term to all literature stitutes a sa- 

which does not come into immediate contact with the ^red literature. 
religious life, but also as distinguished from every other religious, 

cause it employs the fortunes of one nation as a symbol of all others, connects its his- 
tory with the origin of the world, and carries it through the gradations of earthly and 
spiritual development in connexion with necessary and accidental events, to the far- 
thest regions of the most distant eternity. . . . The more the centuries increase in 
culture the more will the Bible be made in part the foundation of education and in 
part an agency in its behalf, not, of course, by conceited persons, but by the truly 
wise." Comp. many extracts in Hagenbach, Leitfaden zum christl. Rel.-unterricht, 
8d ed. (Leips., 1861), p. 32, sqq. Also Bunsen, Gott in d. Geschichte, i, p. 94. " The 
narratives of this book are God's word to mankind. A word in servant's form, of 
course ; but this is true of all Divine things that pass over the earth ; it is true of the 
Deity itself, as the immutable idea of the common source of being in this world. A 
book of ruins, too ; but the ruins are pervaded by a living spirit. A book, moreover, 
of humble language ; but in words that are undying, because every human heart bears 
witness to them. A book sweeping through thousands of j^ears, full of apparent con- 
tradictions, like nature, and man, and the history of our race ; but ever young and in 
harmony with itself through the unity of the Spirit which produced it, even as crea- 
tion is a imit, with all its contrasts, and even by reason of all its contrasts. A book 
for sages and yet capable of being understood, Hke God's nature, by every child, 
namely, according to the measure of its understanding. A book written in dead lan- 
guages, and yet eternally living in the tongues of the nations." Rothe, too, has perti- 
nent remarks (zur Dogmatik), e. g., p. 225 : " It is precisely through such human and 
personal qualities that the Bible receives a freshness and chai^m that are profoundly af- 
fecting, and it is precisely this Avonderful interplay and commingling of the Divine and hu- 
man, and still more this constant interpenetration of the two, that the pious soul famil- 
iar with its qualities recognizes as the most eminent characteristic among its peculiar- 
ities." Also p. 345 : " The sacredness and all that constitutes the unique character 
of the Bible depend unalterably and altogether upon what it actually is and what it act- 
ually proves itself to be for him who approaches it in a teachable spirit, and not at all 
upon the character given it or the qualities arbitrarily assigned to it by dogmatics." 

It is not the habit of English scholars to make apology for the form in which 
Scripture conveys its truth. From the earliest years of the Reformation a reverence 
for the letter and style of the Bible, as in every way worthy of its rich contents, is 
observable in English literature. The book is familiarly described as the Great Clas- 
sic. In Bacon's Advancement of Learning this reverential tone is noticeable in every 
reference to Scripture. Barrow makes a special point of the worthiness of the form 
of the Bible for the conveyance of a divine message. In his sermon on the Excel- 



150; SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and even Christian, literature, which, being only the word of man 

as contrasted with the word of God, can only sustain a subordinate 

relation to the Scriptures. 

The latter distinction, by which sacred is discriminated from 

other reliarious literature, furnishes the p;round for the 
Apocryphal writ- ° i • i t -t ^ ■ 

lags: whysodis- Separation between the canonical and apocryphal writ- 

tinguished. -^^^ which is maintained in our Church. The Bible is 

termed the canon, and its several parts canonical books,' inasmuch 

lence of the Christian Keligion he says : " It propoundeth itself in a style and garb 
of speech, as accommodate to the general capacity of its hearers, so proper to the au- 
thority which it claimeth, becoming the majesty and sincerity of divine truth ; it ex- 
presseth itself plainly and simply, without any affectation or artifice, without osten- 
tation of wit or eloquence, such as men study to insinuate and impress their devices 
by : it also speaketh with an imperious and awful confidence, such as argueth the 
speaker satisfied both of his own wisdom and authority; that he doubteth not of what 
he saith himself, that he knoweth his hearers obliged to believe him : its words are 
not like the words of a wise man, who is wary and careful that he slip not into mis- 
take, (interposing therefore now and then his maybes and perchances,) nor like 
the words of a learned scribe, grounded on semblances of reason, and backed with 
testimonies ; nor as the words of a crafty sophister, who, by long circuits, subtile 
fetches, and sly trains of discourse, doth inveigle men to his opinion ; but like the 
words of a king, carrying with them authority and power uncontrollable, commanding 
forthwith attention, assent, and obedience ; this you are to believe, this you are to do, 
upon pain of our high displeasure, at your utmost peril be it ; your life, your salvation 
dependeth thereon : such is the style and tenor thereof, plainly such as becometh the 
sovereign Lord of all to use, when he shall please to proclaim his mind and will to 
us." Jeremy Taylor is, in the expression of this reverence, not a whit behind Barrow : 
"For the meaning of the spirit of God is not like the wind blowing from one point, 
but like light issuing from the body of the sun, it is light round about ; and in every 
word of God there is a treasure, and something will be found somewhere to answer 
every doubt, and to clear every obscurity, and to teach every truth, by which God 
intends to perfect our understanding." (Sermon on the Minister's Duty in Life and 
Doctrine.) Even Coleridge, who says of the theory of verbal inspiration that it 
changes the living organism of Holy Writ into a " colossal Memnon's head, a hollow 
passage for a voice that mocks the voices of many men," speaks impatiently of the 
spirit which disparages the human element in revelation. In his Studies on Homer, 
Mr. Gladstone suggests that it is a mistake to bring the Old Testament before the 
tribunal of mere literary criticism ; that " we can no more compare Isaiah and the 
Psalms with Homer than we can compare David's heroism with Diomed's, and that 
we shall most nearly do justice to each by observing carefully the boundary lines of 
their respective provinces." He adds: "All that is peculiar in our conception of 
Isaiah or of Jeremiah does not tend so much to make them eminent among men as to 
separate them from other men," and this may be said of all the Scripture writers. 

' Comp. H. Planck, Nonnulla de significatu canonis in eccl. antiqua ejusque serie 
recte constituenda (Gott., 1820), which contradicts the opinion of Semler and Eich- 
horn that icavcov merely denotes a catalogue of books. Comp. also Nitzsch, System 
der christl. Lehre, § 40, sq., and especially Credner, zur Gesch. des Kanons, p. 6, sgq, 
Kapuv (corresponding to Heb. flJp, a staff, reed) is equivalent to rule, measure, norm. 
Holtzmann, I. c. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151 

as the "Word of God," contained in the Scriptures, is regarded as 
the whole of Scripture, and, therefore, as the Divine rule of faith 
and practice. As sacred literature stands opposed to profane in the 
more extended fields, so the canonical contrasts with the apocryphal 
within narrower limits. In the ecclesiastical vocabulary such relig- 
ious writings are termed apocryphal as are considered useful and 
good, but not pervaded by the peculiar spirit of the theocracy (the 
Old Testament Apocrypha usually appended to the canon) ; ^ or such 
(like many of the ]S[ew Testament apocryphal writings) as betray a 
tendency foreign to original apostolic Christianity, or at any rate, 
are not in thorough harmony' with it, and, therefore, not received 
as canonical.^ 

SECTION III. 

EELATIOISr OF THE OLD TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

The canon of the Scriptures is divided into the books of the Old 
and New Testaments {iraXaia, fcaivri dtadrJKr]).^ The Christian theo- 
logian is, in that character, to deal primarily with the New Testa- 
ment as being the immediate source of revelation for the (^ihristian theo- 
Christian religion; but he is nevertheless required to logians should 
include the Old Testament Scriptures also in the range Testament, and 
of his investigations: ^^^y- 

^ In the ancient Church the Apocrypha were known as libri ecclesiastici. They had 
been appended to the Greek version of the LXX, and came into circulation by that 
means ; but Jerome wished to have them separated from the canon, while Augustine 
advocated their retention. Upon this question the Protestants have taken sides with 
Jerome and the Roman Catholics with Augustine. The English and Scottish Churchea 
urge this distinction more than others, and insist upon its practical application. In 
recent times the question has given rise to disputes upon the Continent also. Comp. 
the writings against the Apocrypha by Ph. F. Keerl, Das Wort Gottes u. d. Apokr. des 
A. T's, Leips., 1853; J. U. Oschwald, Die Apokr. in d. Bibel, Zurich, 1853; and those 
for the Apocrypha, by E. W. Hengstenberg, Beibehaltung der Apokr., Berl., 1853, 
reprinted from the Evaug. Kirchen Zeitung; and R. Stier, Die Apokryphen, etc., 
Brunsw., 1853. Bleek furnishes a scientific and unbiassed discussion of the subject, 
in Stellung der Apokr. des A. T. im christl. Kanon, in Stud. u. Krit., 1853, 2, pp. 
267-^54. The difference should certainly be recognized in practice ; but the animos- 
ity which has in recent times contended zealously against the circulation of these 
books in connexion with the Bible, cannot be commended. 

"■'Comp. G. Brockmann, De Apocryphorum appellatione, Gryph., 1766; Gieseler, 
Was heisst Apokryphisch ? in Stud. u. Krit., 1829, No. 1, p. 141, sqq. ; de Wette, Einl. 
ins A. T., 6th ed., p. 10; Schleiermacher, § 109. 

'^ The word testamentum occurs first in TertuUian, Adv. Marc, iv, 11, who also em- 
ploys the term instrumentum. Concerning the original signification of dtad^riKij, as 
corresponding to the Heb., XT'"!!! (foedus), and the transition to the idea of "testa- 
ment" (Heb. ix, 16), see the lexicons. Knapp (of Halle) beautifully says, "We are 
to read the Testament, not like the jurist, who criticizes, but like a child that inherits." 
Comp. Eylert, Fr. Wilh., iii, p. 325. 



152 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

1. Because the monotheistic underlying principle of the New 
Testament is grounded in the Old, and its economy (plan of salva- 
tion) has its preparation in the Old Covenant. 

2. Because the modes of thought and expression found in the 
Old Testament, furnish the only key for comprehending the New. 

3. Because tlie Old Testament contains sections whose theocratic 
and ideally religious character gives them immediate didactic and 
edifying value for the Christian, and possesses for him all the au- 
thority of Divine revelation. 

Opinions have always been divided with regard to the relation 
Different views ^^ ^he Old Testament to *the New and the value of the 
of the value of former to the Christian. The Judaizing^ (Ebionitish) 

the Old Testa- c? \ / 

ment to the tendency was opposed by certain Gnostics (Marcionites), 
Church. while the Manichaeans rejected the Old Testament; and 

in the period of the Reformation a zealous opposition to the Law 
was manifested by the Antinomians, though this movement was re- 
pressed. Renewed attention to the Hebrew language served, on 
the contrary, to greatly encourage the study of the Old Testa- 
ment, and the theology and Church government of the Reformed 
Church especially assumed an Old Testament character. In the 
end, oriental and rabbinical learning threatened to overshadow and 
smother all other learning. The Socinians, on the contrary, dis- 
tinguished between the Old and New Testaments so far as to con- 
sider the latter alone as in any proper sense the source of revelation; 
and they were followed by a number of rationalists in the last cen- 
tury.^ Other rationalists, however, evinced a strong preference for 
the Old Testament, which arose from their Ebionitic point of view. 
They preferred to select texts from the book of Proverbs rather 
than from the writings of Paul; and they rated the morality of the 
apocryphal book of Wisdom as high as that of Jesus Christ. But 
many strictly orthodox persons likewise devoted themselves prefer- 
ably to the Old Testament, and especially to its typical sections, 
because they found it more congenial to their dispositions to appre- 
hend " Christ in the Old Testament " throuo^h the obscure medium 
of types, than in the Ncav, as there presented in clear conceptions 
schieiermach- adapted to the human mind. The course of Schleier- 
ofthe^SdTes^ macher, who, in opposition to such extreme ten- 
tament. dencies, assigned to the Old Testament a position so 

^ Thiess, for instance, (in his Anleitung zur Amtsberedsamkeit der Religionslehrer des 19 
Jahrhunderts, p. 139), asserts that " for the teacher of religion the entire Old Testament 
is composed of apocryphal books, from which he may hardly venture to borrow a few 
pages " ( ! ) ; and Sintenis, in Theol. Briefe (Part I) recommended that *' the entire Old 
Testament be cashiered without mercy " ( ! ). Comp. August!, Dogmengeschichte, p. 193. 



THE NEW TESTAMENT IN THE OLD. 153 

subordinate, as to barely recognize in it the accidental soil in 
which Christianity is rooted, is, as his followers acknowledge,^ 
simply another extreme founded on a misapprehension of the pe- 
culiar character of the Covenant ; but it is historically explicable. 
The religion of salvation is contained in the Old Testament in 
the form of prophecy (in the wide meaning of the term), though 
it is apparently bound to the religion of law ; aod Luther in 
his time would not limit the Gospel idea to the letter of the New 
Testament, but traced it backward through the prophecies of the 
Old.^ More recent theology, since the time of Schleiermacher, has 
made undeniable progress in this direction, though the relation be- 
tween prophecy and fulfillment is not always clear, and many things 
may be shrouded in the gloom of that magical twilight in which a 
certain school finds so much pleasure.^ 

It must be conceded in any event that New Testament modes of 
thought and expression are inexplicable without the The form of 
study of the Old, and that an immense number of pas- ^ifou-Sfdertved 
sages in the former are taken from the latter and refer from the ow. 
back to it, even though the inquiry be pushed no further than the 
external relations existing between the two. Such passages cannot 
be isolated and torn from their proper connexion, but must be ex- 
amined and comprehended in combination with the whole to which 
they belong. But in addition to the peculiar relation sustained by 
the Old Testament to the New, there is contained in it so much of 
a general and religious nature, in a human point of view (the relig- 
ious contemplation of nature, patriotism, ethical wisdom), that this 
quality alone possesses a sufficient charm to invite to the diligent 
study of its pages. The idea of a Divine training of humanity, 
the training of a nation that it may become the chosen people of 
God, is so grand and peculiar, as compared with any thing af- 

* See Scliweizer, Ref. Glaubenslehre, p, 95 ; Pelt, Encyk., p. 129. 

' The relation between the Old and New Testaments has been variously determined 
by recent theologians, Nitzsch's view (System of Christ. Doct., p. 79) is that the 
New Testament is related to the Old as " completion is to preparation, the removal of 
barriers to limitation, the immediate to the mediate." W. Hoffmann, Die gottliche 
Stufenordnimg im Alten Test., Berlin, 1854, p. Y: "In comparison with heathenism 
the Old Testament possesses a strong consciousness of victory, but it approaches the 
coming Christianity with a humiliating consciousness of imperfection." 

^ Comp. J. Ch. K. Hoffmann, Weissagung u. Erfiillung im Alten u. Neuen Test., 
Nordlingen, 1841-44, 2 vols., and the review of Ebrard in Tholuck's Lit. Anzeiger, 
1843, Nos. 16-18. On Old Testament prophetism see the articles by Gueder and 
Oehler in Herzog's Encykl, vol. xii ; A. E. Biedermann, Die Propheten des alten Bundes, 
in Zeitstimmen aus d. ref. Schweiz, 1860; Tholuck, Die Propheten u. ihre Weissa- 
gungen, Gotha, 1860. In opposition to errors in this field, see Herm. Hupfeld, Die 
heutige theosoph. oder mythologische Theologie u. Schrifterklarung, Berlin, 1861. 



154 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

forded by the other religions of antiquity, that the study of the Old 
Testament becomes one of the highest and most profitable tasks of 
science in a general religious and historical point of view. 

Furthermore, the connexion between the Old Testament and the 
New is vital, for the New Testament has its roots in the Old. It 
is one kingdom of God which is the subject of the history in both. 
In expressing penitence, joy, and faith, the Psalms touch the deep- 
est depths of Christian feeling, and the prophecies of Isaiah are by 
anticipation evangelical. The Bible can never be rightly studied 
unless the two Testaments are comprehended in their unity and 
harmony. If the Old Testament is in the 'New in fulfillment, the 
New is in the Old in promise. There is force in the thought of 
Archbishop Trench that in a just and reasonable sense all the Old 
Testament is prophetic, " that the subtle threads of prophecy are 
woven through every part of the texture, not separable from thence 
without rending and destroying the vfhole. All the Old Testament 
is the record of a divine constitution, pointing to something higher 
than itself, administered by men who were ever looking beyond them- 
selves to a Greater that should come ; who were uttering, as the Spirit 
stirred them, the deepest longings of their souls after his appear- 
ing, is prophetic; and this not by an arbitrary ai^pointment, which 
meant thus to supply evidences ready to hand for the truth of Reve- 
lation, in the curious tallying of the Old with the New, but prophetic 
according to the inmost necessities of the case, which would not suif er 
it to be otherwise." ^ 

SECTION IV. 

THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

The Old Testament embraces the documents relating to the his- 
contents of the ^ory of the Hebrew nation and religion, "down to a 
Old Testament, certain period." The books of which it is composed 
are generally divided into historical, prophetical, and poetical; but 
the division cannot be strictly applied to details. 

The Jews divided the sacred books (ty^pn ^dd lyipn "303) into the 

Usual Jewish Law (niio), the Prophets (d'X'3j), and the Hagiographa 

division of the . ^ -^ ' '• 

books. (D'31D3}. ihe prophets are subdivided into earlier 

(D'jr^kS'i) and later (Q'jrinx). The former class included the histor- 
ical books, beginning with Joshua and ending with Kings; while 
the latter Avas again subdivided into greater (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and 
Ezekiel) and lesser prophets, the latter forming a separate book. 
The Hagiographa included Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, 
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 
^ Hulsean Lecture for 1845 ; pp. 85, 86. 



DIVISION OF THE OLD TESTA.MENT. 155 

Chronicles. The inconvenient character of this mode of arranging 
and naming is apparent ; ^ and the more recent method of division, 
in which the Alexandrian Jews led the way, and which r^jj^ Aiexan- 
classiiied the different books as theocratic-historical, the- cirian ciassm- 
ocratically inspired (prophets), and didactic and poeti- oid Testament 
cal, is therefore to be preferred. It should be remem- books. 
bered that such a division can, in view of the entire structure of the 
Bible, be only relative, inasmuch as history and doctrine,^ poetry 
and prose,^ are combined in manifold ways in a majority of its 
books. It is for this very reason that the study of the Bible, and 
of the Old Testament in particular, becomes so stimulating and 
profitable, as to demonstrate that the Scriptures are no dry and 
formally completed system, but a beautiful variegated garden of 
God, in which the most diverse trees, herbs, shrubs, and flowers 
grow and give forth their fragrance; and above this diversity 
hovers, as above the waters on creation's morn, the spirit, peculiar 
to the Bible, of theophany and theocracy. A definite physiognomy 
looks out upon us from the theophanies, a holy, majestic, and per- 
sonal will speaks in the law and the prophecies; in the first instance, 
the physiognomy and will of a national God, no doubt, but still of 
a God who will tolerate no other gods besides, and who, exalted 
above all limitation, is sacredly and divinely conscious of possessing 
eternally creative power and universal dominion over the world. * 

^ A deeper reason for it may, however, be discovered ; comp. W. Hoffmann, Gottliche 
Stufenordnung im A. T., p. 30, on which, p. 6, the author truly and beautifully observes : 
" The Torah, the law or doctrine generally, which is the text and root of all teaching and 
learning in matters pertaining to salvation before the time of Christ, constitutes the 
foundation of the old covenant, the wonderful, massive substructure, upon which is 
grounded the graceful, rich columnar forest of the pi^ophets, with its glorious and bold or- 
naments of sacred poetry, which ornaments are fruit-bearing in their turn. It (the To- 
rah) is the instituting of the true religion, the most ancient revelation in a human form." 
Bunsen likewise insists, in his Bibelwerk, that the ancient divisions should be retained. 

^ " It is apparent to all that in the two sections of this important work (the Old and 
New Testaments) the historical and the doctrinal elements are intimately combined in 
such a way that one aids and supplements the other, as perhaps in no other book." 
Goethe, 1. c. 

' It is assuredly a delicate thread that passes through the Old and New Testament 
Scriptures, and especially through sections in which image and reality, history and 
poetry, come into contact. Rude hands are rarely able to follow, and much less un- 
ravel it, without tearing or entangling — without harming either the poetry or the his- 
tory, which are spun by it into a Avhole." Herder, Theophron (Werke zur Rel, u. 
Theol, X, p. 222, sq.). 

** A more unjustifiable statement has probably never been made, than that the Old 
Testament God is simply an extra-mundane, abstract God. The very reverse is true. 
Nothing can be more concrete than the determinate God of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. Bahr (Symbolik, i, p. 9) is consequently correct when he says, " The underly- 



156 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

The leading object of the Old Testament, that of revelation, does 
The leading Ob- ^^^ appear from isolated passages, but from the whole 
ject of the Old of its development; and the present age, because of its 

Testament vis- . „ . . . ^ . „ . 

ibie throughout niania tor mvestigating separate portions oi the canon- 
its contents, ica^i Scriptures, is less capable than its predecessor of 
obtaining a comprehensive view of the Divine plan for educating 
the race, such as was still possible to Lessing, Hess, Herder, Ha- 
mann, and Kleuker, though from different points of view. It 
is to be hoped, however, that the constructive spirit of a coming 
age may, assisted by such preparatory critical labours, be able to 
erect the edifice of Old Testament theology with a more certain 
hand and in a purer style than was possible to that earlier period 
with its more limited historical horizon.^ But for an understand- 
ing of the Old Testament a knowledge of the New is necessary, in 
like manner as, on the other hand, the study of the former is impor- 
tant for the exposition of the latter (comp. sect. 2) ; and since it is 
evident, as a general truth, that " the peculiar character of a people 
can only be clearly recognized in the closing and crowning period 
of its history," it follows that " Jesus Christ is to the understanding 
of Israelitish history what Caesar Augustus is to the Roman." '^ 

SECTION V. 

THE ISTEW TESTAMENT. 

While the Old Testament covers a period embracing thousands 
The New Test- ^^ years, the new is limited to a generation of men. 
ament covers The Old is concerned with the training of a single na- 
generation of tion into the character of God's people ; while the latter 
"^"i- treats of the unique personality of Jesus Christ as the 

ing idea peculiar to Mosaism is precisely this, that Jehovah has connected himself 
with Israel, and is not separate from the world and inaccessible, but lives and walks 
among his people ; and every person who in true earnestness of soul has uttered the 
Psalmist's cry, ' Whom have I in heaven but thee ? ' etc., knows also that the Lord is 
no abstract being, but a most concrete God, and no philosophy will be able to destroy 
the conclusion he has reached." 

^ A similar hope is expressed by Ebrard in his inaugural, Die Gottmenschlichkeit 
des Christenthums (Zurich, 1844), p. 17, Avhere he declares it to be one of the leading 
tasks of the theology of our day " to follow out the Divinely human character of Old 
Testament revelation in the spirit of the immortal Herder." 

"^ See Hofmann, Weissagung u. Erflilling, i, p. 54. Comp. Havernick, Vorlesungen 
liber Theol. d. A. T., p. 18, " The statement may be truthfully made that Christ is the 
central feature of the Old Testament, as being the earthly manifestation of personal, 
concrete justice and love ; but the distinction must not be overlooked that in the Old 
Testament Christ is not immediately presented, but indirectly, by means of occasional 
symbols, actions, and words. Nor can the Old Testament be understood without 
Christ, Such an attempt will end in reducing it from its proper elevation ; it becomes 
a body without a head, disintegrating and destroying itself." 



THE SCOPE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. I57 

Son of God, and of the institution of a society founded on that 
personality. 

The habit of confining the attention wholly to the connexion be- 
tween the Old and New Testaments, as though they The difference 
were simply the two volumes of a single book, the ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ 

the two Testa- 
Bible, has led to many erroneous conclusions.' The ments. 

inquirer who desires merely quantity and variety of matter, will 
certainly derive greater satisfaction from the Old Testament than 
the New; for it will ever continue to be an important historical 
book, a chronicle of the world and its nations, even to persons 
who misapprehend its peculiar religious purpose. The New Testa- 
ment is not of this character. Its vision embraces but few nations 
in its range, and is limited to Palestine, Asia Minor, Greece, and 
Rome; and the student who desires information relating to those 
nations or countries is able to consult authorities of a wholly dif- 
ferent kind. Every thing in it relates to the manifestation of a 
single and wholly unique personality,'' and it offers but little to a 
mind that lacks interest in this subject. No prominence is given 
to great external events, for even the miracles, with few excep- 
tions, are of a mild and unimposing character ; but, next to the 
person of the Redeemer himself, it is human characters that en- 
gage the attention, and more especially with reference to a defi- 
nite relation sustained by them to Christ.^ The inner man, with 
his capabilities and needs, with his subjection to sin and error — 
from which he is to be delivered by an act of Divine love — the 
Divine love itself, no longer directed upon a chosen nation, but, in 
a human person, upon the entire race; the entrance of the Infinite 
into the finite conditions of human life, which is conditioned by 
the circumstances of nationality and time indeed, but none the less 
is superior to such limitations; the might of a new spirit, which,, 
entering upon the arena of human history, transforms both nature 
and conditions; the gathering of a community professing faith in 

^ Comp. the remark by Tholuck, cited in sect. 2 of this chap., note. 

^ " The pecuharities of form and contents of the New Testament become clearly 
apparent when it is compared with these collections of sacred books (the Old Testament 
and the Koran), The religious idea and the historical fact are here combined in the 
single phenomenon of tlie entrance of the Deity into hmna^i life. All the parts are 
collected about a common centre, the historical manifestation of God in Christ. But 
this unity is again resolved into a rich diversity of points of view, from which the doc- 
trine is illustrated, of historical characters, whose moral beauty does not conceal the 
stamp of individuality, and of histoi'ical situations, which serve to illustrate the appli- 
cation of Christian ideas to human life." Clausen, Hermeneutik, p. 28. 

^ The Old Testament has, not improperly, been compared to the Iliad, and the New. 
to the Odvssev. 



158 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the crucified and risen Jesus; the regeneration of individuals into 
the likeness of God, and of nations into an (ideal) people and king- 
dom of God — these form the kernel and the contents of the Gospel 
proclamation. 

The substance of the proclamation is presented under the two 
forms of history and doctrine, to which prophecy is appended, 
Subdivisions of ^^^^^^ affording an analogy with the Old Testament, in 
the New Testa- which a similar distinction between historical, prophet- 
doctrine, and ical, and didactic books has been observed ; but this 
prophecy. analogy will not hold good in all respects. The dis- 

tinction between historical and didactic books is likewise faulty 
when applied to details. The statement that the Gospels and 
the book of Acts form the historical, the Pauline and the gen- 
eral epistles the didactic, and the Apocalypse the prophetical part, 
must be modified by the consideration that didactic elements are 
contained in the historical books of the New Testament (the dis- 
courses of Jesus in the synoptical Gospels ' and John), that histor- 
ical matter is found in the epistles (Gal. ii; 1 Cor. xi, 23-25; xv, 
3-9, etc.), and that prophecies occur both in the Gospels (Matt, 
xxiv) and the epistles (1 Thess. v, 1, etc.). 

Questions relating to the collection of the New Testament 
canon belong to the province of Introduction; but it is to be 
observed, for the purpose of guarding against the adoption of 
The Gospel at partial views, that the Gospel was at first proclaimed 
oSiiy"^- after- altogether by living agents and by means of oral 
wards written, address ; that the introduction of writing was due 
to the necessity of corresponding with distant Churches and in- 
dividuals, and that it is by reason of the references in them to 
communities and individuals that the New Testament writings 
acquire a peculiar interest, which, however, is speedily dissipated 
by the application of over-hasty dogmatizing principles to their in- 
terpretation;^ that the transmission of historical facts by oral tra- 

'■ Matthew, Mark, and Luke, so called because their modes of presenting the sub- 
ject, though different, yet resemble each other in admitting of a ready synopsis, while 
the fourth Gospel pursues an independent method. 

^ " An examination of these (New Testament) writings will reveal a feature in which 
they differ from all other books that are accounted sacred. No trace of a formal and 
solemnly declared revelation by God is indicated by their form, nor, with the single 
exception of the Apocalypse, do they claim to have been written at the direct com- 
mand of God, which is the case in the Old Testament with the writings of Moses and 
the prophets. The sacred books of other religions, e. g.^ the Koran, likewise claim to 
be Divine revelations immediately given from heaven. Had it been intended to make 
such a book the basis of the Christian commonwealth, no person would have possessed 
more absolute qualification and authority to compose it than Jesus Christ himself ; but 



AUXILIARIES OF EXEGESIS. 159 

dition preceded their circulation in a written form; that the agree- 
ments and disagreements of the different records with each other 
are founded in the circumstances of their origin, and must be ex- 
plained in harmony with human reason and by scientific methods; 
and finally, that the several books composing the New Testament 
were not all admitted to the canon and comprehended The New Test- 
into a whole at the same time, but that they were ^^^^^ *^^!^°^ 

' ^ _ -^ not formed at 

gradually received (evayyeXiov^ dTrocrroAo^), opinion be- onetime. 

ing in the meantime Undecided with regard to the canonicity of 
certain of them {avriXeyofieva). While admitting such facts, how- 
ever, it must not be supposed on the other hand, that the canon is 
simply an accidental aggregation. It is rather to be regarded as 
necessarily determined by its own internal character and so received 
by the Church, and as carrying a great idea through the whole of 
its empirical form, so that the beginning and the end are linked to- 
gether like the ends of a chain, Genesis opening with the beginning 
of all things and the Apocalypse closing with the end of the world. 
The structure of the canon must be examined with an independent 
spirit rather than with a mind controlled by any pedantic method; 
a principle that should be applied also to the (not chronological) 
arrangement of the Prophets and Epistles, and to the seemingly 
abrupt transitions from one book to another.' 

SECTION VI. 

SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGESIS. 

Exegetical theology requires, as necessary aids : — 

1. A knowledge of the original languages of the Scriptures (phi- 
loloffia sacra) ; ^^, « ., 

2. An acquaintance with the sciences which deal with iary sciences. 

he has not done this. He has chosen instead to deposit with a number of living per- 
sons the life which he was empowered to convey ; and these persons were likewise not 
commissioned nor did they assume to give a written documentary form to the subject 
they were to announce to men. They confined themselves to the living word in the 
effort to gather a people, among whom that word should become power, life, and real- 
ity. The force of circumstances afterward led them to make use of writing, and even 
then it was because special conditions and occurrences required attention which could 
not be given in person, because the distance between the parties prevented other than 
written intercourse," etc. Chr. Hoffmann, Das Christenthum in d. ersten Jahrhun- 
derten (Stuttgart, 1853), p. 194. Comp. H. Schultz, p. 54. 

* The artistic mind of Herder discovered the right principle, here as elsewhere. " I 
cannot express the value at which I rate several of the most sharply contrasting books, 
all of which are placed together. The three books of Solomon following after the 
Psalms, the Psalms after Job, love's tender dove after the bird of wisdom, and in imme- 
diate succession Isaiah, the eagle, mounting upward to the sun. Here is instruction, 
here is human life." Solomo's Lieder der Liebe (Werke zur Rel. u. Theol., vii, p. 102). 



160 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

facts that come into question (Biblical antiquities, geography, phyS' 
ica sacra) ; 

3. A knowledge of the origin and fortunes of the canon and its 
parts (Isagogics, Canon). 

To these positive, historical, and philological sciences must be 
joined an acquaintance : — 

1. With the laws which determine the canonicity and authentic- 
ity of a book as a whole, and also the perfect preservation of the 
text in its several parts (integrity) — the science of criticism. 

2. With the rules of interpretation — hermeneutics. 

The above order of arrangement is founded in methodological 
reasons. It may be thought that Introduction should 
order of succes- properly precede all else ; but practice in reading the 
^^°^' Scriptures, involving a knowledge of the languages in 

which they were written, is necessary to success in the study of that 
branch. A knowledge of physical and historical facts is also re- 
quired, even though it be limited, at first, to such archaeological 
notes as the lexicons afford, and its full development into a scientific 
character be reserved for a later stage, in connexion with the study 
of historical theology. Lectures on Introduction having reference 
to the canon as a whole, will possess a proper 'interest only for 
students who have become familiar with separate books of the 
Bible, in the way of philological and archaeological study ; and 
a thorough comprehension of the laws of Criticism and Hermeneu- 
tics is possible to him only who has, to some extent, been engaged 
in the work of interpretation. 

SECTION VIL 

THE ORIGINAL LAN"GUAGES OF THE BIBLE. 

The Old Testament Scriptures were originally written in the He- 
brew language, with the exception of a few sections which were 
written in Chaldee. The New Testament Scriptures were written 
in Hellenistic Greek. 

Chaldee sections, Dan. ii, 4 to the end of vii ; Ezra iv, 8 ; vi, 18 ; 
vii, 12-26 ; Jer. x, 11.^ 

It may be regarded as generally conceded that the Greek, and 
not the Aramaean, as Bolten and Bertholdt argued, is the original 
language of the New Testament ; but opinions are still divided 
on the question of the original form of the Gospel by St. 
Matthew. 

' Concerning the Biblical Chaldee comp. L. Hirzel, De Chaldaismi Biblici origine, etc., 
Leips., 1830, 4to. ; F. Dietrich, De Sermonis Chaldaici proprietate, Leips., 1839. 



CHARACTER OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 181 

SECTION VIII. 

THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 

J. J. Wagner, Wlchtigkeit d. Heb. Sprache fur Theologen, Bamb. and Wiirzburg, 1806; 
W. M. L. de Wette, Aufforderung zum. Stud, der Hebr. Spr. u. Literatur, Jena, 1806; W. M.' 
Thomson, The Physical Basis of Our Spiritual Language, Bib. Sacra., vol. xxix, pp. l-2ii, 
and vol. xxx, pp. 25-127; G. H. Whittemore, Hebrew Language and Lexicography, Bib. Sacra.! 
vol. xxix, pp. 547-553; Articles on Hebrev^' Language in Kltto's and M'Clintock & Strong's 
Cyclopaedias. 

A knowledge of the Hebrew language is indispensable to the 

theologian, not only for the study of the Old Testament, but also 

for the New : The necessity 

1. Because the New Testament idiom is partially of a knowledge 

^ "^ of Hebrew and 

based on that language. the reasons. 

2. Because much that is there given in the Greek was original- 
ly conceived and expressed in the kindred Aramaean dialect, and 
accordingly derives its colouring, in different degrees, from that 
source. 

On the word " Hebrew " (whether derived from "tn;*, the ancestor 
of Abraham), see the introductions to the grammars of Gesenius 
and Ewald. The phrase " Hebrew language " is not found in the 
Old Test., the "language of Canaan," Isa. xix, 18, and "Jews' lan- 
guage," Isa. xxxvi, 11, 13, being used instead. The latter expres- 
sion, however, denotes more particularly the Hebrew dialect spoken 
in the kingdom of Judah and in the vicinity of Jerusalem. The 
New Testament has the expressions y^cjooa rcbv '^ElSpatcov and kfipa- 
iari, John v, 2 ; xix, 13, but as designating the Aramaic vernacular, 
in distinction from the Greek. 

The Hebrew language possesses a peculiar interest for the pur- 
poses of pure knowledge alone ; but it engages the at- characteristics 
tention of the philologist only as it is a member of of Hebrew. 
the larger family of languages known as the Semitic.^ The for- 

^ This term has come into use since the days of Schlozer and Eichhorn, as 
being mere thoroughly descriptive than Jerome's phrase, "the Oriental languages." 
The latter embraces the entire East, while the Semitic languages are indigenous to 
hither Asia, and confined to Palestine, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ara- 
bia, and Ethiopia. They are divided into three principal branches, 1. The Aramaean 
(Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia), subdivided into West and East Aramaic (Syriac 
and Chaldee) ; 2. The Hebrew (Palestine and Phoenicia) from which the Punic was 
derived ; 3. The Arabic, with Avhich the Ethiopic is a cognate branch. The Samaritan 
was a mixture of Hebrew and Aramaean. It has been found, however, that the term 
Semitic is likewise neither sufficiently exact nor exhaustive (comp. Gesenius, Gesch. 
d. Hebr. Sprache u. Schrift, p. 5), and some writers {e. g., Havernick, Einl., i, 1, p. 93) 
have again adopted the temn "Oriental." Recent authors have suggested that "hith- 
er-Asiatic " or " Syro- Arabic " be substituted for either, to designate this family of 
languages. J. G. Miiller (wer suid die Semiten u, mit welchem Recht spriclit man von 
11 



162 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJSDIA. 

mation and character of this language, so essentially unlike Greek 
and Latin, its being written from right to left, its wealth in 
guttural letters, the facts that, strictly speaking, it has but three 
leading vowels, and that the root- word is usually a verb and is al- 
most invariably composed of three consonants, its peculiar modes of 
conjugation, of forming cases, etc., and its simple syntax, are feat- 
ures which impart to it a special charm,* but also to some extent, 
increase its difficult character. A knowledge of Hebrew is conceded 
to be necessary for the interpretation of the Old Testament ; but it 
is likewise indispensable to the exegesis of the ISTew, for the reasons: 
A k Id 1. That entire sections (citations) from the Old Testament 
of Hebrew in- can only be properly understood after being compared 
toe^eSgSs of with the original ; 2. That the :N"ew Testament itself, to 
the New Testa- use Luther's expression, " is full of the Hebrew mode of 
speaking; " ^ that though the number of assumed Hebra- 
isms has been greatly reduced since Winer's thorough investiga- 
tions, the significations of ISTew Testament words and their combina- 
tions are largely to be explained from the Hebrew (e. g., the words 
(TCLQ^, Kagdia, airXdyxvcb, orrXayx'^^i'^sfydat , (jTrepiwa, and the phrases npoGO)- 
7Z0V Xaiilidveiv ^ Trgoaconov Trpo^ nQoaconov, evojniov rov Oeov^ etc.) ; 3. That 
expressions in the discourses of our Lord, as given in the Greek text 
of the Gospels, need to be translated back into the Aramaean dialect 
then current among that people, in order to be correctly understood — 
a principle that is not sufficiently regarded, the ordinary method in 
New Testament exegesis being to ascertain simply the Greek ety- 
mon. It appears from the above that a knowledge of Hebrew is 

Semit. Sprachen? Basle, 1860, 4to.) returns to the expression, "language of Canaan," 
and accordingly regards the Hebrew as a Hamitic language ; but he observes that 
"however evident the matter may be, the term Semitic has become too thoroughly 
established in the learned and cultivated world to be easily set aside." 

' " Injucundum videtur idioma latino fastui et graecanicae eifeminationi, sed idioma 
est et sanctum et sacris Uteris necessarium maxime, cujus ignoratio multas haereses et 
errores invexit." Oecolampadius Hedioni (Epp. Oecol. et Zwinglii, Basle, 1536, sq.) 
fol. 172. "The Hebrew language is full of the soul's breath; it does not resound, 
like the Greek, but it breathes, it lives." Herder, Geist, d. hebr. Poesie, i, p. 28. 
With reference to the relation of the Semitic languages to those of the Indo-Ger- 
manic (Aryan) nations, see Bertheau, p. 613, and also with regard to their relation to 
the later, so-called rabbinical, HebrcAv. 

^ "It has therefore been justly said that the Hebrews drink at the fountainhead, 
the Greeks from the streamlets that issue from the fountain, but the Latins from the 
puddles. The Hebrew is the best and purest language ; it does not beg, and wears its 
own colours. It is more simple, indeed, than others, but majestic and glorious, direct 
and of few words, which, however, involve much that is below the surface ; so that 
none other is capable of imitating it." Comp. Herder's Briefe das Stud, der TheoL 
betreffend, iv, p. 144. 



HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 163 

an indispensable qualification for the theologian ; but it does not 
follow, as certain of the older writers imagined, that a good He- 
braist must necessarily be a good theologian.' The terminology of 
Christianity is clearly not confined within the limits of the Hebrew 
tongue ; and as Christianity itself has grown beyond the Old Testa- 
ment Judaism, so it has developed a new language for its own use, 
and has infused a new spirit into Hebraistic forms, which a defunct 
Hebraism cannot explain, for which the Hebrew simply affords a 
basis, and which must be wholly apprehended from its own idea. 

SECTION IX. 

HISTOEICAX, SKETCH OF THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 

The older theology held that the Hebrew was the primitive 

language, the sacred language employed by God and The study ot 

the angjels, which existed alone until others were added ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ 
o ' ^ ^ several ages of 

in the confusion of tongues at Babel. ^ Recent in- the church, 
quiries have shown that the Hebrew language was not perfected 
before the time of David, and have given rise to different opin- 
ions concerning the language of the Canaanitish and Phoenician 
tribes that occupied Palestine before the immigration of the 
Abrahamidae. The importance of the Hebrew language for the 
Christian theologian, so generally conceded in our day, was not 
always recognized. The primitive Christians generally made use 
of versions, particularly the Alexandrian by the LXX. Origen and 
Jerome (the latter especially) were distinguished for their knowledge 
of Hebrew, while Augustine was deficient in this regard. During 
the middle ages Hebrew was almost wholly neglected by Christians ; 
though a learned acquaintance with the language was preserved to 
some extent, after it ceased to be a spoken tongue, among the Jews 
(Talmudists, Masorites). The school of Tiberias was especially 
famous ; and Jerome among others, was instructed by Palestinian 
Jews. The Alexandrians, however, devoted less atten- ^^ ^^_ 

tion to the ancient language of their people (Philo). Be- brew in the 
tween the eighth and ninth centuries grammatical stud- ° 

ies were greatly neglected by the Jews likewise, until they were 
revived by the Spanish Jews (in the time of the Moorish suprem- 

* While Luther strongly recommends the study of the Hebrew, he yet writes (against 
Erasmus, who prided himself on his knowledge of languages), " Vides, quod non ideo 
quispiam sit Christianus vere sapiens, quia Graecus sit et Hebraeus, quando et beatus; 
Hieronymus quinque Unguis monoglosson Augustinum non adaequarit " — to J. Lange, 
in de Wette, Briefe, Sendschreiben, etc., i. No. 29, p. 52. 

^ This view has been defended in recent times by Father Hy. Gossler, in Die heil. 
Schrift in ihrer Ursprache (Lippstadt, 1850). The author asserts that "no accurate 
Hebrew grammar can be found outside the (Roman Catholic) Church ! " — ^P. 16. 



164 SPECIAL THEOLOaiCAL ENCYCLOPiEDIA. 

acy). The twelfth century produced a number of prominent rab- 
bins, among others David Kimchi. 

The knowledge of Hebrew among Christians was renewed by the 
aid of Jewish teachers. At the close of the fifteenth and the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth centuries Elias Levita, by birth a German Jew, 
was teaching in Italy, where his doctrine of the modern origin of 
the vowel signs in Hebrew drew upon him persecution from his co-re- 
ligionists, though Christians also regarded his teaching as heretical. 
Such prejudices were not favourable to impartial grammatical stud- 
ies. The renewed study of Hebrew in the Christian world, however, 
with which the Reformation is (partially) involved, is closely con- 
nected with the so-called renaissance of learning. Nicholas Lyra, 
in the fourteenth century, applied his limited knowledge of He- 
R-uchiin the ^^'^^ *^ *^^ interpretation of the Scriptures ; but the 
restorer of He- proper impulse was given by Reuchlin, who must be 
brew learning. ^Q^sidered the restorer of the study of Hebrew among 
Christians. His three books De Rudimentis Hebraicis, prefaced by 
the Exegi monumentum aere perennius of Horace, appeared in the 
year 1506. He was followed by J. Boschenstein, Seb. Mtinster (f in 
1552), the two Buxtorfs. John B., the elder, professor at Basle from 
1591, (f 1629,) wrote a Thesaurus linguae sacrae, a grammar, 1605, and 
a lexicon Hebr. et Chald., Basle, 1607 ; John B., the younger, (f 1666), 
disputed on the age of the vowel-signs at Saumur with Louis Capel- 
lus. They were succeeded by Drusius (f 1616), Schickard (f 1635), 
Glassius (f 1656), Yorstius (f 1676). In the middle of the seven- 
teenth century the method of the demonstrative philosophy, corre- 
sponding to the scholastic temper of the time, came into promi- 
nence, being represented more especially by Danz (1696) in Ger- 
many and by Jac. Alting (f 1679) in the Netherlands. A new influ- 
ence was exerted by Albert Schultens at Franecker and Leyden 
(t 1750), who consulted the Arabic and traced Hebrew words back to 
Arabic roots, but carried the method to excess. About the mid- 
dle of the eighteenth century J. D. Michaelis prosecuted the 
study of Oriental languages over a broader field and aroused an 
interest in others also for such pursuits. Gesenius (f 1842), hav- 
ing been preceded by Hezel (1777), Vater (1797-1814) and Weck- 
lierlin (1797, sqq.)^ was the first to adopt a settled and clear method, 
which still has decided adherents, though a more systematic mode, 
based on the nature of the language and complete in itself, has been 
attempted particularly by Ewald. This latter scholar has brought 
to the study of Hebrew philosophical analysis, and a wide compar- 
ison of kindred languages. 

The first great English lexicographer of Hebrew and its cognate 



HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 165 

languages was Edmund Castell. He published his Lexicon Hepta- 
glotton in two volumes folio, London, 1669. A Hebrew, Chaldee, 
and English Lexicon was published (London, 1840) by Samuel Lee, 
Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. This import- 
ant work is quoted with approbation by Gesenius. The Hebrew 
Lexicon of Gesenius has been translated into English and repub- 
lished in England and America. The edition by Dr. Robinson 
(Boston, 1836, and subsequently) is considered "the best full He- 
brew Lexicon extant in our language." The compendious Hebrew 
and Chaldee Lexicon of Davies has been revised and republished 
by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell, of Chicago (Andover, 1859). Fiirst's 
Ilebraisches und Chaldaisches Handworterbuch iiber das Alte Testa- 
ment has been edited in English by Dr. S. Davidson (London, 1867). 
Professor Moses Stuart, of Andover, Mass., published in 1821 a He- 
brew grammar, with a copious Syntax and Praxis (Andover, octavo). 
Isaac Nordheimer, Professor of Hebrew in the University of New 
York, published a Hebrew Grammar distinguished for its philo- 
sophical treatment of the subject (1838, 1842, 2 vols., 8vo). Pro- 
fessor Lee is also the author of a Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- 
guage (London, 3d ed., 1841). The Hebrew Grammar of Horwitz 
(London, 1835) is well approved by scholars. The Hebrew Gram- 
mar of Gesenius, on the basis of the revisions of Rodiger, Kautzsch, 
and Davies, has been issued by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell (Andover, 
1880). Professor W. H. Green, of Princeton, is the author of an 
excellent Hebrew Grammar (3d ed.. New York, 1876). Compare: 

A. Th. Hartmann, Linguistische Einleitung in das Studium der Biicher des A. T> 
Bremen, 1817. 

W. Gesenius, Geschichte der Hebr. Sprache und Schiift. Lpz., 1815. 

See also the Introductions to the Old Testament, (e. g., de Wette, §§ 30-33, and the 

literature there given.) 

(G.) H. (A.) Ewald, kritische Grammatik der hebr. Sprache. S. 1 ff. 

Hoffmann in Allg. Encyklopadie. Abth. II. Thl. 3. 

Havernick, Einleitung in's A. T. I. 1. Cap. 2 : Geschichte der Grundsprachen des 
A. T. English edition (Edinburgh), pp. 81-221. 

Kiel, Einleitung in die Schriften des A. T. S. 13 ff., treats of the literature of the 
Old Testament considered with regard to its progressive development and charac- 
ter, and also to its language. 

1. Hebrew Orammars} 

W. Gesenius, Hebr. Grammatik. Halle, 1813. Latest ed. (by Rodiger,) Lpz., 1872. 

Ausfiihrliches grammatisch-kritisches Lehrgebaude der Hebr. Sprache mit Ver- 

gleichung der verwandten Dialekte. Lpz., 1817. 

1 Older works by Seb. Munster (1532), F. Buxtorf (1695, and often reprinted), J. A. Danz (1096), 
A. Schultens (1737), J. D. Michaelis (1745), F. W. Hezel (1777). Later works by J. S. Vater (1797, 
1814), J. F. Weckherlln (Stuttg., Bd. I, 1797, 1798, 1818 ; Ed. II, 1805, 1819), M. Hartmann (1798, 
1819), R. Hanno, (1825, 1828), Bockel (1825), UMemann, 1827). 



166 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJSDIA. 

H. Ewald, Kritische Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache. Lpz., 1827. Complete textbook. 
Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache des A. T. in vollstandiger Kiirze neu bearbeitet. 

Lpz., 1828; 6. Aufl. 1855. (Gott., 1870.) The 7th ed. is entitled Ausfuhrliches 

Lehrbuch der Hebr. Sprache des A. Bundes. 

-Hebr. Sprachlehre fiir Antanger. 3. Aufl. Gott., 1862. 



R. Stier, Neugeordnetes, Lehrgebaude der Hebr. Sprache. Lpz., 1833. 2 Parts. 

D. G. W. Freitag, Kurzgef. Grammatik der Hebr. Sprache fiir den Schul- und Uni- 

versitatsgebrauch. Halle, 1835. 
Preiswerk, Grammaire Hebraique. Geneve, 1838. 8. 
H. Hupfeld, Ausfiihrl. Hebr. Grammatik. 1. Thl. Cassel, 1841. 
Lib. Stengel, Hebr. Grammatik. Karlsruhe, 1841. 
J. Hymann, Anfangsgriinde der Hebr. Sprache. Frankf. a. M., 1852. Also in French, 

Paris, 1852. 
H. Goldstein, Hebr. Sprachschiiler. Ratib., 1853. 
J. B. Lobositz, Aus der Hebr. Grammatik. Prag., 1853. 
C. H. Bosen, Anleitung zum Erlernen der Hebr. Sprache. 8. Aufl. Freiburg i. B., 

1864. 
G. Bickell, Grundriss der Hebraischen Grammatik. 2 Parts. Lpz., 1869-70. 
C. H. Clauss, Werth des Hebr. Unterrichts fiir das Gymnasium. Dresd., 1853. 

A. Miiller, Hebr. Schulgrammatik. Halle, 1878. 

B. Stade, Lehrb. der Hebr. Grammatik. 1 Th. Lpz., 1879. 

A. Berliner, Beitrage zur Hebr. Gram, in Talmud u. Midrasch. Berl., 1879. 

2. Elementary Textbooks. 

* W. Gesenius, Hebr. Lesebuch. Halle, 1814. Latest (10th) ed. (by Heiligstedt). 

Lpz., 1873. 
S. W. Wirthgen, Materialien zur praktischen Einiibung der Hebraischen Sprache. 

Lpz., 1825. 
J. F. Bottcher, Hebraisches Elementarbuch fur Schulen. Dresd., 1826. 
G. Briickner, Hebraisches Lesebuch fiir Anfanger und Geiibtere. Lpz., 1844. 3. Aufl. 

1863. 
G. H. Seffer, Elementarbuch der Hebraischen Sprache. Lpz., 1845. 3. Aufl., 1861. 

C. Schwarz, Hebr. Lesebuch mit Beziehung auf Ewald's Hebr. Sprachlehre fiir An- 

fanger. Lpz., 1847. 
H. Leeser, Hebr. Uebungsbuch. Coesfeld, 1853. 
C. L. Fr. Mezger, Hebraisches Uebungsbuch fiir Anfanger. Lpz., 1855; 3. Aufl., 

1878. 
Stier, Hebraisches Yocabularium zum Schulgebrauch. Lpz., 1859. 
W. A. Hollenberg, Hebr. Schulbuch. 3. Aufl., Berlin, 1873. 
Schick, Hebraisches Uebungsbuch. 1. Thl. Die Formenlehre. Lpz., 1861. 

3. Lexico7is} 

* W. Gesenius, Hebraisch-deutsches Handworterbuch iiber die Schriften des A. T. mit 
Einschluss der Chald. Worter. Lpz., 1810-12. 2 Bde. 

Hebr. und Chaldaisches Handworterbuch iiber das A. T. Lpz., 1815. 7. Aufl. 

V. F. E. C. Dietrich. 1868. 
Lexicon manuale Hebr. et Chald. in Y. T. libros. Post edit. germ, tertiam Lat- 



ine elaboravit, etc. Lips., 1833; ed. alt. ab A. Th. Hoffmanno recogn., 1847. 

» Older works by J. Buxtnrf (1607, 1654), J. Coccejus (1669, 1774), J. Ch. Wolf, (1707), Stock 
(1727), Simonis (1752), CastelU (1784). 



HEBREW LITERATURE. 167 

* G. B. Winer, Simonis lexicon manuale Hebr. et Chald. Eichhornii curas denuo casti- 

gavit, etc. Lips., 1828. 
Orelli, Die Hebraischen Synonyma der Zeit und Ewigkeit. Lpz., 1871. 
Ryssel, Die Synonyma des Wahren und Guten in den Semitischen Sprachen. Lpz., 

1872. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
1. Hebrew Grammars and Chrestomathies. 

Ball, C. J. The Merchant Taylor's Hebrew Grammar. The Formal Principles of 

Hebrew Grammar, as uudex'stood by modern Scientists, stated iu a manner suited 

to beginners. 8vo. London, 1882. 
Bowman, T. A New, Easy, and Complete Hebrew Course. Parti. Edinburgh. 
Craik, Heury. Principia Hebraica. The Principles of Hebrew Grammar. In 24 

large folio Tables. Folio. London, 1882. 
Crawford, F. J. Horas Hebraicae. 16mo, pp. 191. London, 1868. (Hebrew prefixes.) 
Davidson, Prof. Introductory Hebrew Grammar. 4th ed., 8vo, pp. viii,l 98. Edinb., 1 880. 
Deutsch, Solomon. A Key to the Pentateuch Explanatory of the Text and the Gram- 
matical Forms. Parti. Genesis. 8\'0. New York, 1871. 
A New Practical Hebrew Grammar, with Hebrew-English, and English-Hebrew 

Exercises, and a Hebrew Chrestomathy. 8vo. New York, 1868. 
Ewald, Heinrich. Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Translated by J. F. Smith. 8vo, 

pp. 279. London, 1870. 
Syntax of the Hebrew Language of the Old Testament. From the 8th German 

ed. 8vo, pp. viii, 823. Edinburgh, 1879. 
Gesenius, William. Hebrew Grammar, Translated by Benjamin Davis, LL.D., from 

Roediger's ed., thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, on the Basis of the Latest ed. 

of Prof, E. Kautzsch, D.D., and from other recent authorities, by Edward C. 

Mitchell, D.D. 8vo, pp. xxxiii, 423. Andover, 1880. 
Green,W. H. Elementary Hebrew Grammar. 12mo, pp. viii, 194. 2d rev. ed. N.Y, 1872. 
Kalisch, M. M. A Hebrew Grammar with Exercises. In two Parts. 8vo, pp. xv, 

374, and xvi, 324. London, 1862-3. 
Leathes, Stanley. Practical Hebrew Grammar, with the Hebrew Text of Genesis i-vi, 

and Psalms i-vi. Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. Post 8vo, London, 1868. 
Mitchell, Alexander. The Book of Jonah. Analyzed, Translated, and the Accents 

named ; being an Easy Introduction to the Hebrew Language. 8vo. London, 1882. 
Mitchell, E. C. A Concise Statement of the Principles of Hebrew Grammar. For 

the Use of Teachers. 8vo, paper. Andover. 
Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 

212, 379. New York, 1842. 
Strong, James. Epitome of Hebrew Grammar. 8vo, pp.- 80. Published by the 

Author, at Madison, N. J., 1875. 
Stuart, Moses. Course of Hebrew Study for Beginners. Vol. II. Bds. Andover, 1830. 
The Study of the Hebrew Vowel Points. Parts I, II. A series of Exercises in very 

large Hebrew type, printed upon writing paper, with space between the lines for 

the addition in manuscript of Vowel Points and Accents. 4to. London, 1882. 
Tregelles, S. P. The Heads of the Hebrew Grammar. 8vo, pp. viii, 126. London, 1852. 

Hebrew Reading Lessons. 8vo, pp. vi, 70. London. 

Vibbert, W. H. A Guide to Reading the Hebrew Texts ; for the Use of Beginners. 

12mo, pp. viii, 67. Andover, 1852. 
Wolf, J. R. A Practical Hebrew Grammar. 8vo, pp. xiv, 204. London, 1852. 



168 SPECIAL TPIEOLOGICAL [ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2, Hebrew Lexicons. 
Davies, Benjamin. A Compendious and Complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to 

the Old Testament ; with an English-Hebrew Index. Carefully revised by E. C. 

Mitchell. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 752. Andover, 1879. 
Davidson, B. The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, consisting of an Alpha- 
betical Arrangement of every Word and Inflection contained in the Old Testament 

Scriptures, precisely as they occur in the Sacred Text. 2d ed., 4to, pp. 877. 

Loudon. 
Fuerst, Julius. A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. 3d ed. 

Improved and Enlarged. Translated by Samuel Davidson, D.D. Royal 8vo, pp. 

1547. London, 1867. Improved and enlarged, 1871. 
Gesenius, Wilham. Hebrew Lexicon. Translated and edited with Additions and 

Corrections, by S. P. Tregelles, 4to. London, 1846-52. 
A Hebrew and English Lexicon to the Old Testament, including the Biblical 

Chaldee. Translated by Edward Robinson. 20th ed., 8vo, pp. ix, 1160. New York. 
Potter, Jos. L. An English-Hebrew Lexicon, being a complete Verbal Index to 

Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, as Translated by Prof. Edward Robinson. 8vo, 

Boston, 1872. 
Wilson, William. An English H(;brew and Chaldee Lexicon and Concordance, by 

Reference to the Original Hebrew. 2d ed. Carefully revised. 4to. London, 

1866. 

THE REMAINING SEMITIC DIALECTS. 

A familiar acquaintance with other Semitic languages is neces- 
sary for a learned examination of the Hebrew, and for the exposi- 
tion of certain parts of the Old Testament, and is useful in many- 
respects to the ]!^ew Testament exegete and the scientific theologian; 
but it cannot be required that every Christian theologian, as such, 
should possess it to its full extent. 

On the importance of treating the Hebrew in connexion with 
A knowledge Other Semitic dialects compare the preceding section, 
of the Chaldee, At this point, however, scientific philology must serve 
able useful to t^ie purposes of theology ; and for such purposes a thor- 
the theologian, ough acquaintance with the Hebrew, as facilitated by 
the lexical and grammatical labors of other minds, is fully adequate.^ 
There always will and must be individuals whose inclinations and 
talents will urge them onward in the path of inquiry ; but here 
again " one thing will not do for all," and it is certainly more 
desirable that a definite knowledge of the Hebrew be secured, than 
that too many studies be engaged in at the same time. The chief 
interest for Old Testament exegesis attaches to the Chaldee, which, 
liowever, has been incorporated with Hebrew lexicology (by Ge- 

^ The Christian theologian cannot choose otherwise than to make Christianity the 
central object of his studies. This is historically rooted in the East (though we 
should scarcely term it a purely Oriental phenomenon) ; but its true home and life- 
development have been found in the West. 



PECULIARITIES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. 169 

senilis), in so far as it enters into the language of the Bible. The 
Syriac is useful for the study of the Syriac version (the Peshito), 
and also for New Testament exegesis, besides being an available 
help for the Church historian (conip. Ecclesiastical philology, infrci). 
This applies also to the Arabic, aside from its philological value for 
comparison with the Hebrew, In this way, however, the circle 
might be infinitely extended, for it cannot be denied that, on the 
one hand the Rabbinical, on the other the Oriental languages in their 
further manifestations through the Indian (Sanscrit and Prakrit), 
the Old Persic (Zend-language), the Chinese, etc., will also yield 
fruit which possesses value. Our concern is, however, primarily 
with what may be justly required, and this is and must continue to 
be the Hebrew,^ together with the language of the New Testament 
originals. 

SECTION X. 

THE HELLENISTIC-GREEK LAJSTGUAGE THE OEIGIXAL LANGUAGE OF 

THE NEW TESTAMENT SCEIPTURES. 

E, Reuss, articles Hellenisten und Hellenistisches Idiom in Herzog's Encykl., v, p. 701, sgg. 
While an acquaintance with Hebrew is requisite for the study of 
the Old Testament and also of the New, it is yet not sufficient, even 

^ Comp. Sehleiermacher, Dai'stellung, etc., § 131. With i-egard to the necessary 
aids for the study of the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic comp. Dauz, Encykl., p. 184-190, 
and Winer, Handbuch der theol, Lit. p. 124, sq. (2 ed., 1838-40; 3d ed., 1842). Val- 
uable aids for the study of the Syriac are, the grammars by Uhlemann (Berlin, 1829, 
2d ed., 1857) and A. G. Hoffmann (Halle, 1827; revised ed. by A. Merx, ibid., 1867), 
and the chrestomathies by Roediger (Halle, 1838) and Kirsch (publ. by Bernstein, 
Leips., 1836-41); for the Samaritan, Uhlemann (Leips., 1837); for the Chaldee, Bux- 
torf (Lexicon chald., etc., Leips., 1866), Levy (Chald. Worterbuch, 2 parts, Leips., 
1867-68), Winer, Grammatik (2d ed., Leips., 1842) and Lesebnch (1825, 2d ed., 1864), 
Jul. Fuerst, (Leips., 1835, 2d ed., 1864), Luzzatto (Elementi grammaticali, Padova, 
1865, German by Kriiger, Breslau, 1873), and the chrestomathy by Kaerle, 1852 ; for 
the Arabic, Tychsen (Gott., 1823), Ewald (Leips., 1831 and 1833), Schier (Gramraaire 
Arabe, Paris, 1849), C. P. Caspari (Leips., 1859), Freytag's Arabic-Latin Lexicon 
abridged ed. for beginners, (Halle, 1837, 4to.) and the chrestomathies by Kosegarten 
(Leips., 1828) and Arnold (Halle, 1853); for the Phoenician, Schroder, Die Phonicische 
Sprache (Halle, 1869); for the Coptic, the grammars by Schwartz (1850) and Uhle- 
mann (Leips., 1853.) On the Semitic languages generally see Ernst Renan, Histoire 
generale et systeme compare des langues Semitiques, Paris, 1855, 2d ed., 1863, vol. i. 

Other works are: Longfield, Litroduction to Chaldee (London, 1859); Riggs, Man- 
ual of the Chaldee Language (Xew York, 1858); Davidson, Anahi;ical Hebrew and 
Chaldee Lexicon (London and New York) ; Uhleman. Svriac Grammar, translated by 
Hutchinson (New York); Henderson, Syriac Lexicon to the Ne^v Testament (London 
and New York) ; Nichols, Samaritan Grammar, (London and New York) ; Catafego, 
Arabic Dictionary (London and New York) ; Wright, Arabic Grammar (London and 
New York). All of Bagster's Elementary Arabic, Chaldee, Samaritan, and Syriac 
books are useful. 



170 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

when supplementing a knowledge of classical Greek, to meet the 
demands of the New Testament exegete, whose work requires in ad- 
dition that attention should be given to the elements of language 
which mediate between the two and upon which the phraseology of 
the New Testament is based. 

The New Testament was written in Greek ; but it is now gener- 
The language ally conceded that the language of its authors is not pure 
Testament^not ^^^^k in either a lexical or grammatical view.^ This, 
pure Greek. however, is merely a negative statement ; and the mere 
collecting of Hebrew fragments yields no profitable result. The 
recognition of the Hebraistic character of the language of the New 
Testament would naturally cause many expressions, such as a '* con- 
suming fire," a " child of death," etc., to be explained as Hebraisms, 
which occur in all languages as figurative forms of speech. The 
essential thing required is that the transition from the Hebrew to 
the Greek (from the Oriental to the Occidental) mode of thought 
and speech be clearly apprehended, a subject which directs attention 
to the Alexandrian period as being the point of transition between 
The New Tes- the East and the West. The ordinary Greek {kolvtj) 
baTeTon'^tiS ^^ ^^® ^^^^^' periods forms the basis of New Testament 
later Greek. idiom, which, however, receives a peculiar colouring 
from the admixture of Jewish-Hellenistic elements, for which 
reason it will be found profitable to study especially the Alex- 
andrian version of the Old Testament (the LXX), the Apocrypha, 
Philo, and Josephus, in addition to authors who employ the common 
dialect (Polybius, Plutarch, Artemidorus). It is to be remembered, 
however, that as the New Testament opened a new spiritual world 
to view, it was also obliged to create a specifically Christian lan- 
guage, and that many expressions (e. g., eiQ7]V7j vyZv, etc.) possessed 
a larger and deeper meaning in the Christian than in the ordinary 
usage. Three elements are consequently to be distinguished in the 
language of the New Testament,'^ the Greek, the Jewish, and the 

* Simple as this matter is, an erroneous conception of the doctrine of inspiration 
has led to much controversy, concerning which see Morus. Acroas. herm. T. I. ; Winer, 
Grammatik, § 1. " The presumption of a former age that no imperfection can be 
acknowledged in the New Testament language because the Scriptures came forth from 
the Holy Ghost, has, itself being false, led to the adoption of erroneous maxims which 
unhappily still exist and exert their influence." Schleiermacher, Hermeneut., p. 131. 
Examples of such influence are afterward given. The work by Joachim Jungius on 
the original language of the N, T. (163 Y, republished by Geffeken in 1863) affords a 
recent illustration. 

^ " The Hellenistic idiom in the Jewish period and sphere bore the character of a slav- 
ish translation ; in the Christian it became independent and entered into the formation 
of a language, without on that account renouncing its nativity." Reuss, 1. c. 



THE EXPOSITORS OF HELLENISTIC GREEK. 171 

Christian (comp. the first paragraphs of de Wette's Einleitung and 
Schleiermacher's Hermeneutik, p. 27). A different meaning, too, 
was acquired by Greek words in the New Testament, from that 
whicli attached to them in the classical lana:uaa:e, e. a., ^, 

c* o ' «^ ' New meaning 
Ta7^ei^'o0poc^l;v7/,A^^m^7^^y,which the ancient Grecian would given in tim 
understand to signify baseness of disposition (comp. furrent^ Greek 
raireivocppovelv in Arrian's Epict.), and the petition in words. 
the Lord's prayer, a0ef rjixlv rd bipeiXriiia^a r}ii(bv (Matt, vi, 12), 
which he would regard as a request for the remission of a pecuniary 
debt. The language of the ISTew Testament varies, moreover, with 
the different writers. Some Hebraize more than others New Testa- 

— Luke and the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews least ""^^^ ^^^®^ 
„ -, ^ .,. . - varies with the 

of all — some possess greater facility m the use of the cur- writers. 

rent Greek (St. Paul) than others (Peter and James), and in the 

specifically Christian field each of them employed a class of words 

which harmonized with his own modes of thought (Xoyog, ^G}rj, (pibq 

with St. John, mang, diKaLoovvr), x^Qf-^ with St. Paul, ntarLc: with St. 

James, in a meaning different from that of St. Paul, etc.). Such 

differences, furthermore, are not confined to the lexical department ; 

the grammatical form, both in etymology and syntax, also varies in 

many respects from the classical forms, e. g., Luke xxiv, 15, eyevero 

kv TO) bpitXelv avTovg Kal ov^rjrelv, where the Greek would require 

the genitive absolute, or Luke xx, 11, ngooe^ero 7TEii'{l)ai, [rhwh nDv) 

T T : ' .. ' 

for ttclXlv e7r€jLti/;ev, etc. The use of the prepositions ey, e/<;, Kara, is 
a further illustration (e. g., 6l etc marecog, for ol marevovTeg, etc.). 

Brief Historical Sketch. 

The first to bring together the grammatical peculiarities of New 
Testament diction was the philologist Solomon Glas- History of the 

sius (f 1656) of Jena, in his Philologia sacra. Cas- exposition of 

character of 
per Wyss, Professor of Greek at Zurich (fl659), NewTestament 

followed with his Dialectologia sacra (1650), in which ^^^ek. 
still greater attention was bestowed on the peculiarities of the 
New Testament. George Pasor, Professor of Greek at Franecker 
(f 1697), published a small lexicon of the New Testament, and 
left a grammar which was published by his son, Matthias, pro- 
fessor at Groningen. Pasor continued to be the standard during 
an extended period, in which only isolated attempts at observation 
were made. Ph. H. Haab attempted to provide a suitable work 
in his Hebr.-griechisch. Grammatik f, das N. T., Ttib., 1815, but 
without success. Winer established New Testament grammar on 
scientific principles, and elevated it to the rank of a theological 



172 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and philological science, since when praiseworthy researches, in- 
cluding special branches, have been made. A translation of Winer 
was made from the first edition by Professors Stuart and Robinson 
(Andover, 1825). A translation of the seventh edition revised by 
Ltineman has also been issued by Professor J. Henry Thayer (An- 
dover, 1869). The same American editor has prepared a revised 
translation of Alexander Buttman's Grammar of New Testament 
Greek (Andover, 1873). Thomas Sheldon Green is the author of 
a brief Grammar of the New Testament (London, 1862). Profes- 
sor Stuart, of Andover, prepared a Grammar of the New Testa- 
ment Dialect which is deserving of honorable mention (Andover ; 
also in Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1835). Planck's Sa- 
cred Philology and Interpretation was translated by Professor 
Samuel H. Turner, of the Protestant Episcopal Seminary, of New 
York (republished in Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1834). 
iDr. Edward Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon of the New 
Testament, originally based on Wahl's Clavis, but recast and made 
an original work, carefully traces the differences between classical 
and New Testament usage. But most valuable for the student 
is Cremer's Biblico-Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek 
(3d English ed., Edinburgh, 1880). It traces the words which 
are distinctive of the New Testament from the classics to the Sep- 
tuagint, and thence on " till they reach the fullness of New Testa- 
ment thought." 

1. Grammars of New Testament Language. 
* B. G. Winer, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms, als sichere Grund- 
lage der Neutestamentlichen Exegese. Lpz., 1822. 7. ed. v. G. Liinemann 1867, 
J. C. W. Alt, Grammatica linguae Graecae, qua N. T. scriptores usi sunt. Halae 1829. 
f J. Th. Beelen, Grammatica Graecitatis N. T. Lovanii. 1857. 
Alex. Buttmann, Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Sprachgebrauchs, in Anschluss 

an Ph. Buttmanns griechische Grammatik bearbeitet. Berlin, 1859. 
S. C. Schirlitz, die Hellenistischen, besonders Alexandrinischen und sonst schwierigen 
Verbalformen im griechischen N. Testamente. For schools and private study. Ar- 
ranged in alphabetical order, and grammatically elucidated. Erfurt, 1852. 

Grundziige der Neutestamentlichen Gracitat. Nach den besten Quellen fiir 

Studirende der Theologie u. Philologie. Giessen, 1861. 
Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Neutestamentlichen Grundsprache, zugleich als 



Griechische Neutestamentliche Schulgrammatik fiir Gymnasien. Erfurt, 1863. 
C. H. Lipsius, Grammatische Untersuchungen, iiber die biblische Gracitat, herausge- 
geben von R. A. Lipsius. Lpz., 1863. 

2. Concordances and Lexicons.^ 
Erasmi Schmidii, Tafjuelov tuv ttj^ KatvTJc Sia^fjKTjc Affewv s. concordantiae omnium 
vocum N. T. (Viteb., 1638); new ed. by E. S. Cyprian (Goth., 1717), and Glasg., 

* Older works by G. Pasor (1631, 173.5), stock (1725, 1752), Mintert (1728), Simonis (1762), J. F. 
Fischer (Proluss., etc. 1772), Kypke (Vocab. Lips., 1795). 



NEW TESTAMENT LEXICONS AND GRAMMARS. 173 

1819; latest ed. ('-nunc sec. eritiees et hermeneutices nostrae aetatis rationes 

emendatae, auctae, meliore ordiae dispositae") by C. H. Bruder. Lips., 1853. 

2 partt., 4. ed. 3. Lips., 186Y. 
Schmoller, Tafitelov T?jg naivrjc ^tad^riKrjc eyxetpLdiov, od. Handconcordanz zum Griech- 

ischen N. Testament (548 S. 16), Stuttg., ]869. 
Chr. Schoettgen. Novum Lexicon graeco-lat. in N. T. Post J. T. Krebs., ree. aux. 

G. L. Spohn. Hal., 1819. 
J. F. Schleusner, Nov. Lex. gr.-lat. in N. T. Lips., 1792, (1801, 1808,) 1819. 2 voll 

* Chr. Abr. Wahl, Clavis K T. philologica usibus scholarum et juvenum theologiae 

studiosorum accommodata. Lips., 1822, 1843. 2 voll. 

* C. G. Bretschneider, Lexicon manuale gr.-lat. in libros N. T. Lips., 1824. Edit. 3. 

1840. 
Ch. G. Wilke, Lexicon graeco-latinum in libros N. T. Dresdae, 1839, 1840. 2 voll. 

Edit. 2., ibid., 1850. 
S. C. Schirlitz, Griechisch-deutsches Worterbuch zum N. T. Giessen, 1851. 2 ed., 

1858. 3 ed., ibid., 1868. 
E. F. Dalmer, Lexicon breve graeco-latinum ad voces et vocabula librorum N. T. ex- 

plicanda concinnatum. Gothae, 1859. 
Ch. G. Wilkii, Clavis N. T. philologica usibus scholarum et juvenum theologiae studi- 
osorum accommodata. Quern librum ita castigavit et emendavit, ut novum opus 

haberi possit, C. L. W. Grimm. Lips., 1862-1868. 
H. Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Worterbuch der Neutestamentlichen Gracitat. 

Gotha, 1866 ; 2d ed., 1872. 

3. Othej- Philological Helps for Explaining the New Testament 
J. Vorst, De Hebraismis N. T. commentarius, cur. J. I'. Fischer. Lips., 1778. 
Lamb. Bos, Exercitatt. philologicae, in quibus N. T. loca nonnulla ex profanis auctori- 

bus illustrantur. Franeq., 1700, 1713. 
J. Alberti, Observatt. philol.-crit. in sacros N. T. libros. Lugd., 1714. 
G. D. Kypke, Observatt. sacrae in N. T. libros. Vratisl., 1755. 2 voll. 
G. Raphel, Annotatt. in K T. ex Xenoph. (Ham., 1709), Polybio et Arriano (ibid., 1715) 

et Herodoto (Luneb., 1731) collectae ; nunc in unum corpus redactae. Lugd., Bat., 

1747. 2 voll. 
Jac. Eisner, Obss. sacrae in N. T. libros. Traj. ad Rhen., 1 728. 
E. Palairet, Observatt. phil.-crit. in sacros N. T. libros. Lugd., Bat., 1752. 
K. H. Lange, Spec. obss. philol. in N. T. ex Luciano potissimum et Dion. Halic. Lub., 

1732. 
Csp. F. Munthe, Obss. philologicae in sacros N. T. libros ex Diodoro Siculo collectae. 

Hafn. et Lips., 1755. 
J. B. Ott, Excerpta ex Flav. Josepho ad N. T. illustr. cura Havercamp. Lugd., Bat., 

1741. 
C. F. Loesner, Obss. ad N. T. e Philone Alexandrino. Lips., 1777. 
A. F. Kuehn, Spicil. Loesn. obss. ad N. T. e Philone. Lips., 1785. 
J. T. Krebs, Obss. in N. T. e Flavio Josepho. Lips., 1755. 
K. L. Bauer, Philologia Thucydideo-Paulina. Hal., 1773. 
C. G. Kuinoel, Observatt. ad N. T. ex libris apocr. N. T. Lips., 1794. 

Other matter of this sort taken from Plutarch by v. Seelen (1719); from Polyb. by 
Kirchmaier (1725); from Aristophanes by Eckhard (1733); from Euripides by Lange 
(1734); from Diog. Laert. by Richter (1739); from Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, by 
Porschberger (1744); from Callimachus by Peucer (1751); from Musaeus by Ade- 
lung (1756); from Homer by Bellermann (1785). 



174 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

On the method as a whole : — 
K. B. Hauff, iiber den Gebrauch Griech. Profanscribenten zur Erlauterung des N. T. 

Lpz., 1706. 
C. G. Gersdorf, Beitrage zur Sprachcharakteristik der neutestaraentlichen Schrift 

steller. Bd. 1. Lpz., 1816. 
J. D. Schulze, Der Schriftstellerische Charakter und Werth des Petrus, Judas, und 

Jacobus. Weissenf., 1802. Lpz., 1811. 
Der schriftstellerische Charakter und Werth des Johannes. Weissenf., 1803. 

Lpz., 1811. 
Wilke, Die neutestamentliche Rhetorik. Ein Seitenstiick zur Grammatik des neutes- 

tamentl. Sprachidioms. Dresden u, Leipzig, 1843. 
Lasonder, De linguae Paulinae idiomate. 2. Partt. Traj. ad Rhen., 1866. 

TEXT-BOOKS IN GREEK. 

1. Greek Grammars. 
Buttniann, Alexander. A Grammar of the New Testament Greek, with numerous 

Additions and Corrections by the Author. By J. H. Thayer. 8vo, pp, xvi, 474. 

Andover, 1873. 
Greek Students' Manual, The, containing : I. A Practical Guide' to the Greek Testa- 
ment. IT. The New Testament, Greek and English. III. A Greek and English 

Lexicon to the New Testament. F'cap, 8vo, pp. 676. London, 1868. 
Greek New Testament, Hand-Book to the Grammar of, with Yocabularj and the 

chief New Testament Synonymes. 8vo. London. 
Green, T. S. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. 8vo, pp. viii, 244. 

London. 
Jelf, W. E. A Grammar of the Greek Langua,ge, 3d ed., enlarged and improved. 

2 vols., 8vo, pp. 517, 700. Oxford, 1861. 
Middleton, Thos. F. The Doctrine of the Greek Article, applied to the Criticism 

and Illustration of the New Testament. New ed., 8vo. London, 1855. 
Stuart, Moses. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. 8vo, pp, 312. Andover, 

1846. 
Trollope, William. A Greek Grammar to the New Testament, and to the Common 

or Hellenic Diction of the Later Greek Writers. 8vo, pp. 257. London, 1841. 
Winer, George Benedict. A Grammar of the Idiom of the New Testament. 7th 

ed., enlarged and improved by Gottlieb Llinemann. Revised and authorized 

translation. 8vo, pp. xviii, 728. Andover, 1877. 

2. Greek Lexicons. 

Analytical Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, The. 4to, pp. 490. London, 1868 ; 
also New York. 

An Etymological Vocabulary of all the words in the Greek New Testament. 8vo, pp. 
224. London, 1882. 

A Practical Guide to the Greek New Testament. Designed for those who have no 
knowledge of the Greek language. Svo. London, 1882. 

Cremer, Hermann. Biblico-Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Greek. Trans- 
lated from the 2d German ed. 4to, pp. viii, 603. Edinburgh, 1878. 3d En- 
ghsh ed., 1880. 

Greenfield's Greek Lexicon to the New Testament. Svo. London, 1882. 

Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament. New ed., 
royal 8vo, pp. xii, 804. New York, 1878. 



BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 175 

Schleusner, J. F. Novus Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus, sive Lexicon in LXX, et 
Reliquos Interpretes Graecos, ac Scriptores Apocryphos Veteris Testament!, etc. 
2 vols., 8vo. Glasguae, 1824. 

Sophocles, E. A, A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. From 
B. C. 146 to A. D. 1100. 4to, pp. 1202. Boston, 18Y0. 

3. Greek Si/nonymes. 
Synonymes of the New Testament, and Disquisitions on Various Grammatical and 

Philological Subjects. By John Aug. Henry Tittmann, D.D. Edinburgh, 1837. 
Trench, R. C. Synonymes of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 250. New York, 1854. 

2d part, 12mo, pp. 214, 1866. 9th ed., 8vo, pp. xxx, 405. London, 1880. 
Webster, William, Syntax and Synonymes of the Greek Testament. 8vo. London, 

1864. 

SECTION XL 

THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY BIB- 
LICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, § 140, sqq. ; Herzog, Encykl., i, p, 411. 

A knowledge of the historical, physical, geographical, statistical, 

and politico-economical conditions under which a work 

^ ... , The scope of 

was written, is the indispensable means for any expla- Biblical archse- 

nation of its matter intended to be at all exhaustive, in ^ ^^^' 
like manner as grammatical proficiency is necessary for the inter- 
pretation of its language. For this reason the range of Biblical 
studies includes a scientific investigation of the history of the Jew- 
ish people and their relations to other nations, the constitution of 
their State, their politico-economical and ecclesiastical arrangements, 
etc., the geography of Palestine and other Eastern countries as well 
as of all countries referred to in the Bible, and the natural products 
of these regions, together with the corresponding industries and the 
manner of life and the customs of their inhabitants. All of this is 
comprehended under the vague title of Biblical archseology — a 
branch which is, in one point of view, preparatory to exegesis, but 
in another results from exegesis. 

It may be held that the science of language is itself a branch of 
archaeology ; for it certainly belongs to archaeology to 
ascertain the spoken and written language of a people, ch^oiogy too 
In an inverse direction archaeology must be included in '^^^™^'- 
the domain of language, inasmuch as the lexicon is obliged to explain 
a multitude of terms by means of archaeological and geographical 
inquiries (proper names, technical terms, e. g., '7nN, nni, \:^D, nnjD, 

etc.). Strictly speaking, however, the term archaeology is too nar- 
row, because matters relating to physical geography and natural 
history (physica sacra), with all else of a similar nature, are not 
included in archaeological inquiry. The manners and customs 



176 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of the East liave, moreover, undergone so little change in many 
respects, that descriptions of travel in our own day frequently 
throw light upon statements of the Bible ; and this feature likewise 
cannot be assigned to the departmentof historical archaeology but 
must be classed with statistical and ethnographical knowledge.' 

Biblical archaeology, on the other hand, includes more than Jew- 
Archaeoiogyin- ish and Hebrew antiquities. It cannot even be restrict- 
tiaf ' Hebrew ^^ ^^ ^^^ researches to the East alone, especially as re- 
antiquities, gards the New Testament, for whose exposition it is 
necessary that "the historical apparatus should embrace aknowledo-e 
of the spiritual and civil conditions of all the regions in and for 
which the New Testament Scriptures were comp'osed." ' This in- 
volves a thorough familiarity with the state of the Roman world 
from Augustus to Domitian, and of the state of the Jewish people 
in this period, Josephus being the principal source for the latter 
information. A broader inquiry would include the range of ideas 
prevalent at this time, though it cannot always be determined 
whether ideas, drawn, for instance, from the rabbins, were actually 
current in the time of Christ, or belong to a later age instead. In 
this direction archaeological inquiries lead back, as Schleiermacher 
has remarked,^ to the domain of apologetics. 

The Old Testament must always be the principal source for Bib- 
lical Archaeology,* and consequently the science is compelled to 
move in a kind of circle, archaeological knowledge being needed for 
a thorough understanding of the Bible, while that knowledge re- 
ceives further additions from a profounder study of the Scriptures. 
The Bible thus becomes at one time the object and at another the 
means of archaeological: research, while this research is sometimes a 
preparation for exegesis and again its result. Archaeology may 
consequently be reckoned among the auxiliaries to exegetical theol- 
ogy, or be classed as a product of exegetical studies with historical 
theology, in proportion as one or the other point of view prevails. 
Classification -^ more careful distribution of the material of archae- 

of the material ology will warrant its classification under: 
of Biblical ar- , m, , ^ , i-*-! i / •. • 

chEeoiogy— Re- 1- I he geography of the Bible (on its importance to 

ograpby. Biblical exegesis, comp, the work by Furrer under that 

' Comp. de "Wette's Bibl. Archgeol,, § 1 and 2, where reference is also made to the 
still more extended meaning of the word apxaioTioyia in Josephus and Dion. Halicar. 
Gesenius defines Biblical Archaeology to be " the science which makes us acquainted 
with the natural and social conditions of the peoples among whom the Scriptures orgin- 
ated and to whom they relate," (Hall., Encykl., x, 74), which is still correct in an 
empirical point of view. 

^ Schleiermacher, § 141. ^ § 143, note. * Schleiermacher, § 141, note. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 177 

title, Zurich, 1871). The geography of Palestine^ forms its cen- 
tral feature, but it is not confined to Palestine. It begins 
historically with the country in which the sources of the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris are situated, the Asiatic highlands in the 
region of Ararat), and extends, in the Old Testament, over Egypt, 
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia.' New 
Testament geography extends its range farther into the West, 
the incidents of the New Testament record being located in Asia 
Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy (Rome), in addition to those 
of which the scene was in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Topogra- 
phy^ the description of remarkable places, especially of Jerusalem 
and the temple, forms a special element of this geography, for the 
study of which the records of ancient and modern travel render 
valuable aid. 

2. The Natural science of the Bible (Physica sacra), which is 
most intimately connected with its geography. The Natural science 
importance of securing a vivid idea of the natural (geo- ^^ *^'^® "QVax^. 
ological, topographical, and climatic) conditions of the country is 
heightened by the fact that the religious thought of the Hebrews 
was closely related thereto, and that the most important features of 
revelation connect themselves with the natural scenery of the 
Orient. Man is an object of natural science, in the whole of his 
physical constitution, in proportion as he is moulded by natural con- 
ditions. This applies, among the rest, to the entire subject of dis- 
eases and their peculiar form in the East (leprosy). In proportion, 
however, as man becomes superior to nature and assumes a social 
character, the physical and anthropological element will become 
subordinate to the ethnographical. Hence : — 

3. Biblical Ethnography, the description of manners and customs, 
first of Eastern peoples, and then of the ancient world Biblical Eth- 
in general. This involves the study (1) of man's rela- nography. 
tion to nature (agriculture, herding cattle, hunting, and fishing) and 

^ This name was primarily applied to the country of the Philistines, in the south- 
western part of Canaan ; but it Avas subsequently given to the entire region embraced 
between the Jordan, the Mediterranean Sea, and Mt. Lebanon. Canaan (}V^3), derived 
from the fourth son of Ham, Gen. x, 6, was the older designation ; and it was also 
called the " land of Jehovah," the " land of promise," the " pleasant land." In later 
periods the name Judea denoted the entire country. The expression, " land of the 
Hebrews" (onnyn pX) occurs but once in the Bible, in Gen. xl, 15, and the designa- 
tion was not common until after the time of Josephus {fi 'EjSpaiov x<^P°)- ^^r addi- 
tional information see J. G. Miiller, Die Semiten in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Chamiten 
und Japhetiten, Gotha, 1872. 

" In strictness, the extreme western limit would be the ancient Tarshish (Tartessus) ^ 
but this appears only as aii isolated point. 

n 



178 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

of his modes of preparing tlie raw materials provided by nature for 
his use (dwellings, clothing, ornaments, food, utensils, handicrafts, 
navigation, etc.) ; and (2) man's relations to society (social customs, 
marriage, domestic life, general intercourse ; journeys, hospitality, 
relations with strangers, war, and slavery).^ Inasmuch, however, 
as such relations of ordinary life were, among the Hebrews, regu- 
lated by the law of the Theocracy, it becomes necessary to examine : 

4. The Biblical (Mosaic) legislation and political constitution 

«^ * ^^r. with which the codes of laws and the constitutions of 
structure of the , , , ^ 

Hebrew com- the Other nations embraced within the range of the 
monwea th. Scriptural records are to be compared (the Roman law, 
consequently, in connexion with the New Testament). The consti- 
tution of the theocratic State and its laws, were, moreover, intimately 
connected with the system of worship, so that in this point of view 
also the religious feature forms the central object of theological 
study ; and Biblical ai'chaeology must accordingly give a prominent 
place to^ — 

5. The sacred institutions of the Hebrews (sacra) in comparison 

^ ,. . with the other religions of antiquity as mentioned in 
The religious _ o _ , . 

institutions of the Bible. Many writers have limited the idea of Bib- 
the Hebrews. ^^^^^ archaeology wholly to this branch of antiquities. 
It is usually subdivided into (1) The sacred places (the tabernacle, 
the temple, and, later, the synagogue); (2) the sacred seasons (the 
Sabbath, the new moons, the Hebrew feasts); (3) sacred and 
theocratic persons, the judges, prophets, priests, Levites, scribes ; 
and (4) sacred usages, circumcision, sacrifice, anointings, purifica- 
tions, ceremonies, etc. The religions of non-Israelitish peoples and 
their polytheistic and nature-worship (worship of animals in Egypt, 
the worship of Baal, Astarte, and Moloch, witchcr^t and divina- 
tion) must receive special attention inasmuch as the Israelites were 
constantly exposed to their influence. For the study of the New 
Testament the Graeco-Roman mythology is likewise important. 
Finally, the worship having taken art into its service (music and 
poetry among the Hebrews) and the religion having developed a 
theology, it becomes necessary to give attention to : — 

6. The sciences and arts of the Hebrews and the nations with 
Art and science whom they came into contact. For the interpretation 

of the Hebrews f ^^^ poetical Sections of the Bible it is especially im- 
and related ^ j • i 

peoples. portant that the nature of Hebrew poetry and music be 

' For this inquiry also travels are especially valuable. " You will find the reading 
of travels in the East, in which the life, manners, and customs of the nomads are de- 
scribed, and from which conclusions respecting these earlier times of innocence and 
Btrength may be drawn, to be the best commentary." Herder, Briefe, No. 3, p. 42. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL ARCHiEOLOGY. 179 

Understood. The development of theology among the later Jews 
into Phariseeism and Sadduceeism, and into the Alexandrian phi- 
losophy of religion (Philo),^ belongs more appropriately to the 
history of Bible doctrines, but is nevertheless entitled to a place iti 
this department also.^ 

The real task of the Biblical archaeologist will be to combine all 
these threads into an organic whole, through which runs the prin- 
ciple of a higher intelligent life ; to represent the Biblical matter 
both in its development in time and in its extension in space, as 
contrasted with contemporary ethnical facts, and thus to bring be- 
fore the mind of the inquirer a living picture in which the lights 
and shadows are accurately disposed.^ 

HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 

The history of archaeology is rooted in the science itself. A, circle 
„. ^ ^ „.^ is involved at this point. * The Bible is the most ancient 

History of BiTd- ^ 

licai archaeoi- source for Hebrew and the related archaeologies of the 

^^^' East, and yet the exposition of the Bible requires ^ar- 

chaeological knowledge. We become acquainted with the Bible 

^Opp. ed. Mangey (Lend., 1742), 2 Tom. ; Pfeiffer (Erl., 1785-92, 1820) 5 Tom. ; Ed, 
Tauchnitziana (Lips., 1851-53), 8 Tom. English version in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library 
(Lond., 1854). Comp. J. G. Muller, Textkritik der Schriften des Pliilo, Basle, 1839, 4to, 

2 The Talmud (from ^UP, t^^^ doctrine)^ a collection of Jewish traditions, beconaes a 
rich, though confused, source at this point. It consists of two parts, the Mishna, dat- 
ing in the second century A.D., and the Gemara, formed in the third century. The 
Babylonian Talmud, which was completed as late as the sixth century, must be dis- 
tinguished from the Jerusalem. On the editions comp. Winer, Handb. der Lit. i, p. 
523, and M. Pinner, Compend. des hierosolym. u. babyl. Talmud, with preface by Bel- 
lermann, Berl., 1832. Lightfoot, Schoettgen, Surenhusius, Wetstein, Meuschen, Danz, 
and others, have made extracts from the mass of the rabbinical literature, Comp, 
Winer, Chrestomathia talmudica et rabbinica, Leips., 1822 ; F. Nork, Kabbin. Quellen 
u, Parallelen zu N. T. Serif tstellern, Leips., 1839. Concerning the later Judaism see 
J. A. Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, Frankf., lYOO, 2 vols., 4to, ; A. F. Gfrorer, 
das Jahrhundert des Heils, Stuttg., 1838, 2 vols. ; S. Griinwald, Glaubens und Sitten- 
Lehre des Talmud. Heilbronn, 1854, 

^ George remarks, in his work, Die Jiidischen Teste, pp. xii-xiv (see below, Litera- 
ture), " The tendency still prevails to regard Biblical Archseology as a garner into 
which the separate grains may be brought, without attemping to combine them into a 
scientific Avhole, to which every individual object will sustain a definite and necessary 
relation. . , , Archieology is the science which first opens to our view the real life of 
a people, by placing before our eyes its conditions in all the different periods and sit- 
uations of its history. Its office is to point out all the features in that life in their neces- 
sary connexion, and thereby to explain one in the light of the others and each one in 
its principles. It is, so to speak, the interior of the various phenomena, which spring 
from it as from a root. It is the complement of history, to which it stands related as 
the soul to its body, since it presents to view the conditions from which may be de- 
duced the phenomena in the life of a people recorded by history." 



ISO SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

through the Bible. In addition to the Bible, mention must be made 
of Josephus, the son of a Jewish priest (born A. D. ^^^ ^ j ^^ 
-S7) and a Pharisee, an eye-witness and participant in waiters on ar- 
the Jewish war (A.D. 70). He wrote a history of his ^^^^^^^y- 
nation, extending down to the close of Nero's reign, in twenty 
books — Antiquitates Judaicae ; and also described the Jewish wars 
in seven books, besides treating of other matters.^ For acquiring a 
knowledge of the country the study of Herodotus, Strabo (ii, 16), 
Ptolemy, Dio Cassius, Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 13-19), Diodorus Sicu- 
lus, and others, is also useful. The beginnings of Bible geography 

were laid by the Christian Church historian Eusebius (in ^ ^. 

•^ . , ^ Eusebius the 

the fourth century) in his work ILept Tottlicojv 'Ovofidrojv first of Biblical 
ep T^ ■&ela Tpacp'q. This work was known only in the ^^^^^^p^®^- 
translation by Jerome: Onomasticon urbium et locorum Scripturae 
Sacrae, until the Jesuit Bonfrere published it in 1659 (later editions 
by Cleric uSy 1707, Larsow and Parthey, 1862, Lagarde, 1870). The 
itineraries of Christian pilgrims are not without historical import- 
ance, though they contain much fabulous matter (the oldest is the 
Itinerarium Burdigalense, dating since 333), and this is especially 
true of the statements by crusaders, e. g., William of Tyre, James 
de Yitri, etc. (the whole published in Bongars. Gesta Dei per 
Francos, Hanover, 1611, 2 vols.). The journey of Rabbi Benjamin 
of Tudela (1160-1173), a Spanish Jew, has again commanded at- 
tention in recent times (published in Hebrew and English by A. 
Asher, London and Berlin, 2 vols.). A more critical character be- 
longs to works of the sixteenth century. The Roman Catholic priest 
Chr. Adrichomius (f 1585), among others, published a description 
of Jerusalem in the time of Christ and a Theatrum terrae sanctae, 
with maps (Col. 1590), and the Reformed theologian S. Bochart 
(f 1667) laid the beginnings for a Bible geography in his Phaleg 
et Canaan, (1646, 1674) and of a Biblical natural history in his Hiero- 
zoicon (Lond., 1663, 1690). These were followed by the works of 
H. Reland (f 1718), Antiquitates sacrae veterum He- GeograpMcai 
braeorum (Traj., 1708 and often), and Palaestina (1714); ^j^^ters'^of ^the 
J. D. Michaelis, Spicilegium geographiae Hebr. (1769, istb century. 
1780), Mosaisches Recht (1770-1775, 6 vols.) and others. The 
numerous and predominantly scientific Travels, begun more than a 
century ago and still continued, have afforded much valuable in- 
formation. Of such works those by Berggren, Buckingham, Cha- 

' Editions by Havercamp (Amst., 1726, 2 vols., fol.), Oberthur (Leips., 1782-85,'' 
3 vols.), Richter (Leips., 1825-27), Dindorf (Par., 1845-47, 2 vols., ed. Tauchnitziana 
Leips., 1850), Bekker (Leips., 1855-56, 6 vols.); also translated into English by 
Whiston, various editions. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 181 

teaubriand, Clarke, Hasselquist, Joliffe, Maundrell, Niebuhr, Po- 
cocke, Prokesch, Richardson, Seetzen, Shaw, Volney,' etc., belong 
Writers on sa- more or less to an earlier period. Of more recent works 
<'rji<ijreogv^phY notice, J. E. Burckhardt, Reisen in Syrien u. Palaes- 

of the 19th cen- ' . . 

tury. tina (with notes by Gesenius, Weimar, 1822-24, 2 vols.); 

A. Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, 1832-33 (Paris, 1835); G. H. v. 
Schubert, Reise in d. Morgenland (Erl., 1838-40, 3 vols.); E. Rob- 
inson, Biblical Researches, etc. (2d ed., 1856, 2 vols.), Physical Ge- 
ography of the Holy Land (1865); Tischendorf, Reise in den 
Orient (Leips., 1846, 2 vols.); Lynch, Narrative of Exploring Expe- 
dition to the Dead Sea (1849; 9th ed., 1854); and Official Report 
of expedition (1852, 4to.); Ph. Wolff, Reise, etc. (Stuttgart, 1849); 

F. A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria and Palestine (Lond., 1851, 2 vols.). 

G. H. van Senden, Het heilige Land, (Gorinch., 1851); Gossler, Pil- 
gerreise nach Jerusalem (Paderb., 1852); J. S. Schiferle, Reise ins 
h. Land (Augsb., 1852, 2 vols.); F. J. Gehlen, Wanderung n. Jerusa- 
lem, (Miinst., 1853); J. Hilber, Pilgerreise ins heil. Land (Inn- 
spruch, 1853); Plitt, Skizzen einer Reise n. d. heil. Lande (Carls- 
ruhe, 1853); Schulz, Reise ins gel. Land 3 ed., Muhlheim, 1855); 
F. A. Strauss, Sinai u. Golgatha, etc (7 ed., Berl., 1857); Tobler, 
Denkblatter aus Jerus. (St. Gall, 1853) and Dritte Wanderung n. 
Palaest. (1859); K. Graul, Reise n. Ostindien, Part i, Palestine 
(Leips., 1854); de Saulcy, Voyage autour de la mer morte (Par., 
1853, 2 vols.); Delessert, Voyage aux villes maudites, etc. (Par., 
1853); M. Sachs, Stimmen vom Jordan (Berl., 1854); Leibetrut, 
Reise n. d. Morgenl, etc. (Hamb., 1854, new ed., 1858); Thomson, 
The Land and Book (1880 ; new ed., revised) ; Van de Velde, Journey 
through Syria and Palest. (1854, 2 vols.); Roroff, Reise n. Palaest. 
(Leips., 1862, 2 vols.); Bovet, Voyage en terre Sainte (4 ed.. Par., 
1864); Furrer, Wanderungen durch Palaest. (Zurich, 1865); Lud- 
wig, Bethlehem in the Summer of 1864 (Berne, 1865); Petermann, 
Reisen in den Orient (Leips., 1865); Macedo, Pelerinage aux lieux 
saints (Paris, 1867); Riggenbach (Balse, 1873); Dean Stanley, Sinai 
and Palestine (London, 1853; New York, 1870); E. H. Palmer, The 
Desert of the Exodus (London; also New York, 1872); J. L. Por- 
ter, Handbook for Syria and Palestine, (last London ed., 1875); 
Lieuts. Conder and Hitchen, Survey of Western Palestine : Memoirs, 
of its Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology; 

* Comp. Paulus, Sammlung der merkwiirdigsten Reisen in den Orien., Jena, 1792-94, 
7 vols. Continued by Rink (Konigsberg, 1801); Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit., p. 151. 
For New Test, times see the imaginary journey, Helons Wallfart nach Jerusalem, 109 
Jahre vor der Geburt des Herrn, by Fr. Strauss, Elberfeld, 1820-23, 4 vols — an imi- 
tation of the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece. 



182 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

6 vols., 4to; 3 vols, yet to appear (London, 1881). See also Quar- 
terly Statements of Palestine Exploration Fund, London ; also the 
Egyptological and Assyriological researches of Bonomi, Botta, Bun- 
sen, Brugsch, Fergusson, Grotefend, Layard, Lepsius, Rawlinson, 
Reinisch, linger, Seyffarth, Vaux, Geo. Ebers (Aegypten u. d. Buch- 
er Mosis, etc. (vol. i, Leips., 1868), Schrader," Die Keilschriften u. d. 
Alte Testament (Giessen, 1872), Smith, and others. The Phoenician 
studies of Movers, Renan (1864), and others, and the numerous re- 
ports by missionaries stationed in the East, are likewise valuable in 
many respects. (Comp., too, the Ausland and the different geo- 
graphical magazines). 

Concerning the recently discovered " Moabite stone " recording 
the triumphs of the Moabite king Mesha (ninth century B.C.) comp. 
the works by Noldeke, Schlottmann, Kampf, Ginsburg, and others. 

1. Archceoloffical works on the Bible of a general character.^ 

J. J. Bellermann, Handbuch der biblischen Literatur, comprising Biblical Archaeol- 
ogy, Chronology, Genealogy, History, Natural Philosophy and History, Mythology 
and History of Idolatries, Antiquities, History of Art, and Sketches of the Script- 
ural Writers. Erfurt, 178*7-99, 4 vols. (Also published with separate titles.) 

f J. Jahn, Bibl. Archaologie. Wien, 1796-1805. 3 Bde., L Bd., 2. Auti., 1818. 2. Bd., 
2. Aufl., 1825. 

Archaeologia biblica in compend. redacta. lb. 1805, 1814. 

f F. Ackermann, Archaeologia biblica breviter exposita. Vienna, 1826. 

E. F. K. Rosenmuller, Das alte und neue Morgenland oder Erlauterungen der heil. 
Schrift aus der natiirlichen Beschaffenheit, den Sagen, Sitten und Gebrauchen des 
Morgenlandes. Lpz., 1818-20. 4 Bde., (in 6 Abth). 

Handbuch der bibl. Alterthumskunde. Lpz., 1823-31. 4 Bde. 

* G. B. Winer, Bibl. Realworterbuch, zum Handgebrauche fiir Studierende Candidaten, 

Gymnasiallehrer und Prediger. 3. Aufl. 1847, 1848. 2 Bde. 
E. W. Lohn, Bibl. Sachworterbuch zum Handgebrauch. 1834. 
C. G. Haupt, Bibl. Real- und Verbal-Encyklopadie. Quedlinb., 1823-27. 2 Bde. 
K. F. Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archaologie. Frankf., 1859. 
f Scholz, Die heiligen Alterthiimer des Yolkes Israel. Regensb., 1868. 

* f Bonif. Haneberg, Die religiosen Alterthiimer der Bibel. Miinchen, 1869. 

* Bibellexikon, Realworterbuch zum Handgebrauch fiir Geistliche und Gemeinde, 

publ. by Dan. Schenkel, in connexion with Bruch, Diestel, u. Dillmann. Bd. 1-4. 
Lpz., 1869-72. 

Hamburger, Real-Encylopadie fiir Bibel und Talmud. 1. Abth. Die Biblischen Arti- 
kel. In 5 Heften. 1866-70. 

Herzog's Real-Encyklopaedie, contains a multitude of articles belonging to this de- 
partment (by Arnold, Kurtz, Riietschi, Oehler, Vaihinger, and others). For popu- 
lar use we recommend 

H. Zeller, Biblisches Worterbuch fiir das christliche Volk ; an alphabetical handbook 

» Older works : A. Calmet, dictionnaire historique, critique, chronolog., g^oprrapli. et littdral 
de la Bible. Par., 1730. 4 veil. f. F. W. Bezel, bibl. Reallexicon. Lpz., 1783-85. Bias. Ugo- 
lini, thesaurus antiquitatt. sacrar. 1744-68. 34 voll. f. 



LITERATURE OF SACRED GEOGRAPHY. . 183 

for the promotion of a knowledge of the Scriptures among all readers of the Bible. 

2d ed., Gotha, 1865-67, 2 vols. ; and also 

Biblische Alterthiimer, published by the Calwer Publication Society. New series, 

1871. 

2. Hebrew Antiquities.^ 

H. E. Warnekros, Entwurf der Hebr. Alterth. Weim., 1792-94 ; 3d revised ed., by 

A. G. Hofmann. Weim., 1832. 
G. L. Bauer, kurzes Lehrbuch der Hebraischen Alterthiimer d. A. und N. T. Lpz., 1797. 

* W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der Hebr.-jiid. Archaologie, nebst einem Grundriss 

der Hebr.-jud. Geschichte. Lpz., 1814; 4. sehr verm. u. verb. Aufl. 1864. 
J. H Pareau, Antiquit. Hebr. breviter descriptae. Traj. ad Rhen. 1817. 1823. 
f J. M. A. Scholz, Handbuch der Biblischen Archaologie. Bonn, 1834. 
f J. M. A. Lohnis, Das Land und Yolk der alten Hebraer. Regensb., 1844. 
H. Ewald, Die Alterthiimer des Volkes Israel. (Appendix to vol. 2 of the Gesch. des 

Volkes Israel.) Gott., 1844. 2d ed. ibid. 1854. Comp. the review by Mezger in 

Stud, und Krit., 1853. 1. S. 133-204. 
J. L. Saalschiitz, Archaologie der Hebraer, fiir Freunde des Alterthums und zum Ge- 

brauche bei akadem. Vorl. Konigsb., 1855, 1856. 2 Bde. 
K. F. Keil, Handbuch der Bibl. Archaologie. 2d ed. Frankf., 1875. • 

3. Sacred Antiquities {connected with church and religion in particular)."^ 
G. L. Bauer, Beschreibung der Gottesdienstlichen Verfassung der alten Hebraer. 
Lpz., 1805, 1806. 2 Bde. 

* K. Ch. W. Bahr, Symbolik des Hebraischen Cultus. Heidelb., 1837-39. 2 Bde. 

J. F. L. George, Die altern jiidischen Feste ; mit einer Kritik der Gesetzgebung des 

Pentateuch. Berl., 1835. 
Casar von Lengerke, Kanaan, Volks- und Religionsgeschichte Israels. 1. Thl. Konigsb., 

1844. 
E. W. Hengstenberg, Die Opfer der h. Schrift. Berl., 1852. (Reprinted from the 

Evang. KZ.) 
J. H. Kurtz, Beitrage zur Symbolik des alttest. Cultus. Lpz., 1851.' 
B. Scholz, die Bib. Alterth. des Volkes Israel. Regensb., 1868. 
B. Haneberg, die relig. Alterth. der Bibel. Miinchen, 1869. 
B. Schafer, die relig. Alterth. der Bibel. Miinster, 1878. 

With reference to the Mosaic Tabernacle, consult the works of Friederich (1841), 
Knobel (1858), Keil und Delitzsch (1861), Kamphausen und Fries (Stud, und Krit., 
1858-59), * W. Neumann (1861), and Riggenbach (1862; 2d ed. 1867); and with ref- 
erence to the Synagogues (in addition to Yitringa, infra, note 2), Zunz, der Ritus des 
synagogischen Gottesdienstes geschichtl. entwickelt. Berl., 1859. 

4. Sacred Geography.* 

E. F. K. Rosenmuller, Bibl. Erd- und Landerkunde (Part 1 of the Handb.). 
K. Ritter, Erdkunde (Berl, 1832-49). 15. Thl. 1. Abth. 

» Older works by Waehner (1743, 2 vols.), Carpzov (1748), Iken (1732, 1764), Reland (1708.) 

2 Older works : Goodwin (Moses et Aaron, 1618), Spencer (1686-1727), Vitringa (de synag. vet> 
librt III., 1696, 1726), Rau (1726). 

3 On non-Israelitish religions: F. C. Movers, die Religion der Phonicier. Bonn, 1841. 2 Bde. 

F. Miinter, die Religion der Karthager. Kopenh., 1821. 4. Ibid., die Religion der Babylonier. 
Same, 1827. (Comp. the History of Religion, appended to our paragraph on Church History.) 

* With reference to the older geographical works and to Oriental Travels, comp. the historical 
matter given above, and the Art. Palastina (by Arnold) in Herzog's Encykl., xi, p. 1 sqq. The 
fullest statement of the literature is given in Tobler, Bibliographia geographica Palestinae. 
Lips., 1867, 



184 , SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

C. F. K16den,Landeskunde von Palastina, Berl., 1817. 

* Karl von Raumer, Palastina. Lpz., 1835, (To which is added, Der Zug der Israel- 
iten aus Aegypten nach Kanaan, 1837. With a map and contributions on the 
Geography of the Bible, 1843.) 4th ed., 1860. Comp. the review by Gross in 
Stud. u. Krit., 1845. 

M. Russel u. J. B. Fraser, Landergemalde des Orients ; a. d. Engl, von A. Diezmann 
u. J. Sporschill. Pesth, 1840. 6 Bde. (Bd. 3, 4, das h. Land.) 

F. A. Arnold, Palastina. Halle, 1845. 

A. Knobel, Die Volkertafel der Genesis. Giessen, 1850. 

Ludw. Volter, Das heil. Land und das Land der Israelitischen Wanderung. (With a 

map of Palestine and Arabia Petraea.) Stuttg., 1855. 2d ed., 1864. 
Bram, Israels Wanderung von Gosen bis zum Sinai. Elberfeld, 1859. 
Unruh, Zug der Israeliten aus Aegypten nach Kanaan. 1860. 

G. Ebers, Durch Gosen zum Sinai. Lpz., 1872. 

D. Korioth, Geogr. von Palastina. 2d ed. Freib., 1874. 
A. Driow, Jerusalem et la Terre Sainte. Limoges, 1877. 

Popular works: F. Bassler, Das heil. Land (Merseb., 1846; new ed., Lpz., 1856); 
P. W. Behrends, Kurze Beschreibung des h. Landes (Helmst., 1829); 0. Belling, Der 
christl. Fiihrer in das h. Land (Landsh., 1854) ; A. Bram, Beschreibung des h. Landes 
(2d ed., Meurs,, 1838); F. Gessert, Palastina bis auf Christi Zeit (Essen; 3d ed., 
1835); H. V. Gerstenbergk, Palastina (Eisenb., 1850); Hornung, Handb. zur Erlauter- 
ung der bibl. Geschichte und Geogr. (Lpz., 1825-27); S. Lowisohn, Bibl. Geographic 
(Wien, 1821); J. G. Melos, Beschreibung des jiid. Landes (Weim., 1822-30); A. Rath- 
geber, Palastina, Land und Volk (Langens., 1853; 4th ed., 1861); J. F. Rohr, Hist.- 
geographische Beschr. des jiid. Landes (Zeits, 1816 ; 8th ed., Lpz., 1851) ; R. J. Schwarz 
Das heil. Land nach seiner ehemaligen und jetzigen Beschaifenheit (Frankf. a. M., 
1852); Karl Ritter, Ein Blick auf Palastina u. seine christ. Bevolkerung (Berl., 1852), 
L. Th. Westhaus, Palastina oder das h. Land zur Zeit Jesu (Soest, 1856); F. A. und 0. 
Strauss, Die Lander und Statten der heiligen Schrift, in ausgewahlten Bildern (Stuttg., 
1861); f J. R. Sepp, Jerusalem u. das heil. Land, oder Pilgerbuch nach Palastina, 
Syrien und Aegypten (Schaffh., 1862; 2. Aufl., 1872); Dixon, W. H., Das heilige 
Land, from the English by J. E. A. Martin, with woodcuts and two steel plates 
(Jena, 1870). 

Scarcely any of these works are unprovided with means of some sort for illustrat- 
ing their subject (maps, plans, etc.), and in this regard the following possess dis- 
tinguished merit : 

J. M. Bernatz, Bilder aus dem h. Lande, mit Text von G. H. v. Schubert (Stuttg., 
1842), und Bernatz, Album des heil. Landes, 50 ausgew. Orig.-Ansichten bibl. wichtiger 
Orte nach der natur gez., mit Text von G. H. v. Schubert (Stuttg., 1855); A. Eltzner, 

Das bibl. Jerusalem aus der Yogelschau (3d ed., Lpz., 1863). Charts of Syria 

and Palestine in the Atlases of d'Anville and Reichardt, * Berghaus ; single, by Kloden 
(1817), Grimm (1836), RosenmuUer (1830), Mayr (1842), *Kiepert, publ. by Ritter 
(1842), *Karl Zimmermann, Karte von Syrien und Palastina (15 maps, Berl., 1850); 
Riess, Karte von Palastina (1861), Altmiiller, Aegypten, Sinai-Halbinsel und Palastina 
(1861). Manuals: C. Ackermann und C. F. Weiland, Bibel-Atlas, nach den neuesten 
und besten Hiilfsmitteln Weimar, 1832; 3d unchanged ed., 1855 (where see additional 
literature on p. 1 sq.)- *Kiepert, Bibel- Atlas ; 3d unchanged ed., Berl., 1857, with 
8 charts and 3 tabular illustrat. (to accompany Peter's Uebersichtskarten der Reisen 
Jesu nach den 4 Evangelisten) ; new revision by Lionnet, 1864; *Van de Velde, 
Map of the Holy Land. 8 leaves. (Gotha, 1858.) 2d ed., ibid., (1866.) Menke, Bibel- 
atlas in 8 Blattern. (Gotha, 1868.) 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 185 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Hebrew Antiquities. 

Benisch, A. Judaism Surveyed ; a Sketch of the Rise and Development of Judaism 

from Moses to our Days. 12mo. London, 1874. 
Cox, F, A. The Manners and Customs of the Israelites in relation to their Religion 

and Civil Polity. 12mo. London, 1852. 
DeCosta, B. F. The Moabite Stone. 8vo. New York, 1871. 
Ewald, Heinrich. The Antiquities of Israel. From the German. Svo, pp. 898. 

London, 1876. 
Freeman, James M. Hand Book of Bible Manners and Customs. 12mo, pp. 615. 
■ New York, 1874. 
Ginsburg, C. D. The Moabite Stone ; a Fac-simile of the Original Inscription, with 

an English Translation, and an Historical and Critical Commentary. 4to. 

London, 1871. 
Jahn, John. Biblical Archaeology. From the Latin. 5th ed., 8vo, pp xii, 573. 

New York, 1859. 
Jamieson, Robert. Eastern Manners, Old and New Testament. New ed., 2 vols., 

12mo. Edinburgh, 1859. 
Josephus, Flavins, Works of. Translated by Wm. Whiston, A.M. Many editions. 
King, J. Moab's Partriarchal Stone ; being an account of the Moabite Stone. 8vo. 

London, 1878. 
Madden, F. W. History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Old and New Testa- 
ments. With 254 Engravings of all the Jewish Coins mentioned in the Bible. 

Svo, pp. 373. London, 1864. 
Maimonides, Rabbi. The laws of the Hebrews relating to the Poor and the Stranger. 

Translated by James W. Peppercorn. Svo. London, 1841. 
Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the Law of Moses. Four vols., Svo. London, 

1814. 
Pierotti, B. Customs and Traditions of Palestine, illustrating the Manners of the An- 
cient Hebrews. Translated by T. G. Bonney. Svo, pp. 288. London, 1864, 
Rawlinson, G. Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament. With Additions by 

Prof. H. B. Hackett. Boston, 1874. 
Snowden, J. R. The Coins of the Bible and its Money Terms. ISmo. Philadelphia, 

1864. 
The History of the Hebrew Commonwealth, from the Earliest Times to the Destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, A. D. 72. With a continuation to the time of Adrian. 3d 

ed., Svo, pp. xvi, 592. Oxford, 1840. 
Townley, James. The Reason of the Law of Moses. With Notes, Dissertations, 

and a Life of the Author. Svo, pp. 451. London, 1827. 
Warburton, William. The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated. Three vols., 

Svo, pp. 526, 518, 512. London, 1846. 
Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of Ancient Hebrews. Svo, pp. 640. New 

York, 1852. 

2. Biblical Natural History. 

Abbott, Gorham. Scripture Natural History. 12mo. Boston. 
Calcott, Maria. Scripture Herbal. Svo, pp. 568. London, 1842. 
Harris, T. M. The Natural History of the Bible. Svo. London, 1820. 
Kurtz, J. H. The Bible and Astronomy. An Exposition of the Biblical Cosmology 
and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. 



186 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Mitchell, 0. M. Astronomy of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 822. New York, 1863. 
Natural History of the Bible; being a review of the Physical Geography, Geology, 

and Meteorology of the Holy Land. 12mo, pp. 526. London, 1867. 
Osborn, Henry S. Plants of the Holy Land, with their Fruits and Flowers. 8vo. 

Philadelphia, 1860. 
Tristram, H. B. The Land of Israel, a Journal of Travels in Palestine undertaken 

with special Reference to its Physical Character. 2d ed., 8vo, pp. 6*71. London, 

1866. 
Wood, J. G. Bible Animals ; being a Description of every Living Creature mentioned 

in the Scriptures, 8vo, pp. 652. New York, 1869. 

3. Biblical Geography. 

Arabia. 

Lowth, Geo. T. The "Wanderer in Arabia ; or. Western Footsteps in Eastern Tracks. 

2 vols., 12mo, pp. 724. London, 1855. 
Palgrave, W. G. Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. 2 vols., 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1869. 
Stephens, J. L. Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and the Holy Land. 2 vols., 

12mo. New York, 1851, 
Taylor, B. Travels in Arabia. New York, 1874. 

Armenia. 

Curzon, Robert. Armenia ; a Year at Erzeroum. 12mo, pp. xiv, 226. New York, 

1854. 
Smith, Eli, and Dwight, H. G. 0. Researches in Armenia, with a visit to the Nestori- 
an and Chaldean Christians of Oroomiah. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 679. Boston, 1830. 
Wheeler, C. H. Ten Years on the Euphrates ; or, Primitive Missionary Policy Illus- 
trated, 12mo. Boston. 

Asia Minor. 

Fellows, Charles. A Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor, 1838. 

Royal 8vo, pp. 358. London, 1839. New ed., 1852. 
Hamilton, William J. Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia. 2 vols., 

Svo, pp. 1069. London, 1842. 
Leake, W. M. A Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on 

the Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country. Svo, pp. 391. London, 

1824. 
Van Lennep, H. J. Travels in Little-Known Parts of Asia Minor. 2 vols., 8vo. 

London, 1870. 

Assyria. 

Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the site of 
Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874, with Illustrations. Svo, pp. xvi, 461. New 
York, 1875. 

Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Svo, pp. xvi, 319. New York, 

1876. 

Babylon. 

Newman, John P. Thrones and Palaces of Babylon from Sea to Sea. Svo, pp. 455. 

New York, 1876. 

Chaldea. 

Loftus, William K. Travels in Chaldea and Susiana. Svo, pp. 436. New York, 

1857. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 187 

Crete. 
Postlethwaite, E. Tour in Crete. 12mo. London, 1868. 
Skinner, J. E. H. Roughing it in Crete in 186*7. 8vo. London, ISeY. 

Cyprus. 

Di Cesnola, Louis P. Cyprus : its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narra- 
tive of Researches and Excavations during Ten Years' Residence in that Island. 
8vo, pp. xix, 456. New York, 1878. 

Loher, Franz von. Cyprus. Historical and Descriptive, from the Earliest Times to 
the Present Day. 8vo, pp. vii, 324. New York, 1878. 

Damascus. 
Porter, J. L. Five Years in Damascus ; with Travels to Palmyra, Lebanon, and 
other Scripture Sites. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1855. 

Dead Sea. 

De Saulcey, L. F. 3. C. Narrative of a Journey round the Dead Sea and in Bible 

Lands. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 968. London, 1854. 
Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and 

the Dead Sea. Svo, pp. 516. Philadelphia, 1848. 

Desert and the Exodus. 
Bartlett, W. H. Forty Days in the Desert on the Track of the Israelites ; or, a 

Journey from Cairo to Mount Sinai and Petra. New ed., 8vo. London, 1867. 
Brugsch Bey, Henry. The True Story of the Exodus of Israel. Edited by Francis 

H. Underwood. 12mo, pp. 260. Boston, 1880. 
Foster, Charles. Israel in the Wilderness. 12mo, pp. 319. London, 1865. 
Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus ; Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of 

the Forty Years' Wandei-ings. Svo, pp. 470. New York, 1872. 

Egypt. 

Bartlett, W. H. The Nile Boat ; or. Glimpses of the Land of Egypt. 12mo, pp. 

236. New York, 1851. 
Bunsen, Ernest de. Egypt's Place in Universal History. New ed., 5 vols., Svo: 

London, 1867. 
Brugsch Bey, Henry. A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, derived entirely from 

the Monuments. Edited by Philip Smith. 2 vols., Svo. London. 
De Leon, Edwin. The Khedive's Egypt ; or, the Old House of Bondage under New 

Masters. 12mo, pp. 435. New York, 1877. 
Galloway, W. B. Egypt's Record of Time to the Exodus of Israel, critically investi- 
gated. London, 1869. 
Harman, Henry M. A Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land in 1869-70. Pp. xii, 

331. Philadelphia, 1873. 
Hengstenberg, E. W. Egypt and the Bopks of Moses, ]2mo, pp. 312. Andover, 

1843. 
Jones, J. Foulkes. Egypt in its Biblical Relations and Moral Aspect. Svo, pp. viii, 

326. London, 1860. 
Lane, E. W. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians. 

2 vols., 16mo, pp. XX, 418 ; viii, 429. London, 1836. 5th ed., enlarged, 1871. 
Lepsius, C. R. Tour from Thebes. Svo. London, 1847. 
Lepsius, Ric. Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, 1842-45. 

Edited, with Notes, by K. R. H. Mackenzie. Svo, pp. 471. London, 1858. 



188 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Lindsay, A. W. C. Letters on Egypt, etc. Boston and New York. 

Osburn, "William. The Monumental History of Egypt as recorded on the Ruins of 

her Temples, Palaces, and Tombs. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 461, 643. London, 1854. 

Israel in Egyyt; or, Genesis and Exodus. 2d ed. London, 1856. 

Palmer, William. The Egyptian Chronicles ; with a Harmony of Sacred and Egyp- 
tian Chronology. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 1053. London, 1861. 
Schaff, Philip. Through Bible Lands : Notes of Travel in Egypt, the Desert, and 

Palestine. 12mo, pp. 413. New York, 18'79. 
Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by 

the Arabs, A. D. 640. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 628. London, 1846. 5th ed., 18'70. 
Taylor, Bayard. Egypt and Iceland in 18*74. New York, 1875. 
Taylor, W. C. Illustrations of the Bible from the Monuments of Egypt. 12mo, pp. 

xvi, 200. London, 1838. 
Wilkinson, J. Gardner. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New ed., 

revised and corrected by Samuel Birch, LL.D. 3 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 510 ; xii, 

515 ; xi, 528. London, 1878. 
Zincke, F. Barham. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. Svo. London, 

ISTL 

Ephesus. 

Wood, J. T. Discoveries of Ephesus. New ed., 4to. Loudon, 18'76. 

Greece. 
Anderson, Rufus. Observations upon the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands. 12mo. 

Boston, 1830. 
Baird, Henry M. Modern Greece ; a Narrative of a Residence and Travels in that 

Country. 12mo, pp. xii, 380. New York, 1856. 
Wordsworth, C. Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. Svo. Boston. 

Jerusalem. 
Barclay, J. T. The City of the Great King ; or, Jerusalem as it was, as it is, and as 

it is to be. Svo, pp. 64*7. Philadelphia, 1858. 
Bartlett, W. H. Walks about the City and Environs of Jerusalem. Svo, London, 

1852. 
Palmer, E. H., and Besant, Walter. Jerusalem: the City of Herod and Saladin. 

Svo. London, 1871. 
Pierotti, E. Jerusalem Explored ; Ancient and Modern. 2 vols., folio. London, 1864. 
Thrupp, J. F. Ancient Jerusalem ; a new Investigation into the History, Topography, 

and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple. Svo, pp. 428. Loudon, 1855. 
Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem ; an Account of some of the Principal 

Difficulties encountered in its Exploration, and the Results obtained. Svo, pp. 

5*79. London, 1876. 
Williams, George. The Holy City. Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian 

notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 601, 629. London, 1849. 
Wilson and Warren. The Recovery of Jerusalem. A Narrative of Exploration and 

Discovery in the City and Holy Land. Svo, pp. 459. New York, 1871. 

Lebanon. 
Burton, R. F., and Drake, C. T. Unexplored Syria. Visits to the Libanus, the 
Ami-Libanus, the Northern Libanus, etc. 2 vols., Svo, London, 1872. 

Macedonia. 
Walker, U. A. Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes. Svo. London, 1864. 



LITERATURE OE BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 189 

Moab. 
Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab : Travels and Discoveries on the East Side of 
the Dead Sea and the Jordan. 8vo, pp. 416. New York, 1873. 

Nineveh. 

Fergusson, J. The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored ; an Essay on An- 
cient Assyrian and Persian Architecture. Svo, pp. 384. London, 1851. 

Layard, A. H. Nineveh and its Remains. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1848-49. 

Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels in Armenia, 

Kurdistan, and the Desert. Second Exploration. Svo, pp. 586. New York, 1853. 

Rich, C. J. Narrative of a Residence on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. 2 vols., Svo. 
London, 1836. 

Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of 
Nineveh, 1873, 1874. New York, 1875. 

Vaux, W. S. W. Nineveh and Persepolis. A Historical Sketch of Ancient As- 
syria, etc. 2d ed., 12mo, pp. 444. London, 1850. New ed., 1855. 

Palestine. 

Bartlett, W. H. The Footsteps of our Lord and his Apostles in Palestine, Syria, 
Greece, and Italy. Svo. London, 1S56. New ed., 1862. 

Benjamin, I. J. Eight Years in Asia and Africa, from 1846 to 1855. Svo, pp. 347. 
Hanover, 1859. 

Buchanan, Claudius. Christian Researches in Asia. 12mo, pp. 275. Philadelphia, 
1813. 

Burt, N. C. The Land and its Story ; or. The Sacred Historical Geography of Pales- 
tine. Svo.. New York, 1869. 

Conder, Claude Reignier. Tent Work in Palestine. A Record of Discovery and Ad- 
venture. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. With 
Illustrations by J. W. Whymper. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxvi, 381 ; viii, 352. Lon- 
don, 1878. 

Dixon, William H. The Holy Land, with Illustrations. 3d ed., 2 vols., Svo. Lon- 
don, 1867. 

Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel, according to the Covenant with Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob. 12mo. New York, 1851. 

Kinglake, W. Eothen; or. Travels in the East. New ed., 12mo. London, 1871. 

Merrill, Selah. Galilee in the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by A. P. Pea- 
body. Pp. 159. Boston. 1881. 

East of the Jordan. A Record of Travel in the Countries of Moab, Gilead, and 

Bashan, With an Introduction by Prof. R. D. Hitchcock. Svo, pp. 549. New 
York, 1881. 

Macleod, Norman. Eastward : Travels in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. 3d ed., Svo. 
London, 1872. 

Ridgaway, Henry B. The Lord's Land : A Narrative of Travels in Sinai, Arabia 
Petrae, and Palestine, from the Red Sea to the entering in of Hamath. Svo, pp. 
744. New York, 1876. 

Robinson, Edward. Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions. 
A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 614 ; xiv, 600. 
Boston, 1868. 

Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions. A Jour- 
nal of Travels in 1852. New Maps and Plans. 2d ed., Svo, pp. xxx, 664. Bos- 
ton. 1871. 



190 SPECLiL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP^DLi. 

Sandie, George. Horeb and Jerusalem. Pp. 417. Edinburgh, 1864. 

Thomson, W. M. The Land and the Book ; or, Biblical Illustrations drawn from 
the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. 2 vols., 
8vo, pp. 560, 614. New York, 1859. New ed., vol. i, pp. xx, 592. 

Tillotson, John. History of Palestine and the Holy Land. Illustraied with 350 En- 
gravings and Maps. With a History of the Crusades, compiled by W. and R. 
Chambers. 8vo. New York, 1 875. 

Tristram, H. B. Bible Places ; or, the Topography of the Holy Land, 8vo, pp. xvi, 
367. London, 1871. 8th ed. New York, 1878. 

Wright, Thomas. Early Travels in Palestine, Comprising the Narratives of Arculf, 
Willibald, Bernard, Saewulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of Tudela, Sir John Mandeville, 
De la Brocquiere, and Maundrell. 12mo, pp. 548. London, 1848. 

Palmyra. 
Myers, H. M. Remains of Lost Empires. Sketches of the Ruins of Palmyra, Nine- 
veh, Babylon, and Persepoiis, etc. 8vo, pp. 531. New York, 1875. 

Persia. 
Loftus, William K. Travels and Researches in Chaldea and S.usiana. 8vo, pp. 436. 

New York, 1857. 
Wagner, M. Travels in Persia and Georgia. 3 vols,, 8vo, London, 1856. 

Pho&nicia. 
Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. London, 1871. 

Samaria. ' 

Mills, John, Nablus and the Modern Samaritans. 12mo, pp. xii, 335. London, 

1864. 
Shelaby, Jacob Esh, Notices of the Modern Samaritans. 8vo, pp. 55, London, 1855. 

Seven Churches. 
Cathcart, M. The Seven Churches of Asia. 4to. London, 1869. 
Tristram, H. B. The Seven Golden Candlesticks. 8vo. London, 1871. 

Sinai. 
Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the 

South Country. 8vo, pp. 555. New York. 
Gaussen, L. From Egypt to Sinai. The Exodus of the Children of Israel. 12rao. 

London, 1869, 
Ritter, C. Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula ; 

translated and adapted to the use of students by W. L. Gage. 4 vols., 8vo. 

New York. 
Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History. 8vo, pp. 

Iv, 535. New York, 1857. 

4. Hebrew Poetry and Music. 
Carhart, J. Wesley. The Poets and Poetry of the Hebrews. New York, 1865. 
Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. From the German. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 

293, 320. Burlington, Yt., 1833. 
Hutchinson, Enoch. The Music of the Bible ; or, Explanatory Notes upon all the 

Passages of the Sacred Scriptures relating to Music. Svo, pp. 513. Boston, 

1864. 
Lowth, R. The Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. London and Andover. Many ed. 
Taylor Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. 8vo, pp. xvi, 347. London, 1861. 



THE SCOPE OF INTRODUCTION UNSETTLED. 191 

SECTION XII. 
BIBLICAL IS AGOGICS. (Introduction. Canonics). 

Corap. Dav. Sctiulz, Review of Eichhorn's and de Wette's Einleitungen in Stud. u. Krit, 1829, 
No. 3, pp. 570-72 ; Hupfeld, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Bibl. Einl., Marb., 1844 ; Rudelbach, Be- 
griff der N. T. Theologle u. Isagoglk, in his Zeitschrift, 1848, 1 ; Baur, Die Einl. in das N. T. als 
theol. Wissensch. in Theol. Jahrbb., 1850-51 ; Delitzsch, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Biblischea 
u. insbeson. A. T. Einleitung, in Thomasius and Hofmann's Zeitschr. fiir Prot. u. Kirche, xxviii. 
No. 3 ; Erl., 1854, p. 133, sqq. ; Hahn, in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 726, sqq. (s. v. Einl. ins A. T.) ; 
Articles Biblical Introduction in M'Clintock & Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. iv, p. 630, and Kitto's 
Cyclopjedla, vol. ii, p. 27 ; Brooke Foss Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels ; 
Henry Alford, How to Study the New Testament. 

The Bible is a body of writings which originated in different 

periods and under various circumstances and conditions, which were 

from different authors, and were gradually collected ^^^ objects of 

into a whole; and it is consequently necessary for a a history of the 

proper appreciation of its character that the origin and 

fortunes of the entire collection and also of its several parts be 

understood. To afford this knowledge is the office of the history 

of the canon or the science of Biblical Introduction (Isagogics in 

the limited sense), which is divided either into Introduction to the 

New or to the Old Testament, or into general and special. General 

introduction discusses the origin and progress the establishing of 

the canon, the history of manuscripts, editions, versions, , , , 

o 1 1 1 c^ ' c^ •/. -, Introduction is 

revisions oi the noly Scriptures, etc. bpecial mtroduc- either general 

tion, on the other hand, inquires, in partial connexion °^ special, 
with criticism, into the authenticity and integrity of the several 
writings, and deals, in addition, with the history of their authors 
as such, the design, plan, form, and style of their works, and finally 
with the date, place, and circumstances in which the writings were 
composed. 

The idea of Introduction itself is vague, and opinion is still di- 
vided with regard to its importance and extent as a T^^g g^^pg ^^^j 
Biblical science. De Wette denies that Introduction limits of mtro- 

. -, . . duction not 

is a science m the proper sense, and views it as a mere precisely de- 
aggregation of preliminary knowledge, which lacks t®^"^"^^*^- 
both " a true scientific principle and a necessary connexion of its 
parts ; ^ but in more recent times scholars (e. (/., Schulz, Credner, 

^ De Wette, Einl. § 1. Schleiermacher (Harm. u. Krit., p. 379) observes in a similar 
spirit that the so-called N. T. Introduction is " a science that has no limits whatever, 
and into which anything that is desired may be thrown. A going back to principles 
is wholly out of the question in such a case. . . . But it is pertinent to ask, ' Are there 
no such principles?'" Comp. p. 36; "N. T. introduction is not properly a constitu- 
ent part of the organism of tlieological science, but it is practically useful for both 
the beginner and the master, because it facilitates the bringing together upon a single 
point of all the inquiries that are involved." Scholz, a Roman Catholic writer on in- 



192 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Reuss, Hupfeld) have directed attention to the necessity for a sift- 
ing of the material to be treated by Introduction, and also for the 
application of principles to such treatment. The indefinite char- 
acter of the word " introduction " ^ will be apparent to every mind. 
At the bottom, all that our treatment of encyclopaedia has touched 
upon or shall hereafter discuss, relating either to the Bible itself or 
to the aids necessary for its interpretation, may be included under 
Introduction to the Bible ; and, in point of fact, the Hebrew and 
New Testament languages, archaeology, hermeneutics, etc., have 
been thus disposed of in some instances. Some writers have accord- 
Thename"ca- i^gly preferred to lay aside this indefinite term, and the 
nonics" pro- name canonics has been proposed as a substitute.'' 0th- 

posed as a sub- /i-i t-» \ r r ^ 

stitute f or " In- ers (like Reuss) have exchanged it for the name "His- 
troduction." ^^^,^ ^^ ^^^ pj^^^ Scriptures of the Old and New Tes- 
taments." The vague idea of introduction is certainly confined with- 
in wholesome limits in one direction by this method ; but in another 
direction the present science of introduction is extended to cover a 
field that lies beyond the bounds of introductory matter, since the 
later fortunes of the Bible — the dissemination of the sacred writ- 
ings, the history of their employment and their exposition — are in- 
cluded. 

troduction, likewise speaks of it as being simply an aggregation of multifarious mat- 
ters, in connexion with which the important feature is that they be " conveniently dis- 
tributed." He divides introduction into criticism, hermeneutics, and archaeology (see 
pp. 1 and 2). Comp. Delitzsch, 1. c, "Every science is an organism; but the term 
organic applies only to what is not simply a means for promoting an object external 
to itself, but is itself a whole, an object to itself, in which the individual with its pe- 
culiarities is lost in the idea of the whole, and only that is an instrument (organ) 
which aids the development of the whole in its identity with itself. The so-called in- 
troduction lacks this organic character. It is not without idea and aim, but it lacks 
the immanent, self-developing idea, the principle of teleological self -reference, which 
is necessary to a science." 

^ The name is first employed by Adrian, a writer probably of the fifth century, in 
the small hermeneutical work elGayuy)] dg raf i9-e/af ypadd^ ; afterward by Cassiodorus 
(in the sixth century), and later in the Middle Ages. In Germany Michaelis first used 
it in connexion with the N". T., and Eichhorn Avith the 0. T. Comp. Hahn in Herzog's 
Encykl., iii, p. 727, sqq. 

^ Zyro, in Stud. u. Krit., 183Y, No. 3, considers canonics to be merely a branch of 
isagogics. In his view, the latter comprehends everything that is necessary for the 
interpretation of the Scriptures, i. e., 1. the nature and importance of the Bible, to- 
gether with its history (canonics) ; 2. its compass, or the genuineness of its matter (crit- 
icism) ; 3. its language and contents (hermeneutics). He then divides canonics into 
two parts, in absiracto^ in which character canonics unfolds the nature of the Scrip- 
tures under the forms of authenticity, credibility, and genuineness, and canonics in 
concrete^ or what is usually termed introduction in the more limited sense, which is 
again divided into general and special m into Old and New Testament canonics. Comp. 
Pelt, Encykl, p. 121. 



GENERAL AND SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 193 

It will not be denied that great interest attaches to such an 
all-sided historical knowledge respecting the Bible ; but methodo- 
loo-ical considerations require nevertheless that what is introductory 
to the study of Scripture (the history of its origin and the collection 
of its parts into a canon), and what relates to the further history of 
the already completed collection of the Scriptures, should be kept 
apart. Only the former, though likewise historical in its nature, 
is an exegetical auxiliary science, because it affords a correct posi- 
tion to the exegete from which to operate ; while the latter must 
be assigned to the department of Church history and the his- 
tory of literature, and may be reserved for a later stage of theo- 
logical study. It does not appear to us a matter which the sci- 
ence need be ashamed of, that the "reader of the introduction 
Bible" (i. e., the student) must before all "be well- P^^^'^i^t^^f^j 
grounded in historical knowledge in order to correctly the canon and 
understand and properly appreciate the Bible as a who'le 
and in its parts ; " ^ but such preliminary knowledge needs a careful 
discrimination of its elements among themselves, and a proper dis- 
tribution of its parts in the organism of the sciences. If, in har- 
mony with this principle, the grammatical and archaeological ele- 
ments be excluded, and a distinct place be assigned to hermeneutics, 
there will be left only what is generally denoted by the still current 
name of introductory science, namely, the history of the canon 
(within the limits hitherto assigned to it) and criticism. These 
may not be wholly separated from each other, for the history of the 
canon is not to be a mere review, but history involving the discus- 
sion of principles — critical history; in which connexion it maybe 
remembered that what is now called introduction was formerly 
known as critica sacra or histoire critique du V. et N. T. (Richard 
Simon). This does not forbid, however, that criticism as such, 
i. e., the whole of the science of critical principles, should consti- 
tute a distinct branch of study, as does hermeneutics, which em- 
braces the theory of interpretation. The science of introduction is 
thus confined to critical and historical inquiry concerning the books 
of Scripture and their collection into a canon, instituted for pur- 
poses of exegesis. 

The division into Old and New Testament introduction results 
from the nature of the case ; but the relation of general Relation of 
to special' introduction is more difficult to determine. cfaTTntrodS^ 
The usual method is to begin with the general (the col- tion. 
lection of the canon, history of the text, versions, etc.), and to sup- 
plement this with introductions to the several books ; but the oppo- 

^ The words of Hupfeld, p. 8. 
18' 



194 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

site course may be adopted with Reuss, and the origin of the 
different books discussed, so that the forniation of the canon from 
its first beginnings to its final completion is presented in a genetic 
view. In the latter case, however, the special introduction would 
need to be very brief and to steadily approach its object, as is the 
case with Reuss, the more extended discussion being reserved for 
the exegesis of the books. Here, again, the intervention of the 
different sciences comes into view. Introduction provides the 
point of view from which the exegete is to regard the Bible ; but 
the progress of exegesis reacts upon introduction and alters the po- 
sition of isagogics. 

Encyclopaedia is concerned with the material of introduction only 
in so far as it is necessary to give preliminary information with 
regard to its general character. The question concerning the period 

„.-,., in which the formation of the canon was first under- 
Penod of the 

first formation taken, is Connected with the inquiry respecting the time 
o e canon, ^f^jign the art of writing was invented. It is certain 
that the canon as a whole appears for the first time after the cap- 
tivity. The traditional view that Ezra (B.C. 478) and Nehemiah 
(2 Mace, ii, 13) took measures for collecting the different books, has 
been doubted by the criticism of recent times. ^ The first to receive 
a completed form was probably the Pentateuch, and to this the 
other books were added in various collections and at different 
times. The earliest constituents of the New Testament canon were 
the Pauline epistles, which w^ere written as occasion required 
(those to the Thessalonians being the oldest); and to these were 
gradually added the (catholic) epistles of other aj)ostles, togeth- 
er with the written memorabilia of the life of Jesus (Gospels), 
the latter being probably first in point of time. The ancient Church 
knew of but two collections, the EvayyeXiov and the aiToaroXog (ac- 
The New Test- cording to the assumption which has become current 
amentcanonin • ^j^ ^-^ ^£ Semler, though it is not fully estab- 

the early Chris- ' *=> i i • i 

tian Church. lished).^ The former included the four Gospels, which 
had already been distinguished from the spurious gospels and recog- 

^ Comp. Leyrer's art. in Herzog's Encykl., xv, p. 296, sqq. A reference to an al- 
ready completed canon cannot, of course, be looked for in the canonical books them- 
selves. The apocryphal Book of Wisdom, however (not later than B.C. 130), affords 
proof that a collection of sacred writings existed (chap, xlv-xlix), though it cannot be 
shown that the entire canon, as we possess it, is intended ; for this purpose a formal 
catalogue would be required. The first to furnish a list (of twenty-two books) was 
Josephus (contr. Ap. i, 8), from whom the tradition referred to in the text is also 
derived. 

" Pelt, p. 144, under reference to Orelli : Selecta patrum capita ad elaTjyjjTiKTjv sacra 
pertin. p. 1, 11, sq., note. Comp. Landerer in Herzog's Encykl., vii, p. 270, sqq. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTIOK 195 

nized by the Church, and the latter embraced the apostolical epis- 
tles and the Book of Acts. Opinion was long divided with regard* 
to the Apocalypse and certain of the catholic epistles, and a distinc- 
tion was made between biioXoyoviieva and avrtXeyofjieva and voda 
(Euseb., H. E. iii, 25) as late as the fourth century. The first dass 
included the four Gospels, the book of Acts, the fourteen Pauline 
epistles,^ and 1 Peter and 1 John ; to the second were assigned the 
2d ep. by Peter, 2 and 3 John, James, and Jude ; and the third was 
limited to the Apocalypse, though many classed it among the writ- 
ings whose authenticity was acknowledged (comp. the canon of 
Origen in Euseb., vi, 25, and that of Eusebius himself, ibid., iii, 25, 
as also the somewhat divergent so-called Muratorian canon of 
Milan, in Kirchhofer, Quellensammlung, p. 1, sqq.; also Westcott 
on the Canon of the New Test., p. 184, sqq., and Harman's In- 
troduction, pp. 428-438). The canon of the New Testament 
as it now stands was gradually formed by the actions of councils 
(comp. Canon Laodic, 364, and the canon of the third council of 
Carthage in 397). This may suffice to enable the beginner to un- 
derstand the relation of the early Christian Church to the canon, 
and to demonstrate to him that the former had already attained to a 
liigh degree of independence ("sine charta et atramento." — Irenseus) 
before the canonical boundaries of the letter of the Bible had been 
definitely fixed.^ But this by no means involves the conclusion 
that the canon is a mere accident ; the religious disposition will 
still recognize its providential, though not necessarily miraculous, 
character. 

1. Introductions to the Bible as a whole.^ 

Leonh. Bertholdt, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in sammtl. kanonische ti. apokry- 

phische Schriften des A. u, N. T. Erl, 1812-19. 6 Bde. 
* W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der histor.-krit. Einleitung in die Bibel A. ii. N. T, 

^ Including that to the Hebrews, though its Pauline character is denied bv some 
churches. 

^Comp. Schleiermacher, § 104, sqq.; Goethe, p. 140, "The Bible itself — and this 
receives too little attention — exerted almost no influence in the older times. The books 
of the Old Testament had scarcely been collected, and the nation in which they orig- 
inated was utterly dispersed. The latter alone formed the nucleus about which it; 
members gathered and still gather. The books of the New Testament had scarcely 
been brought together before Christendom divided into endless differences of opinions. 
And thus it appears that people do not busy themselves loith the work so much as 
abo^lt the work." 

3 Older works by Rivetus (1627), Walther (1636). A. Calov (1643-73), Brian Walton 
(1657; Edit, von Wrangham, 1828), Heidegger (1681), PfeifPer (Ultraj., 1704), van 
Till (1720-22), du Pin (1701), Calmet 1720; translated by Mosheim (1738-47), 
Moldenhauer (1744), Borner (1753), f Goldhagen (1765-68), Wagner (1795). 



11)6 SPECIxVL THEOLOGICAL ENGYCLOPJEDIA. 

Part 1 : Einleit. in's A. T. Bed., 1811; 7th ed., 1852. Part 2 : Einleit. in's N. T. 

1826-30; 6th ed., by Messner and Liinemann, 1860. 
K, A. Credner, Beitrage zur Einl. in die Bibl. Schriften. 1 Bd. Halle, 1832. 
f J. M. A. Scholz, Einl. in die heil. Schriften des A. u. N. T. (1st part : allgemeine 

Einl.) Koln, 1845. 
f D. Haneberg, Versuch einer Geschichte der bibl. Offenbarung als Einleit. in's A. u. 

N. T. Regensb., 1850. 3d ed., 1863. 
J. J. Prins, Handboek to de kennis van de heil. Schriften des Ouden en Nieuwen Ver- 

bonds. Rotterd., 1851, 1852. 2 parts. 
0. R. Hertwig, Tabellen zur Einl. in die kanonischen u. apokryphischen Biicher des 

A. T. Berl., 1856. 
F. Kaulen, Einl. in die heil. Schrift Alt. u. N. T. Freib., 18V6. 

Practical, and in popular style : 
Huber, Einleit. in die sammtl. Biicher der h. Schrift. Basel, 1803. (3. Aufl., 1841.) 
A. Schumann, Prakt. Einleit. in die Biicher des A. und N. T. Berl., 1847. 
J. Kirchhofer, Leitfaden zur Bibelkunde fiir Biirgerschulen, Elementarschullehrer- 

Seminarien, etc. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1860. 
R. F. Grau, Entwicklungsgeschichte des Neu Testamentlichen Schriftthums. Giitersl., 

1871. 

F. W. Weber, Kurtzges. Einl. in die heil. Schriften Alten u. N. Test. 4th ed. Nord., 

1874. 
E. Zittel, die entstehung der Bibel. 3d ed. Karlsr., 1875. 
C. A. Witz, Einl. in die Schriften A. u. N. Test. Wien., 1876. 

Apologetical : 
L. Gaussen, Die Echtheit der heiligen Schriften vom Standpunkt der Geschichte und 

des Glaubens. From the French, by J. E. Grob. Basel and Ludswigsb., 1864 and 

1865. 2 parts. 

2. Introductions to the Old Testament. 
Dillmann, IJeber die Bildung der Samlung der h. Schrift A. T. (Jahrbb. fiir deutsche 

Theolog., 1858. 3.) 
Diestel, Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand der Einl. ins A. T. (Deutsche Zeitschr. fiir 

christliche Wissenschaft und christl. Leben. April, 1861.) 
R. Simon, Histoire critique du Vieux Testament. Par., 1678. 4. Rotterd., 1685. 4.* 
* J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in's A. T. Lpz., 1780, 1783, 1787, 1803. 3 Bde; 1823, 

1824. 5 Bde. 
Einleitung in die apokryphischen Schriften des A. T. Lpz., 1795. 

G. L. Bauer, Entwurf einer krit. Einleit. in die Schriften des A. T. Niirnb., 1794, 
1801, 1806. 

t J. Jahn, Einleitung in die gottlichen Bticher des A. T. Wien, 1793, 1802. 2 Bde. 

Introductio in libros sacros Yet. Foed. in compend, redacta. Vienn., 1804-15. 

*.Bertholdt and de Wette. (See above, under 1.) 

W. M. L. de Wette, Beitrage zur Einl. in das A. T. Halle, 1809. 2 Bde. 

J. Ch. W. Augusti, Grundriss einer histor.-krit. Einleitung in's A. T. Lpz., 1806-27. 

f F. Ackermann, Introductio in libros Vet. Foed. Vienn., 1825. 

' Works in Latin : Natalis Alb. de Verse, hist, critica V. T. auctore R. P. Ricardo Simonio. 
Amst., 1681-85. Franeq., 1698. 4. With which comp. (le Clerc) : Sentimens des quelques The- 
ologiens de Hollande sur Thistoire critique, etc. Amst., 1685. Germ, by Corrodi. Zurich, 1799. 
2 Bde. Other older works by J. A. Fabricius (1610), J. H. Hottinger (1649-96), J. Leusden (1663- 
1739), J. G. Carpzov (Introductio, 1714-31-41. Critica Sacra, 1728-48), J. S. Semler (Apparatus 
1773), H. E. Gute (1787), J. D. Michaelis (1787). 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 197 

Hengsteuberg, Beitriige zuv Einl. in's A. T. Berl, 1831-39. 3 Bde. 

* H. A. Ch. Havernick, Handbuch der histor.-krit. Einleit. in das A, T. Erl., 1837-49. 

3 Bde. (Vol. 3 by K. F. Keil.) (Vols. 1 and 2 in a 2d ed., 1854-56, by Keil.) 
K. F. Keil, Lehrbueh der hist.-krit. Einleit. in die kanon. Schriften des A. T. Frankf. 
a. M., 1853. 2. Aufl. 1859. 

* Fr. Bleek, Einleit. in's A. T. Published by J. F. Bleek and A. Kamphausen, with 

preface by C. J. Xitzsch. Berl., 186(>. 3. Aufl., 1870. 

* J. J. Stahelin, Specielle Einleit. in die kanonischen Biicher des A. T. Elberf., 1862. 
f Reuseh, Lehrbueh der Einleitung in das Alte Testament. 4th ed. Freib., 1870. 
Volckmar, Haudb. der Einleit. in die Apoki-yphen. 2 vols. Tiib., 1862, 1863. 

Th. Xoldecke, die alttest. Liter, in e. reihe von Aufsatzen. Lpz., 1868. 

T. S. Bloch, Studien zur Geseh. der Sammlung der althebr. Liter. Bresl., 1876. 

3. Introductioyis to the Xew Testament. 

0. R. Hertwig, Tabellen zur Einl. in's X. T. Berl., 1849. 4th ed., prepared by Wein- 

garten, 1872. 
R. Simon, Histoire critique du texte du X. T., ou Ton etablit. la verite des actes, sur 

lesquels la religion chretienne est fondee. Rotterd., 1689. 4.^ 
H. K. A. Hiinlein, Handbuch der Einleitung in die Schriften des X\ T. Erl., 1794— 

1800. 2d ed., 1801-9. 3 Bde. 

Lehrbueh der Einleitung. Ebend., 1802. 

J. E. Chr. Schmidt, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in's X"". T. Giessen, 1804. 2 Bde. 
J. G. Eichhorn, Einleit. in's X. T. Lpz., Bd. 1, 1804. 2d ed., 1820. Bd. 2 and 3, 

1810-14. Bd. 4 and 5, 1827. 

* t J. L. Hug, Einleitung in die Schriften des X. T. Tiib. u. Stuttg., 1800-21-26-47. 

2 Bde. 
Bertholdt and de Wette. (See above, under 1.) 
H. E. F. Guericke, Beitrage zur hist.-krit. Einleitung in's X. T. besonders mit polem. 

Riicksicht auf das Lehrbueh des Herrn de Wette. Halle, 1828. Fortges. Bei 

trage, 1831. 

* H. A. Schott, Isagoge hist.-crit. in libros X. T. sacros. Jen., 1830. 

f A. B. Feilmoser, Einleitung in die Biicher des X. T. Innsbr., 1810-30. 

M. Schneckenburger, Beitrage zur Einl. in's X. T. Stuttg., 1832. 

H. Ohlshausen, Xachweis der Echtheit sammtlicher Schriften des X. T. Hamb., 1832. 

K. A. Credner, Einleitung in das X. T. Part 1. Halle, 1836. 

Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanon, publ. by G. Volkmar. Berl., 1860. 

C. G. Xeudecker, Lehrb. der hist.-krit. Einleitung in das X. T. Lpz., 1840. 

* E. Xeuss, Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des X'. T. Halle, 1842. 2d ed.. 

Braunschw., 1853. 2 vols. 3d ed., 1860. 4th ed., ibid., 1864. 
f A. Maier, Einl. in die Schriften des X. T. Freib., im Br., 1852. 
f F. X. Reithmayr, Einleitung in die kanonischen Biicher des X. T. Regensb., 1852. 
H. E. F. Guericke, Gesammtgeschichte des X. T. oder neutestamentl. Isagogik. 2d ed. 

Lpz., 1854. 3d ed., ibid., 1868. 

1 With which connect : Histoire critique des versions du N. T., oil Ton fait connaitre quel a 
dt^ I'usage de la lecture des livres sacres dans les principales eglises du monde. Rott., 1690. 4., 
and Nouvelles observations sur le texte et les versions du N. T. Par., 1695. 4. (Translated by 
Matth. H. Cramer, with preface and notes by Semler. Halle, 1776-80) . Other older works by 
J. Leusden (1684-1739), J. G. Pritius (1704 ; published by Hofraann, 1737-64), E. Harwood (Schulz, 
Halle, 1770-73), J. Dav. Michaehs (Einl. in die gottl. Schriften des N. B. Gott, 17.50. 4th ed., 
1787, 1788. 2 vols. 4.), Herb. Marsh (Anram. und Zusiitze zu Michaelis Einl. Cambr., 1793; 
ubers. von E. F. K. RosenmiiUer. Gott,, 1. Thl., 1795. 2. Thl., 1803. 4.). 



198 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

F. Bleek, Einleitung in das N. T. Berl., 1862. 2d ed., ibid., 1866. 

■j- Langen, Grundriss der Einleitung in das Neue Testament, Freib., 1868. 

Grau, Entwicklungsgeschichte des neutestamentlichen Schriftthums. 2 Bd. Giitersl, 

1871. 
A, Hilgenfeld, histor.-krit. Einleitung in das N. T. Lpz., 1875. 
M. von Aberle, Einl. in das N. T. Hersg. v. P. Schanz. Freib., 1877. 

ENGLISH AND AMEEICAN LITERATUKE. 
1. Introduction to the whole Bible. 

Angus, Joseph. The Bible Hand-Book : An Introduction to the Study of the Sacred 

Scripture. 12mo, pp. 727. Philadelphia, 1865. 
Bissell, E. Cone. The Historic Origin of the Bible: a Hand-Book of Principal 

Facts from the best recent authorities. German and English. New York, 

1873. 
Fairbairn, P. The Typology of Scripture, viewed in connection with the whole series 

of the Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 420, 484. New York, 

1880. 
Gaussen, L. The Oanon of the Holy Scriptures. Examined in the Light of History. 

From the French, by Ed. N. Kirk. J2mo, pp. x, 463. Boston, 1863. 
Harman, Henry M. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 8vo, pp. 762. 

New York, 1880. 
Hitchcock, R. D. New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible : or, the Old and 

New Testaments arranged according to subjects. 8vo. New York, 1870. 
Home, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of 

the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 464, 493, and 198. Philadelphia, 1841. 

Thirteenth English edition, with the aid of Ajre and Tregelles. 4 vols., 8vo. 

London, 1872. 
Lightfoot's Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1880. 
Rogers, Henry. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible. Inferred from itself. 8vo, 

pp. 475. New York, 1874, 
Stowe, C, E. Origin and History of the Books of the Bible, both Canonical and 

Apocryphal, In Two Parts. Part I, The New Testament. 8vo, pp. 583. Hart- 
ford, 1867. 
Townley, James. Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History and 

Fate of the Sacred Writings from the Earliest Period to the Present Century. 

2 vols., 8vo, pp. 602, 604. New York, 1847. 

2. To the Old Testament. 

Birks, T. R. The Pentateuch and its Anatomists ; or, the Fnity and Authenticity of 

the Books of Moses Vindicated. 12mo. London, 1869, 
Bleek, Johannes, An Introduction to the Old Testament. Translated by (j. H. 

Yenables. 2 vols., pp. 967. London, 1875. 
Cowles, Henry, The Pentateuch in its Progressive Revelations of God to Men. Pp. 

414. New York, 1874. 
Curtiss, Samuel Ives, The Levitical Priests : a Contribution to the Criticism of tlie 

Pentateuch. With Preface by Dr. Delitzsch. 12mo, pp. xxix, 254. Edinburgh, 

1877. 
Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, Critical, Historical, and 

Theological. 3 vols., 8vo. London, 1862. 



LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 199 

Davison, John. Discourses on Prophecy. In which are considered its Structure, 
Use, and Inspiration. 8vo. London, 1870. 

Delitzsch, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Translated from Manuscript Lectures by 
S. Ives Curtiss. New York, 1 880. 

De Wette, W. M. L, A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Canonical Script- 
ures of the Old Testament. Translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker. 2 vols., 
8vo, pp. 517, 570. Boston, 1843. 

Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Translated and Revised. 5 vols., 
8vo. London, 1869-1871. (Discusses the formation of the Old Testament 
Canon.) 

Fairbairn, P. Prophecy, viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, its Special 
Function, and Proper Interpretation. 2d ed., 8vo. New York, 1866. 

Gloag, James Paton. The Messianic Prophecies. Baird Lectures for 1879. 12mo, 
pp. 368. Edinburgh, 1879. 

Godet, F. Biblical Studies on the Old Testament. Edited by W. H. Lyttleton. 16mo. 
New York and London. 

Green, W. H. Moses and the Prophets. New York, 1883. (A reply to Prof. Rob- 
ertson Smith and Kuenen.) 

Havernick, H. A. Ch. A Historico-Critical Introduction to the Pentateuch. From 
the German. 8vo, pp. 450. Edinburgh, 1850. 

A General Historico-Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. From the 

German. 8vo, pp. 389. Edinburgh, 1852. 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel, and the Integ- 
rity of Zechariah. Translated from the German. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1858. 

Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch. From the German. 2 vols., 

8vo, pp. 462, 543. Edinburgh, 1847. 

Jehovah and Elohim in the Pentateuch, On the Use of, as Consistent with, and Con- 
firmatory of, its Mosaic Authorship. By H. T. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Keil, Karl F. Manual of Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures 
of the Old Testament. Translated by M. Douglas. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 545, 444. 
Edinburgh, 1869. 

Leathes, Stanley. The Structure of the Old Testament : a Series of Popular Essays. 
16mo, pp. 198. Philadelphia, 1873. 

M'Donald, Donald. Introduction to the Pentateuch. 8vo, pp. 487, 489. Edinburgh, 
186L 

Norton, Andrews. The Pentateuch and its Relations to the Jewish and Christian 
Dispensations. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Oehler, G. F. Theology of the Old Testament. Translated by Sophia Taylor. 8vo, 
pp. 497. Edinburgh, 1875. 

Phelps, Austin. Studies in the Old Testament. 12mo, pp. 333. Boston, 1879. 

Porter, J. L. The Pentateuch and the Four Gospels : a Statement of our Lord's Tes- 
timony to the Mosaic Authorship, Historic Truth, and the Divine Authority of 
the Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1865. 

Quaney, John. Genesis and its Authorship, Two Demonstrations : I. On the Im- 
port of the Introductory Chapters. II. On the Use of the Names of God in the 
Book of Genesis. 8vo. London and Edinburgh, 1866. 

Smith, R. Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Christ. Bampton Lectures for 1869. 
12mo, pp. 397. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 1870. 

Stebbins, Rufus P. A Study of the Pentateuch for Popular Reading, with an Intro- 
ductory Examination of recent Dutch Theories, as represented by Dr. Kuenen's 
Religion of Israel. 12mo, pp. 233, Boston, 1881. 



200 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defense of the Old Testament Canon. i2mo. 

Revised ed., pp. 422. Andover, 1872. 
Watts, Robert. The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. A Reply to Prof. 

Robertson Smith. Edinburgh, 188L 
Williams, Rowland. The Prophets of Israel and Judah, during the Assyrian Empire. 

8vo, pp. 450. London, 1866. 
Wright, W. The Book of Jonah, in Four Oriental Versions, namely, Chaldee, 

Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic; with Glossaries. Svo, pp. xii, 148. London, 

1857. 

3. To the New Testament. 

Abbott, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. 8vo, pp. 104. Boston, 

1880. 
Alexander, Jos. A. Notes on the New Testament Literature and Ecclesiastical His- 
tory. 12mo, pp. 319. New York, 1873. New ed., 1875. 
Alford, Henry. How to Study the New Testament. First Section, The Gospels and 

Acts. Second Section, The Epistles. Third Section, The Epistles and the Rev- 
elation. 3 vols., 12mo. London, 1865-69. 
Bleek, Friedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament. From the Second Edition 

of the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 900. Edinburgh, 1869-70. 
Conder, Josiah. Literary History of the New Testament. 8vo, pp. 624. London, 

1845. 
Conybeare and Howson. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. ; also 2 vols, in 

one, 12mo, pp. 556. Nev^r York, 1869. 
Davidson, D. Connection of the Sacred and Profane History, from the Close of the 

Old Testament History till the Establishment of Christianity. 3 vols, in one. 

12mo. New York, 1857. New ed., 24mo. London, 1868. 
Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament. 3 vols., 

8vo, pp. 458, 495, 688. London, 1851. 
Ebrard, J H. A. The Gospel History. A Critical Investigation in Support of the 

Historical Character of the Gospels. Translated by James Martin. 8vo, pp. 602. 

Edinburgh, 1863. 
Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. 8vo, pp. 488. Edinburgh 

and New York. 
Godet, F. Studies in the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 398. New York, 1877. 
Gregory, D. S. Why Four Gospels ? or, the Gospel for all the World. 12mo, pp. 

348. New York and Cincinnati, 1880. 
Howson, John S. The Metaphors of St. Paul, and Companions of St. Paul. With 

an Introduction by H. B. Hackett. 2 vols, in one, 16mo, pp. v, 91, 211. New 

York, 1872. 
Hug, John Leonard. An Introduction to the Writings of the New Testament. From 

the German. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 529, 682. London, 1827. 
Hutton, Richard H. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. In Essays, 

Theological and Literary. 2 vols. London, 1871. 
Kelley, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Gospels. 12mo. London, 

1867. 
Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Acts, the Catholic Epistles, and the 

Revelation. 12mo. London, 1870. 
Introduction to the Study of the Epistles of Paul. 12mo. London, 1869. 



Less, Godfrey. The Authenticity, Lncorrupted Preservation, and Credibility of the 
New Testament. Translated by R. Kingdom. Svo. London, 1864. 



LITP:RATURE of biblical introduction. 201 

Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Sacri ; or, a Key to the Chronology of the New Testament. 
8vo, pp. 429. London, 1865. 

The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, with Numerous Illustrations, finely en- 
graved on wood; Maps, Plans, etc. 2 vols., 4to, pp. xxxiv, 414; xxii, 487. Lon 
don, 18*78. 

Luthardt, C. E. St. John the Author of the Fourth Gospel. From the German. 8vo, 
pp. 369. Edinburgh, 18*75. 

Martin, James. Origin and History of New Testament. 2d ed., 16mo. London, 
18*72. 

Michaelis, J. D. Introduction to the New Testament ; Translated, with Notes, etc., 
by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols., 8vo. London, 1823. 

Mitchell, E. C. The Critical Iland-Book. A Guide to the Authenticity, Canon, and 
Text of the New Testament. 12mo. Andover. 

Monod, Adolphe. St. Paul. Five Discourses. From the French, by J. H. Myers. 
New ed., 12mo. Andover, 18*76. 

Nast, Wm. The Gospel Records. Their Genuineness, Authenticity, etc. 12mo, pp. 
373. Cincinnati, 1878. 

Norton, Andrews. The Evidence of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Abridged ed., 
12mo, pp. 584. Boston, 1867. 

Roberts, Alexander. Discussions of the Gospels. Part I, on the Language used by 
our Lord. Part II, on the Original Language of Matthew's Gospel. 8vo, pp. 571. 
Cambridge and London, 1864. (Argues that Jesus spoke Greek.) 

Sandy, Wm. The Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel con- 
sidered in reference to the Contents of the Gospel itself. A Critical Essay. 
12mo. London, 1872. 

Scrivener, F. H. Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament, and the Apcient 
MSS. which contain it. Crown 8vo, pp. 607. Cambridge, 1861. 

Tischendorf, Constantine. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated by William L. 
Gage. 16mo, pp. 287. Boston, 1868. 

When were our Gospels Written? An Argument ; with a Narrative of the Dis- 
covery of the Sinaitic Manuscript. 16mo. New York, 1867. 

Tregelles, S. P. Canon Muratorianus. The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of the 
New Testament. Edited, with Notes, and a Fac-simile of the Manuscript in the 
Ambrosian Library at Milan. 4to. London, 1868. 

Upham, Francis W. Thoughts on the Holy Gospels : How they came to be in Man- 
ner and Form as they ai"e. 12mo, pp. 378. New York and Cincinnati, 1881. 

Westcott, B. F. A History of the New Testament Canon during the first Four Cent- 
uries. 12mo. Cambridge, 1870. 

Introduction to the Study of the Gospels; with Historical and Explanatory 

Notes. 12mo, pp. 476, Boston. 

Whately, Richard. Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul and other parts of 
the New Testament. From the 8th London edition. 12mo, pp. 376. Andover, 
1865. 

For Literature of the disputed origin of the Fourth Gospel, see Appendix to 
Luthardt's work on St. John ; and also Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 
American edition, sub voce, pp. 1437-1439. 



202 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION XIII. 

BIBLICAL CKITICISM.- 

J. S. Semler, Abhandlnng von freier Uutersuchimg des Kanon, Halle, 1771-75, 4 vols.; Jod. 
Herlnga, Ueber d. rechten Gebrauch u. Missbrauch d. bibl. Kritik, from the Dutch, by Beckhaus, 
Offenbach, 1S04 ; F. Hitzig, Begrifl der Kritik, am A. T. praktisch erortert, Heidelberg, 1831 ; 
M. Drechsler, Die Unwissenschaftlichkeit im Gebiete d. Kritik, etc., Leips., 1837; G. A. Hauff, 
Offenbarungsglaube u. Kritik d. bibl. Geschichtsbiicher, am Beispiele d. B. Josua in ihrer noth- 
wendigen Einheit dargethan, Stuttg., 1843; Q. L. Hahn, Gegenwartigen Stand d. N, T. Kritik, 
Breslau, 1848 ; Ebrard, in Herzog's Encykl., s. v. Kritik ; B. B. Edwards, Certain Erroneous 
Methods and Principles of Biblical Criticism, Bib. Sacra., vi, p. 185 ; Kitto's Cyclopaedia, 
vol. i, p. 487. 

Biblical Criticism operates on the historical ground opened to 
The objects oiir view by the study of isagogics. Its task is, to 
bv^^^n^cai determine, on the one hand, the authenticity of the 
Criticism. Scriptures as a whole ; on the other, the uncorrupted 

character (integrity) of single passages or the entire text, and also 
to restore the true reading where it has been lost or crowded out. 
It conducts its work on scientific principles, and makes use of avail- 
able historical monuments and of the evidence afforded by internal 
marks in the writings themselves under examination. 

No pious mind need be startled by the phrase "Biblical Criti- 
cism,"^ as though it implied a purpose to criticise and force the 
text. Of such criticism there has been no lack ; but here no criti- 
cism of the contents, whether historical or dogmatical, is intended, 
but simply an examination into the authenticity of the text as it 
exists, either in its parts or as a whole. At the first glance even 
such inquiry may seem to conflict with the reverence we owe to the 
Bible, though this reverence itself, when more correctly under- 
stood, invites to conscientious investigation of the Scriptures.^ The 
thought that God has always watched over the Bible, is, in this gen- 
eral form, the presumption of a pious consciousness, which may be 

^ " It is very difficult to oonceive of this word (criticism) as denoting a real unity in 
the technical meaning which has been attached to it." Schleiermacher, Herm. u. Kritik 
(at the beginning) ; comp. his Abhandl. iib. Begriff u. Eintheilung der philolog. Kritik 
in Akadem. Reden u. Abhandlungen (Sammtl. Werke zur Phil., vol. iii, p. 38); and 
also Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 310: "There assuredly exists a criticism that springs 
from the full confidence of faith as well as one that takes its rise in doubt ; and the 
former is inborn with Christian piety, at least with that of the evangelical type. God 
has not made, and did not intend to make, the task a trifling one for us. He gives 
nothing whatever to man in its finished state ; all his gifts are imparted in such a way 
as to abundantly tax human energy — this for the reason that we are human. This 
applies also to the Scriptures ; and if we consent to undertake the labor impesed on 
us by God and subject the Bible to historical criticism, it does not follow that we 
thereby exalt ourselves above and constrain it, but rather that we are sincerely en- 
deavoring to learn its true meaning." 

- Upon this point comp. esp. Hauff, supra, p. 19, sqq. 



THE BIBLE A PROVIDENTIAL BOOK. 203 

sustained at the bar of science, and even finds its justification at the 

hands of science. But to decide beforehand how God should have 

watched, what things he must have guarded against 

to prevent the Bible from becoming a book like other i^de^n^iau^y 

books, is an arrogant assumption equal to that of ra- guarded, yet 

T ^. .... , ^ , ?: . ^ . subject to hu- 

tionalistic criticism in the other direction. It is an man vicissi- 

historical fact to which we are, in all humility, to as- ^^^^^' 
sent, that God has chosen to permit the Bible to pass through the 
same human processes by which other written monuments have 
been and are being tested. This will be apparent to every person 
who has looked with an unprejudiced eye into the history and for- 
tunes of the canon. ^ 

It is doubtless true that (in recent times, especially) criticism has 
been often employed for perverse and even frivolous Biblical criti- 
ends,'* and rarely has a book been subjected to so much cism, though 
abuse as has the Bible ; but it is by no means wise to ed!''stiirof 
oppose uncritical to hypercritical arbitrariness. Only a ^i^eat value. 
strictly scientific procedure, unbiassed by dogmatic preconceptions 
of any kind, will meet the demands of the case.^ While it is true 

^ Comp. Herder, Briefe, No. 1, " Banish the last remains of the leaven of the opin- 
ion that this book is unlike other books in its outward form and matter, so that, for 
instance, no various readings can occur in it, because it is a Divine book. Various 
readings do occur (and yet but one can be the correct reading) — this is fact, not opin- 
ion. . . . Whether a person who makes a copy of the Bible thereby becomes at once a 
faultlfc-ss God ? ... No parchment acquires a firmer nature because it bears the Bible, 
and no ink becomes thereby indelible." Similiarly, Eichhorn, Einl. ins. A. T., p. 5*7, 
$q. (2d ed.), "Every person who censures the Biblical scholar, or even sighs with 
pious anxiety because he examines one book after another of the Old (or New) Testa- 
ment for this purpose, applying critical exactness and judicial strictness to his work 
must either remain unacquainted with antiquity and profane literature, together with 
the processe:5 employed in that field, or be so extremely weak in mental powers as to 
fail to see the serious consequences resulting from the neglect of such tests, as well as 
the invincible host of doubts which can only be driven from their entrenchments by the 
proposed (^. e., critical) method," 

^ It must be admitted, however, that complaints upon this point have been exagger- 
ated, as, for instance, by Drechsler, who is governed by the idea that " every assault 
upon the genuineness of a Scriptural book is at the same time an attack directed 
against the belief in salvation through Christ." — Page 12, etc. ; comp. Hauff, p. 255. 

^ " Every person is sufficiently protected against the arbitrary tendencies of his own 
nature who enters on the investigation animated by a sincere love of truth, and against 
the arbitrariness of others by the liberty to test assertions and arguments made by 
them," Hauff, p, 45 ; " It is the especial task of our age to place this department 
of theology (criticism) in a new and clearer light, to provide new fundamental con- 
ceptions and a new basis for this science, since the old has become decayed and un- 
serviceable," Hahn, p. 7 ; "I am convinced that in order to renew the Christian faith 
we need, not Ze.s.s, but more, investigation," Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, 88 ; " On its bright 
side, criticism is the self -rejuvenating element of the Church as a whole, the boast of 



204 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

that the authenticity of many a book or single passage has been 
doubted because it gave discomfort to the critic's subjectivity, it 
yet appears, from the history of criticism, that genuine critics, while 
abstaining from all passion, have brought within the range of their 
researches matters having no immediate connexion with the faith, 
and have ffiven them the most conscientious consideration, and that 
upon the whole, and on the large scale, their judgment has been con- 
trolled by other than predetermined dogmatical reasons. How can 
a dogmatical system derive advantage from the fact that the ac- 
count of the adulterous woman (John viii) is assigned to a different 
Gospel; that a doxology (Rom. xvi) is assigned to a different place; 
or even that the genuineness of Second Peter is by some surrendered? 
Not a single Bible truth is thereby deprived of its support. Criti- 
The objection cism has also been frequently denounced as paltry, and 

that Biblical \\^ mav doubtless surprise the layman or the besjinner 
Criticism is , "^ . . . . i it i i • i. 

often paltry. that extensive investigation should be made into tne 
transposition of a word, or concerning a particle, w^hich might seem 
to exert no immediate influence on the meaning. Precisely this 
devotion to the letter of the Scriptures (which was cultivated " for 
the glory of Jesus Christ" by the pious Bengei) constitutes, with 
all its apparent dryness, the finest flower of scientific earnestness 
and the most effectual restraint upon recklessness, while, on the 
contrary, uncritical ignorafice, which, for instance, would, in order 
to possess an additional proof -text, retain passages like 1 John v, 7, 
though known to be not genuine, is rendering but poor service to 
the interests of piety. The glory of science is this, that it presses 
onward in the course marked out by an incorruptible love of truth, 
without yielding to the power of outside influences. 

SECTION XIV. 
CONDITIONS OF CANONICITY. 

The claim of a book to be canonical is only partially established by 
the acknowledgment of its genuineness ; but the canonical char- 
acter of the Bible certainly depends on the integrity of the separate 
j^assages contained in it, and consequently on the purity of the text. 
Genuineness of The word spurioits (spurius, 2^0190^) is, in its harshest 
sages^tobede- meaning, applied to w^orks intentionally ascribed to 
termined by j^n author with whom they did not orisjinate ; and a 

Biblical Criti- o ^ 

cism. number of such works was known to the early Church, 

the evangelical Church and theology ; on the darker side, criticism has, by its deform- 
ity, filled one of the most pungent pages in the history of the Protestant Church.'* 
J. P. Lange, Das Apostol. Zeitalter, i, p. 9 ; comp. also the Periodisirung der krit. 
Operationen in der evangel. Kirche, p. 10, by the same author. 



GROUNDS OF CANONICITY. 205 

bearing the names of Peter, James, Thomas, etc., and seeking to 
intrude themselves into the canon, from which they were, however, 
subsequently rejected as apocryphal.' In this instance the denial 
of genuineness ^ involved the loss of canonicity also. But the ques- 
tion of genuineness may relate to more than the canonicity of a 
book. The admission that a book possesses the highest title to a 
place in a collection of sacred and even Divinely-inspired books, 
does not necessarily preclude inquiry into the propriety with which 
it is attributed to the author to whom tradition or the inscription 
(of later date than the work itself) ascribes it. It will hardly do,' 
however, to claim inspiration for a book whose very lirst sentence 
is a forgery. If the pastoral epistles, for example, are not Paul's, 
then some one has palmed off a deee^^tion in his name, and they are 
not deserving of respectful consideration. It will be useless to 
argue that, though written under false pretences, they may be 
yet canonical, although this concession has very unwisely been 
made. 

The greatest caution is, therefore, required at this point. The 
good name of the Bible would be damaged seriously by the assump- 
tion of well-meant imitations of apostolical productions ; for such an 
hypothesis throws a very equivocal light upon the question of the 
integrity of the Biblical writers, and attributes to them arts which 
can hardly be made to consist with tjie character of sincere dis- 
ciples of Christ. Fortunately, the results of the destructive crit- 
icism applied to the authorship of New Testament books are not 
yet so well established as its originators would persuade them- 
selves they are. Criticism finds here a proper field for a frank dis- 
cussion of the reasons for and against, by which means the questions 
involved can be brought to a final settlement ; but let the thought 
that it might possibly become necessary even to give up one book 
or another cause no alarm in advance, as though our salvation 

' The N. T. ApocnT)ha has been published by J. A. Schmid, Pseudo-Nov. Test., 
Helmst., 1809, 4to. ; J. A. Fabrieius, Cod. Apocryphus N. T., Hamb., lYlQ, 3 vols.; 
C. Ch. L. Schmid, Corpus vet. Apocryph. extra Biblia, Hadam., 1805 ; J. C. Thilo, Cod. 
Apocryphus N. T., etc., torn, i, Lips., 1832 (incomplete); Tischendorf, Evangelia 
Apocrypha, Lips., 1853; same. Acta Apostol. Apocrypha, 1851, and Apocalypses 
Apocryphae, Lips., 1866; K. W. Borberg, Bibliothek der N. T. Apocryphen, Stuttg., 
1840-41, 2 vols. J. F. Kleuker, Die Apocryphen des N. T., Hamb., 1*790; Nitzsch, De 
Apocr. Evv., etc., Viteb., 1804, 4to.; Arens, De Evang. Apocryph., etc., Gott., 1836, 4to. ; 
Tischendorf, De Evangg. Apocryph., origine et usu, Hague, 1851, (prize essay). See 
also Hone's Apocryphal X. T., Lond., 1820, and N. Y., 1849, Svc, and Abp. Wake's 
Apost. Fathers, Lond., 1830, and Hartford, 1834, 8vo.). 

2 The word has reference solely to the authorship of a book, and not to its fitness 
to rank as canonical. 



206 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

depended on such a contingency ; unlikely as that contingency 
may be.^ 

The principle applies to the Old Testament as well. Let it 
be proven that certain Psalms were not composed by the royal 
singer himself, but merely ad modum Davidis — would this de- 
stroy their religious worth? We should no more exclude them 
from the canon, than we would exclude from the hymn book a beau- 
tiful poem by an unknown author of the seventeenth century, con- 
cerning which we learn that it has been erroneously attributed to 
Paul Gerhard. Is the description of God's servant in Isa. liii less 
applicable to Christ on the supposition that Isa. xl-lx was written 
by another (later) than Isaiah, a deutero-Esaias?' Who, moreover, 
would find the book of Job to be less impressive because its author 
is unknown ? Even Pope Gregory I. was able to form a more in- 
dependent judgment upon this question than many Protestants liv- 
ing ten centuries later. It follows that the canonicity of a book 
may be maintained, even when its authorship is left in doubt,* pro- 
vided the book itself contains nothing that conflicts with the nor- 
mal character of the theocracy in the Old, or of the Gospel in the 
New, Testament. But should criticism extend its investigations to 
the question of canonicity also ? If so, to what extent ? That it did 
so in the ancient Church is a matter of fact, and it is to the exer- 
cise of such criticism that we owe the rejection of apocryphal writ- 

^ A very correct and much more intelligent view than that entertained by many 
pious people of to-day Avas advanced by Richard Baxter (died 1691) in his work De 
casibus conscientiae, T. iii, p. 1Y4: "Non est ad salutem necessarium, ut quis credat 
singulos libros aut versus Scripturae esse canonicos aut scriptos per spiritum Dei. Si 
liber aliquis periret aut in dubium vocaretur, v. g. epistola Judae, non inde sequeretur, 
una cum ipso omnem veram fidem spemque salutis perituram." Comp. also Episcopii 
Institut. iv, 1. " It must become evident at some time," says J. L. Riickert, Theologie, 
i, Leips., 1851, Pref., p. 4, "that all the results of criticism maybe acknowledged, and 
a thoroughly independent mode of thinking may be followed, Avithout destruction to 
the Christian character. It must become evident that Christian faith and volition do 
not depend upon our judgment respecting this or that particular book." Even Kahnis 
(Dogmat.), occupying the strict confessional ground of Lutheranism, has asserted his 
right to an independent position with regard to the canon ; comp. his Zeugniss v. d. 
Grundwahrheiten d. Protestantismus gegen Dr. Hengstenberg, Leips., 1862. 

2 Umbreit (Prakt. Comm. zum Jesaia, p. 308) beautifully observes, " The auroral 
light of grace and salvation breaks forth from the joyously animated discourses which 
are appended to the book of Isaiah in a well-ordered succession. We hear the voice 
of one of the greatest prophets at the close of the Babylonish exile. Even though his 
name is not Isaiah, his high importance is apparent from every word proclaimed by 
him. . . . Well may we term him (this anonymous) the evangelist of the old covenant^ 
for no one of the prophets has declared like him the glad tidings of the day-star from 
on high." The thorough discussions in relation to Daniel, which Bunsen places in the 
mouth of his Hippolytus, ii, p. 296, sqq.^ are very similar. 



REASONS FOR TEXT CRITICISM. 207 

ings. Whether the exclusion of such writings was absolute, or 
whether the boundary line between canonical and apocryphal is 
still in dispute, is a different question. The recognition of a dis- 
tinct class of avTcXeyofxeva, and the distinction between proto- and 
deutero-canonical writings are of themselves evidence that such crit- 
icism was exercised. The Reformation asserted in its own behalf 
this right of the ancient Church,' and more recent times have like- 
wise recognized it as a right and so employed it. We readily admit 
that the common feeling of the Church is not likely to consent that 
the slightest alteration in the canon be attempted, and cannot even 
desire it for ourselves ; ^ but the right of judgment must be con- 
ceded and science must steadily respect it. However unlikely it 
may now be that at this late day books will be excluded from the 
canon by general consent, it is yet more unlikely that the changes in the 
canon will receive any addition or be enriched by the canonunukeiy. 
incorporation with it of such writings as were formerly not known 
at all or were misunderstood.^ 

It is not the genuineness of the sacred writings alone, however, 
that engages attention, but their integrity as well ; and the lat- 
ter is even more directly necessary to the canonical reception of 
a book than the former. Whole books or extended i^aragraphs, as 
well as particular expressions, or even single adjectives, particles, 
etc., may have slipped into a completed work or have been attached 
to a revered name, whether by a designed insertion (interpolation) 
or through mistake, by which, e. g.^ a marginal note (gloss) written 
by a later hand was transferred to the text. The text may, more- 
over, have become corrupt in places or be defective by reason of the 
carelessness or inexperience of copyists, or for other reasons to be 
discussed in connexion with introduction itself (faded characters, 
abbreviations, absence of divisions between words, etc.). That 

^ Comp. Luther's criticisms of the Epistle of St. James and of the Apocalypse. With 
this comp. the opinion of L. Osiander (1614): In eo autem erratum est, quod epistolam 
Jacobi et Judae et posteriores duas Joannis inter canonica scripta numerant, quae 
scripta non longe post apostolorum tempora non pro scriptis canonicis habita sunt. . . . 
Recte autem omissa Apocalj'-psis ; ea enim non est Joannis Apostoli, sed cujusdam 
Joannis Theologi, et multa habet adeo obscura et perplexa, ut non multi dextre in 
ejus lectione versari queant — in Spittler, Ueber d. 60 Laod. Kanon, p. 16. This cita-j 
tion is not designed as an approval of such opinions in themselves, but simply as a 
proof that independent views respecting the elements of the canon may consist with a 
decided faith in the Divine nature of Christianity. 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher, § 114, sq. 

^ Discoveries made up to the present time (e. ^., of a lost letter by Paul to the Cor- 
inthians) have not, however, been sufficiently attested. But comp. Schleiermacher. 
§ 111. 



208 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

such things have occurred is, as Herder observes, not supposition, 
but fact/ Who can even assure us that, despite the great number 
of MSS. of the Scriptures, none of which reach back to the time of 
the original founding, the original form of expression was not lost 
here and there, and that this could not have been the case at a very 
early period, perhaps at the time when the first copy was made from 
the autograph ? 

Upon the purity of the text depends the internal value and char- 
acter of our Biblical canon. It may be said that as a book may be 
canonical, though found to emanate from another than the reputed 
author, even so a single passage, e. g., 1 John v, 7, may be allowed 
Apuretextin- ^o stand in the Bible if it does not contradict the 
dispensable. aualogia fidei. Reverence for the Bible, however, re- 
quires that every thing within our power be done to secure it in a 
form of the highest attainable purity, though the nature of the 
case is such as to prevent more than an approximate accomplish- 
ment of the task. 

SECTION XV. 
CRITICAL METHODS. 

Criticism is, according to its objects, divided into external and 
internal, and, according to its results, into negative and positive. 
A further distinction is sometimes made between the criticism of 
books and that of words or texts ;^ but the two cannot easily be 
kept apart, though they are employed on different objects — the 
former being more concerned with the authenticity of entire books 
or separate paragraphs, the latter with the genuineness and purity 
of the text (comp. the preceding §). It is usual, though inappro- 
priate, to designate the criticism of sections and books the higher, 
and that of words and separate passages the lower criticism.^ Not 
less misleading is the usage of others, who endeavor to include in 
the higher criticism what we would, more appropriately, term the 
internal, and in the lower criticism what we characterize as the 
external.* The truth is that the business of the critic deals with 

^ " The evidence which lies on the surface long ago destroyed all the prejudices 
which formerly prevailed on this subject."— Schleierraacher, § 116. To this we add, 
" Ought, at least, to have destroyed them." Wetstein, Proleg., p. 4, adduces a note- 
worthy example from the Aldine ed. of the LXX, in Gen. xliv, which reads ol avdpuTzoi 
avTuv, instead of ol ovoi avrov (QrClbn). The MS. had uvoi instead of ovoi, which waa 
taken for an abbreviation of av&puTTot^ and in this way asses were transformed into 
men! 2 Danz, p. 210. ^ Schleiermacher, § 118. Note. 

* Some writers apply the phrase, " the lower criticism," to the genuineness, etc., of 
single letters and words, and that of "the higher criticism" to entire books and sec- 
tions. Schleiermacher has, however, forcibly demonstrated the mechanical and un- 
tenable character of this distinction. Comp. Herm. u. Krit., p. 267 ; comp. 2'7'7. 



OBJECTS OF INTERNAL CRITICISM. 209 

various combinations which are all equally important, but which 
are sometimes directed toward the external, historical, empirical, 
and sometimes toward the internal and psychological side. We 
accordingly give the name of external criticism to that External criti- 
which seeks to demonstrate the authenticity and genu- cism denned, 
ineness of a book, and also to discover the true readings from exist- 
ing facts, viz. : from existing testimonies taken from Christian an- 
tiquity, from MSS. versions, etc. This is by no means to be de- 
nominated a lower criticism, as if it were contrasted with anoth- 
er kind, which might proudly claim a higher place, or even disre- 
gard its existence, but rather constitutes the necessary basis of all 
critical procedure, unless we intend to build on air. But this ex- 
ternal application of the so-called critical apparatus is not alone 
sufficient ; for on the one hand that apparatus is itself subject to 
higher critical conditions, since the age and the importance of MSS. 
versions, etc., must first be ascertained,^ and on the other hand the 
most perfectly constructed critical apparatus cannot accomplish 
everything. It is necessary that internal criticism be brought in to 

complement the other. In this way conclusions may be 

. ^ , . , , . .^ „ . '^ , The office of 

arrived at respecting the authenticity ot a written work, internal criti- 

even though the testimony from external sources be ^^^' 
indefinite or conflicting, or though no such testimony exist — the 
means employed being comparison with other works by the same 
author (e. (/., the Ep. to the Hebrews compared with the acknowl- 
edged writings of St. Paul, the Apocah^se with the gospel and the 
epistles by St. John, 2d with 1st Peter and Avith discourses in the 
Acts by the same apostle), the collocation and estimating of histor- 
ical conditions {e. (/., in connexion with disputed predictions in the 
prophets), and finally the careful observation and comparison of the 
language in any particular period, its grammatical forms, figures of 
speech, etc. Upon the question of integrity the disturbance of the 
natural connexion caused by an interpolated passage (1 John v, 7-8) 
may be sufficient to arouse the suspicion of spuriousness, even before 
the authority of MSS. is appealed to ; or with regard to the choice 
between diiferent existent readings an important influence may be 
exerted, in addition to that exercised by the external superiority of 
some particular MS., by the internal relation of the passage to the 
whole connexion. It also becomes possible occasionally to show by 
internal criticism how a false reading could have originated, and 

' In this regard compare the different critical systems by Bentley, Mill, Bengel, Wet- 
stein, Griesbach, Hug, Matthaei, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf. At this point crit- 
icism and introductory science interpenetrate each other. See Schleiermacher, § 120 ; 
de Wette, Einl., § 37, sqq. 
14 



210 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

not rarely is it compelled to decide whether the preference is to be 
given to an easy or a more difficult reading ; for while it is certain 
that words have been changed because they were not understood in 
such a sense or such a connexion, it is equally certain that many a 
difficult reading was introduced into the text by ill-timed polishing 
or thoughtless want of care on the part of copyists. 

To discover the proper bounds to be observed between external 
Carefully fixed and internal criticism in their application, is conceded 
limits to be set ^^ ^^ difficult. Great care is certainly required in con- 
icism. nexion with the latter, and much mischief has already 

been caused by its use ; but we cannot on that account give an un- 
qualified assent to the idea that the critic's work should be of a 
purely mechanical nature, and that the authority of MSS. should 
alone be allowed to decide.^ Harmonious activity of the intellect- 
ual powers, the combination of external with internal circumstances, 
comprehension and judgment, doctrina and ingenium^ must go hand 
in hand in this pursuit. Who will deny that even the earliest and 
best codices were exposed to accidents, the very thing which the 
keen scent of criticism, certainly a natural endowment which is to 
be ennobled by learning, is to discover when possible ? Above all 
arbitrariness and accident, however, stands science, combined with 
liberty and a higher necessity. 

SECTION XYL 

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CEITICISM. 

The negative criticism endeavours simply to ascertain and cast out 
Negative and what is spurious as a whole or in part ; while the posi- 
ci?mrfunctions ^^^^ criticism seeks, with reference to authenticity, to 
of each. discover the real authors of anonymous and pseudony- 

mous works, and with reference to integrity to restore the text to 
its original condition. The former, when sufficient external evi- 
dence is wanting, is done by hypothesis, the latter by conjecture. 

It is generally more easy to determine with certainty that a work 
was not written by the author to whom tradition has attributed it, 
than to discover who the real author was ; and it is likewise more 
easy to arrive at the conclusion that a passage has been corrupted 
or mutilated than at a definite result in settling the true reading. 
Positive criticism receives occasional aid from external helps, how- 
ever, even though they be not wholly adequate. Thus, e. g., the 
testimony of Tertullian (De pudic. c. 20) led many to adopt the 

^ Comp., e. g.^ Rettig's notice of Lachmann's N. T. in Studd. u. Kritt., 1832, No. 4. 
Baur (contra Thiersch et al.) has said much that is worthy of note, in opposition to 
pure mechanism in critical processes. 



POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CRITICISM. 211 

theory that the Epistle to the Hebrews was w^ritten by Barnabas. 
Sometimes, however, hypothesis puts forth claims, based solely upon 
possibilities, as in the case of Eichhorn's assumption of a primitive 
Gospel, and in many other instances of recent times. The claim 
of hypothesis upon our approval is even less authoritative in the 
latter class of cases (L e., of appeal to bare possibilities) frequent faiia- 
than in the former, and many w^riters have accordingly cies of critical 
forsaken the way of hypothesis, as being entirely too ^^^^ ®^®^* 
uncertain, and have ceased altogether from making use of the so- 
called positive criticism; bolder inquirers, however, still continue 
to employ it.^ Similar considerations apply to conjectures relating 
to the readings. A former age was entirely too prone to apply 
conjecture, at first in the department of profane, and subsequently 
also in that of sacred, literature ; but they are likewise wrong who 
unconditionally reject conjecture, for it is knowm that conjectures 
have occasionally been confirmed by readings that were afterward dis- 
covered. While therefore it may be advisable in general to insist 
upon the rule that " whatever of correct results may be obtained in 
the way of conjecture must be supported by facts connected wdth 
the history of the text," the rule must yet be so modified as not to 
forbid conjectural attempts in needful cases.'* 

' Comp. Hitzig, supra. The positive criticism is especially recommended by Hahn; 
understanding thereby not a criticism which so dreads negation as to cling with firmer 
grasp to the traditional, but that which conquers the negative, and which by concen- 
trating its attention upon its object — ^the several books of the Bible and the cir- 
cumstances of history — assigns to such books their definite and assured historical 
place. 

2 Schleiermacher, §§ 119 and 121, and Kritik, p. 291: "The canon that the divina- 
torial process (conjecture) is to be allowed only where documentary aids are wanting, 
or even that when the latter are not wanting, the right to employ conjectural processes 
does not exist, the best that manuscripts afford being all that we are authorized to 
ask — this canon does not apply absolutely, and may not even be assumed, because the 
interests of hermeneutics would suffer loss thereby." But see p. 312, and comp. 
Herder. " Conjecture, in the critical sense, resembles the scalpel of the surgeon. It 
may unfortunately become necessary and beneficial, but only terribly necessary, terri- 
bly advantageous ; and the wretch who plays and whittles with it, cutting away at pleas- 
ure, now an ear, now an eye, now a nose, that does not suit his fancy — but mutilates 
himself." Specimens of vain conjecture are given by Herder in the Appendix to the 
Briefe zweener Bruder Jesu (Werke z. Rel. u. Theol., viii, p. 291). Similarly, Liicke, 
" Divinatorial criticism involves a dangerous element, and is least of all the concern 
of everybody ; but it is needed for complementing the theological science of the canons 
(Stud. u. Krit., 1834, Xo. 4, p. 267). Comp. Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 121, sqq. ; de 
Wette, Einl, § 59. 



212 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION XVII. 

THE EELATIOlSr OF CRITICISM TO EXEGESIS. 

Although criticism is, in its idea, distinguished from exegesis, 

„ , ,. , ., assuming: the relation of an auxiliary to the latter, it 
Relation of en t- ^ . ... . 

icism to exe- can yet be conceived of in reality only in connexion 
^^^^^' with the functions of interpretation ; for an interest in 

criticism must be aroused, and a sense for it be quickened, by ex- 
egesis. The two sciences must accordingly be conceived of as con- 
tinually acting upon each other, and therefore as conditioning and 
aiding each other. 

Nothing is more hurtful, and nothing has done more to damage 
criticism in the estimation of pious people, than the ill- 
by dabwers in timed and superficial dabbling with it of persons who, 
n icism. before having properly read a single book in the Bible, 

or having been tested in the work of exposition, undertake to deal 
exclusively with the surface results of criticism, and swear by them 
as though they were established facts — who pronounce their dictum 
about the Bible without being well read ^?^ the Bible, or having 
learned anything of value from it. How frequently has a taste 
for the Bible been destroyed at the outset by forcing uj^on the no- 
tice of young men such oracular decisions of criticism, before they 
had become well acquainted with the sacred text ! If it is highly 
unpedagogical to trouble pupils who have not thoroughly read an 
ode of Horace or an oration by Cicero, with criticism in connexion 
with the explanation of the classics, it is nothing less than sin to 
disgust young theologians with the study of the Bible from the be- 
ginning, or, what is worse, to lead them to cultivate a foolish self- 
conceit, by means of depreciatory criticisms. It might therefore 
be sufficient for the beginner at first if he were to make himself 
acquainted with the tasks which criticism is to perform, leaving the 
practical employment of its operations for a later time, when he 
shall have become familiarly acquainted with his Bible, and shall 
have tasted somewhat of its positive contents, even having refreshed 
and nourished his soul thereby. This is possible, however, only 
in the rugged way of a thorough exegesis. Critical virtuosity, as 
Critical and ex- Schleiermacher terms it, is to be attained only as the 
effeticai skill result of practice ;' and exegetical virtuosity is its neces- 
practice. sary prerequisite, although neither of them can attain 

to its completion without the aid of the other. Such reciprocal ac- 
tion between exegesis and criticism is self-evident, however. If the 
choice of a reading affects the interpretation, or, rather, if it pro- 

* Schleiermacher, § 122, sq. 



HISTORY OF CRITICISM. 213 

vides the matter for interpretation, it is conversely true that the 
correct explanation of a passage throws needed light upon the vari- 
ous readings which exist, so that, not unfrequently, a more accurate 
comprehension of the connexion inclines us to readopt a reading 
which we had rejected, or to reject one which we believed ourselves 
obliged to hold, before the passage itself was understood. The 

authenticity of a book and the acknowleds-ment of its ^ .,. . 

•^ , P . . Criticism and 

author may likewise be affected, and suspicion against exegesis act on 
the book itself be excited, by the misunderstanding of ^^^ ^ ®^' 
a passage, while a profounder apprehension of the writer's spirit 
and of the situation may restore its genuineness. Conversely, a 
superficial knowledge respecting the authenticity of a book may al- 
lay all questionings, while a thorough examination of the matter 
may excite doubts warranted by the facts, and call for a more ex- 
haustive discussion of the points in doubt. It will thus be seen 
how necessary it is, first, in every case, and before the judgment 
has been formed, to have regard to the results obtained by others, 
and in this way to employ in reading the Bible a text as critically 
correct as may be possible; but, second, while making use of the 
best critical aids at command, to preserve unbiassed the keenness of 
our oTVTi mental vision in the work of interpretation. 

History of Criticism. 
To provide the history of criticism fully is the task of Intro- 
duction. The text of the Old Testament, upon which „ . ^ . , 

'^ Historical 

the copyists expended conscientious care (the syna- sketch of Bib- 

gogue-rolls), engaged the attention first of all of the ^'""^^ criticism. 
Masorites, Jewish scholars, whose principal school '^^® Masorites. 
flourished at Tiberias in the beginning of the sixth century. They 
compared the codices, noted the various readings, (Keri and Chetib,) 
and even anxiously numbered the Avords and syllables. To thera 
we likewise owe the vowel-signs, pointings, etc. Among Christians, 
meritorious services were rendered by Origen (f 254), who com- 
pared the Greek versions of the LXX, of Aquila, Theodotion, and 
Symmachus with the Hebrew original (Hexapla) ; and by Jerome, 
who improved the existing Latin version (Itala) and published a 
version of his own (Vulgata), which soon came into general use and 
acquired ecclesiastical authority in the Western Church. The prej- 
udices which this man, usually so anxiously cautious, was compelled 
to encounter in connexion with this work, are well known. The 
"two-legged asses," as he terms his opponents, even went to the 
length of calling him falsarius, sacrilegus, corruptor sanctarum 
Scripturarum ! The New Testament was gradually collected. The 



214 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

originals are no longer extant. The most ancient MSS. do not reach 
back further than the fourth century. An inclination to adulterate 
the text was apparent at an early day, against which the Church was 
obliged to guard. Copies were made, in the first instance, for the 
use of Churches, and "without any philological supervision." It 
was reserved for science in later ages to divide the different codices, 
according to their age (Uncials and Cursives), or according to the 
countries in which they originated (Oriental and Occidental), into 
Mo f rt t f^^i^i^s ^^^ recensions. The most important MSS. of 
MSS.oftiieNew the N^ew Testament are. The Cod. Alexandrinus (A) in 
e^amen. ^|^^ British Museum at London ; the Yaticanus (B) at 
Rome; the Codex Regius (Parisiensis) ; also the Cod. Ephraem Syr. 
(a palimpsest) at Paris (C) ; and the Codex Cantabrigiensis (D). 
To these must be added, as of highest importance, the Codex Si- 
naiticus {^), discovered by Tischendorf in 1859 and published in 
1862; comp. Stud. u. Krit., 1860, 4; 1862, 1, 4; 1864, 3 (by Wies- 
eler); Gott. Gelehrt. Anzeigen, 1860, No. 177; Prot. Kirchenzei- 
tung, 1862, No. 50; Zarncke's CentralbL, 1860; Literaturbl., 1863, 
Ko. 69; Hilgenf eld's Zeitschr., 1864, 1, and *Yolbeding: Constantin 
Tischendorf, 1862; Tischendorf, Die Sinaibibel, etc., 1871. See 
also article on Sinaitic Manuscript in M'Clintock and Strong's Cy- 
clopaedia, and Harman's Introduction, Appendix. This Codex is 
distinguished not only by its age (Tischendorf assigns it to the for- 
mer half of the fourth century, which is, however, already denied 
by otheis) but also by its completeness, even the Epistle of Barna- 
bas, in the Greek text, and the Shepherd of Hermas being included 
in it. 

But little was done for criticism during: the Middle Ag:es. Al- 

, . , ^ .,. cuin, about A. D. 802, improved the Vul^ata based on 
Biblical Criti- ' _ ' r & 

cism in the the translation of Jerome, by the command of Charle- 
Middie Ages, magne. New revisions were undertaken by Lanfranc 
in the eleventh century and Cardinal Nicholas in the twelfth. At 
about this time the Correctoria biblica appeared (concerning which 
see De Wette, Einleitung, p. 108, sq.). The work of Cardinal Hugo 
de St. Caro in the thirteenth century, who divided the Bible into 
chapters, was rather mechanical than critical. The division of the 
New Testament into verses was not performed until the sixteenth 
century, when Robert Stephens devised the present arrangement. 
The undertaking of the Cardinal Ximenes, shortly before the Refor- 
mation, was, on the other hand, a magnificent conception, to which 
we owe the so-called Complutensian Polyglot, which was followed 
by those of Antwerp, Paris, and London, being critical collocations 
of the text and versions after the manner of Origen. A rich bib- 



THE RATIONALISTIC CRITICISM. 215 

lical apparatus was given in the prolegomena to the London Poly- 
glot (also published separately) of Brian Walton (f 1661). The 
first critical edition of the New Testament was issued 

First 0T*1ti03l pfli 

by Erasmus (Basle, 1516) at nearly the time when the tion of the New 
Complutensian Polyglot was completed. Testament. 

All this work was text criticism; but the Reformation called 
into life a universal spirit of inquiry. Luther permitted himself to 
form independent opinions respecting various parts of the Scrip- 
tures, though he was rather influenced by subjective feeling than 
by scientific considerations. The progress of an unbiassed criticism 
was long hindered afterward by the strictness with which the Prot- 
estant Church clung to the principle of adherence to the letter of 
Scripture, and to the idea of inspiration connected with that prin- 
ciple. The Reformed Formula Consensus raised even the inspira- 
tion of the vowel-points into a dogma! A new critical impulse 
was given, on the other hand, to the Roman Catholic Church in 
the seventeenth century by Richard Simon, who expressed inde- 
pendent views, among other things, with regard to the composition 
of the Pentateuch, etc. (In relation to him see Bernus, Richard 
Simon et son histoire critique du vieux Test., Lausanne, 1869.) The 
dogmatists of both Churches were, however, unceasing in their 
efforts to fill up the way which he had opened, to use Lessing's ex- 
pression, " with floods of rubbish constantly renewed." The criti- 
cism of the text likewise came to an end, after the age had become 
accustomed to regard the textus receptus of the sixteenth century 
as an authority. A new interest in it was excited by Revival of Bib- 

the English scholars Fell, Mill, Bentley, and Kennicott "^fJ criticism 
° , ' ... m the 18th cen- 

(the latter in Old Testament criticism). When Wet- tury. 

stein, having been encouraged by Bentley, was preparing his critical 

edition of the New Testament, about the middle of the eighteenth 

century, he was exposed to severe attacks of opposition (comp. 

Hagenbach in Illgen's Zeitschr. f. hist. Theologie, 1839, 1) ; but 

Bengel nevertheless undertook to perform in behalf of orthodox 

theology what. Wetstein had begun in sympathy with a more scep- 

ticM habit of thought. While these scholars confined their efforts 

more particularly to the department of text-criticism, Semler, on 

the other hand, after the middle of the eighteenth century, excited 

numerous doubts with regard to the genuineness of entire books 

in the Bible by his Free Examination of the Canon, Beginning 

With Semler begins the period of independent re- witb semier of 

& ^ ^ . . the Rational- 

search in this field, but also of abuse and subjective arbi- istic criticism. 

trariness. Sober science, however, continued to pursue its assured 

course in the midst of such fluctuations. On the one hand, diplo- 



216 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

matic text-criticism continued to gain in settled principles and in 
historic ground through paleographic researches which were steadi- 
ly prosecuted, through the comparison of MSS., etc., and various 
systems were developed in this direction, upon which the processes 
of criticism rest. (The labours of Hug, Griesbach, Schulz, Scholz, 
Lachmann, Tischendorf.) On the other hand, inquiry was more in- 
telligently directed toward the several parts of the Old and the 
New Testament canon. Single books in either Testament were at 
first attacked, without the recognition of any definite principle, but 
rather under the influence of the personal impressions of critics; 
but the investigation gradually secured firmer points of connexion 
with historical facts. The inquiry has been chiefly directed upon 
the Pentateuch, the Books of Chronicles, the Prophets, (the second 
part of Isaiah, Daniel,) the Psalms, and the writings of Solomon in 
the Old Testament, and the Gospels, (their origin and relation to 
each other,) the Pastoral epistles and the second epistle to the Thessa- 
lonians, the epistle to the Hebrews, Second Peter, and the Apocalypse 
in the New. Such fragmentary operations do not cover the whole 
ground that has been gone over, however; but after the latest spec- 
The Tiibinsen ulative (Tubingen) school, Baur, Zeller, Schwegler, et 
tendency critics, (^i ^ jj^d attempted an historical construction of Chris- 
tianity from its principles, it involved the entire canon of the New 
Testament books in the critical process of disintegration connected 
with that attempt, assigning most of them to a later date, and, at 
the same time, charging them with subserving tendencies which 
are not always reconcilable with the purity of purpose belonging 
to an apostle. It can be confidently aflirmed that despite the bold, 
though often widely divergent, conclusions of the more recent 
critics, (Hilgenfeld, Volckmar, Holsten, Overbeck,) genuine science 
can still hold an assured footing for a further advance in the service 
of truth. 

The leadership in biblical criticism was successfully maintained 
by English scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for 
eighty years (IGSY-lYsV). The fifth volume of Brian Walton's 
London Polyglot contained the text of the New Testament in six 
languages, with a large collection of various readings. He did not, 
however, undertake to form a revised text. Bishop Fell (1625- 
1686) added much to this stock of critical material, and was besides 
the friend and patron of Dr. John Mill (1645-1707.) Thirty la- 
borious years were spent by Mill on his Greek Testament. He re- 
collated all the codices used by Walton for the London Polyglot, 
and accumulated a mass of readings from many sources, which he 
exhibits in his prolegomena. " Of the criticism of the New Testa- 



EDITIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 217 

ment in the hands of Dr. John Mill," says Scrivener, " it may be 
said that he found the edifice of wood and left it marble." Rich- 
ard Bentley (1662-1742) projected a revision of the text of the 
New Testament, which he never completed. We can readily con- 
jecture what his extraordinary critical sagacity would have accom- 
plished in this field. From the time of Bentley little was done by 
English scholars in New Testament criticism for more than a hun- 
dred years. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles issued from 1857 to 1872 his 
Greek Testament from the most ancient MSS. and from ancient 
versions. Tregelles bases his text on a small number of manuscripts. 
Frederick Henry Scrivener has contributed a valuable Introduction 
to the Criticism of the New Testament (Cambridge, 1861, 1874). 
Messrs. Westcott and Hort have, since the appearance of the revised 
English Testament, published a text which has been long in prepa- 
ration, and also a companion volume containing an appendix and 
introduction to their work. Although the revisers of the English 
Testament have not attempted " to construct a continuous and 
complete Greek text," the text adopted by them has been published 
by their secretary, E. Palmer. (Oxford, 1881.) 

1. Critically revised portable editions of the Old Testament of recent date} 

♦Biblia hebraica manualia ad praestt. editt. edita a Joh. Simonis. Halle, 1752, 1767, 
1822, 1828. Various books of this edition (Genesis, Psalms, Isaiah, etc.) have 
also been separately published. 

* Biblia hebraica digessit et graviores lect. variett. adj. J. Jahn. Vien., 1806. 4 voU. 

Ed. 4., 1839. 
Biblia hebr. ad Eb. v. d. Hooght ed. no v., recogn. et emend, a Judah d'Allemand. 
Lond., 1825. 

* Biblia hebraica ad optim. editt. fidem summa diligentia ac studio recensa. Basileae, 

1837. (Largely after van der Hooght.) 

^ With regard to the history of the text and other critical apparatus for the Old Test. comp. 
Franke, p. 96, sqq. ; Rosenmiiller's Handbuch, and the Introductions to the Old Test, (de Wette's, 
§. 76, sqq.) ; Strack, Prolegomena critica in Vetus Test. Hebr., quibus agitur, I. de codicibus et 
deperditis et adhuc exstantibus, II. de textu bibliorum hebr. qualis talmudistarum temporibus 
fuerit. Lips., 1873. Ancient versions : a) Greek (the Alexandrian of the so-called seventy trans- 
lators, and those by Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, etc.) ; b) Oriental (the Syriac [Peshito], 
Ethiopic [ed. by Dillmann], Egyptian, Arabian, Armenian, Georgian) ; c) Latin (ante-Hierono- 
mian [Itala], Vulgate) ; d) Slavic ; e) Chaldee Paraphrases ; comp. de Wette, §. 39, sqq. Concern- 
ing the Hexapla of Origen comp. ibid., §. 45, sqq. : F. C. Tischendorf, Anecdbta sacra et profana 
ex oriente et occidente allata sive notitia codicum graecorum, arabicorum, syriacorum, etc., 
cum excerptis multis maximam partem graecis et 35 scripturarum antiquissimarum exemplis. 
Lips., 1861. 4. 

Older, and usually large, editions of the Old Testament : (de Wette, §. 95. Rosenmiiller, I, 
189 ff. Benj. Kennicott, dissertationes super ratione textus hebr. V. T. in libris editis. Latine 
vertit et auxit W, Abr. Teller. Lips., 1757-65. 2 voll.) : von Soncino (1488-94), in der complu- 
tens. Polyglotte (1514-17), Bomberg I. (1518-21), Bomberg II. (1525), S. Miinster (Froben, 1536), 
R. Stephan I. (1539-i3), R. Stephan II. (1544-46), Plantinus (1566-71-84), E. Hutter (1587), J. Bux- 
torf (1611-18, 1619, etc.), J. Athias (1561), Jablonsky (1699, Handausg.), van der Hooght (1705. 
Lond., 1822, Handausg.), Opitz (1709), Michaelis (1720, Handausg.), Houbigant (1753), Kennicott 
1776, 80), Reineccius (1725, Handausg.), Doderlein u. Meisner (1793). 



21S SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

D*!3''J13*l D''t<^!13 rrrin- Blblla hebr. sec. editt. Athiae, J. Leusdeni, Jo. Simonis, impr. 
Eberh. van der Hooght rec, A. Hahn. Ed. ster. Lips., 1831-39, 

Biblia hebr. ad optimas editiones, imprimis Eb. van der Hooght ex rec. A. Hahnii im- 
pressa (cur. K, W. Landschreiber ; praef. est E. F, K, Rosenmiiller), Ed. stereot. 
Lips., 1834-38. 12. 

D*3^nD1 D''X'^3J min. BiWia hebr. ad optimas editt. expressa. Curavit et indices 
nee non clavem masoreticam add. C. G. Giul. Theile. Ed. stereot. Lips., 1849. 
(Genesis, Psalms, Job, Isaiah, etc., also published separately.) New ed. 1859. 

Testament utrumq. edd. Theile et Tischendorf (V. T. hebr. ; N. T. gr.) Lips., 1850. 
2d ed., 1862. 

K^lpn 1SD. Vien., 1852. 

* Polyglottenbibel, Zum prakt. Handgebranch. Prepared by Dr. Rud. Stier and Dr. 
K. G. W. Theile. A. u. N. T. Bielef., 1846-55. 5 vols. 3d ed. of the 0. T. and 
4th ed. of the N. T., 1863-64. (Embraces the Original, the LXX, the Vulgate, 
Luther's translation, and the most important various readings of ancient and mod- 
ern versions.) 

Separate portions of the Old Testament. 

Pentateuchus in usum scholarum academicarum ex editione utriusque testament! 

Tauchnitziana separatim edendum curavit C. G. G. Theile. Lips., 1861. Ed. ster. 
Liber Geneseos sine punctis exscriptus curaverunt E. Muehlau et Aem. Kautzsch. 

Lips., 1868. 
Liber Genesis. Textum Masorethicum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus Masorae 

varie illustravit, notis criticis confirmavit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. Delitzsch. 

Lips., 1869. 
Jesajae, Liber. H^V^J^^ "ISD- Textum Masorethicum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus 

Masorae varie illustravit, notis criticis confirmavit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. 

Delitzsch. Lips., 1872. 
Liber Psalmorum hebraicus. Textum Masorethicum accuratius quam adhuc factum 

est expressit, brevem de accentibus metricis institutionem praemisit, notas criticas 

adjecit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. DeUtzsch. Lips., 1861. 

a) Large Editions of the Septuagint : 
V. T. ex versione LXX interprr. — post Grabe et Lee ed. J. J. Breitinger. Turic, 

1730-32. 4 voll. 4. 
V. T. graecum, cum. var. lectt. edd. R. Holmes et Parsons. Ox., 1798-1827. 5 voll. f. 

b) Manual Editions : 
V. T. Graec. ex versione LXX una cum libris apocr. ed. Ch. Rheineccius. Lips., 

1730-57. 
V. T. gr. juxta LXX interprr, cur. L. v. Ess. Lips., 1824. Ed. nova, 1855. 
V. T. gr. juxta LXX interprr. ed. J. N. Jager. Par., 1834. 
V. T. gr. juxta LXX int. Textum Vatic, emendatius ed., argumenta et locos N. T. 

parall. notavit, lect. var. subj., comment, isag. praetexuit C. Tischendorf. Lips., 

1850. 2 voll, Ed. 4. 1869. Ed. 5. 1875. 
For the history of this version : Aristeae historia LXXII interprr. ; gr. et lat. Oxon., 

1692. (New ed. in Merx' Archiv I, 3. 1868.) Comp. the works of Hody, van 

Dale, Ussher, Voss, u. A. Comp. Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit. P. 49. 
L. T. Muecke, de origine vers. LXX interprr. Zullich., 1789. 
Thiersch, de Pentateuchi versione Alexandrina. Erl., 1841. 



EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 219 

Editions of the Vulgate : 

Biblia S. vulg. edit, ad cone. Trid. praescriptum emend, et a Sixto Y. recogn. Rom., 
1590. 'fol. 

Biblia S. vulg. ed. Sixti V. jussu rec. et ausp. dementis YIII. ed. Rom., 1593-4. 

Portable editions by L. van Ess (Tiib., 1822-24. 3 Bde.), J. H. Kistemaker (Miinst., 
1828^6), B. Galura (Innsbr., 1834-35. 3 Bde. 4.), B. Loch (Regensb., 1849. 2. Aufl., 
ebend., 1867 ff.), J. F. v. Allioli (Landsh., 1853), Fleck (Xeues Test. Lpz., 1840). 

Important for critical purposes : Codex Amiatinus. X. T. latine interprete Hieronymo, 
ex celeberrimo cod. Amiatino omnium et antiquissimo et praestantissimo nunc 
primum ed. Const. Tischendorf. Lips., 1850-54. Codex Fuldensis. Novum Testa- 
mentum latine interprete Hieronymo ex manuscripto Victoris Capuani edidit. pro- 
legomenis introduxit, commentariis adornavit Ernest. Ranke. Marb., 1868. 

The Gothic version by Ulfilas, with parallel Greek and Latin versions, by H. Mass- 
mann. Stuttg., 1855. 

2. Editions of the New Testament} 
Novum Testamentum graece, recogn. atque insign. lectt. varietat. et argument, notat. 

subjunxit G. Chr. Knapp. Halle, 1797, 1813, 1822, 1830. Ed. 5. 1840. 
* N, T. graece. E rec. Griesb. nova vers. lat. illustr., indice brevi praecip. lectt. et in- 

terprett. diversitatis indice instr., auct. H. A. Schott. Lips., 1805, 1811, 1825. 

Ed. 4. 1839. 
N. T. graece. Ad fidem optimor. librr. rec. J. A. H. Tittmann. Ed. ster. Lips., 

1820. 28. Ed. noy. cur. A. Hahn, 1840; 1861. 
N. T. textum gr, Griesb. et Knappii denuo recognovit, delectu variet. lectt. testim. 

confirm., adnott. turn criticis tum exegeticis, indicibus, etc., instruxit J. S. Yater. 

Halle, 1824. 
N. T. graece. Ex rec. C. Lachmanni. Ed. ster. Berol., 1831. 
N. T. graece nova versione lat. donatum ed. F. A. Naebe. Lips., 1831. 
N. T. graece et latine. Ex rec. Knappiana adjectis variis Griesb. et Lachm. lectioni- 

bus ed. A. Goeschen. Lips., 1832. 
N. T. ad optt. librr. fidem rec. A. Jaumann. Miin., 1832. 
N. T. graece, ex recogn. Knappii emendatius ed., C. G. Guil. Theile. Ed. ster. Lips., 

1841. Ed. 7., 1858. Ed. 8. 1865. Ed. 11. 1875. Also in Greek and Latin 

(Yulg.) 1854, and Greek and German, 1852, by the same publishers. 
N. T. gr. et lat. (Yulg.) ed. F. X. Reithmayr. Miin., 1847. 
*N. T. graece. Textum ad fidem antiquorum testium recensuit, brevem apparatum 

criticum una cum var. lectt. Elzeviriorum, Knappii, Scholzii, Lachmanni subjunxit 

C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1841, 1848, 1849. 7th ed., 1859. 8th ed., 1869-72. 

Editio stereotypa. Lips., 1850. Ed. nova, 1873. (A good manual edition.) 

N. T. gr. Par., 1842. 12; gr. et lat., ed. Jager et Tischendorf, Par., 1842. 

'H Katvh Scad^TjKjj. N. T. graece, recens. inque usum academicum omni modo instruxit 

C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1855, 1861. 16. Edit. 5., ibid., 1867. Ed. 9. 1876. 
H. A. W. Meyer, das N. T. griechisch, nach den besten Hiilfsmitteln kritisch revidirt, 

mit einer deutschen Uebersetzung (see Commentaries). 

^ For the history of the N. T. text comp. de Wette, II, §. 27, sqq. ; with regard to versions, see 
§. 10, aqq. Polyglotts : a) the Comphitenslan (1514-17) ; b) Antwerp (1569-72) ; c) Paris (1645) ; 
d) London (by Walton, 1657). Comp. Franke, p. 139, sqq. With regard to the different classes of 
editions (1. such as exactly reproduce the text of a given JtS. ; 2. such as are based upon several 
MSS. and other helps ; and 3. such as merely reproduce earlier editions with unimportant 
changes) ; and also, with reference to the so-called Textus Receptus (vulgaris) of the ELze\Tr edi- 
tion, comp. Danz, §. 19, and the works there mentioned, Franke, p. 161, sqq. 



220 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

N. T. graece ad fidem potissimum cod. Vat. rec, Phil. Buttmann. Lips., 1856, 1862. 

Edit. 3., ibid, (without date). 
Testamentum novum ti'iglottum, graece, latine, germanice . . . ed. Tischendorf. Lips., 

1854. 4. Edit. 2., 1865. 
N. T. tetraglottum. Archetypum graecum c. versionibus vulgata latina, germanica 

Lutheri et anglica authentica, in usum manualem edend. curaverunt C. G. G. Theile 

et R. Stier. Bielef., 1855. Edit. 2. 1858. 
*H Kaivri dLttT^T/KT]. Nov. Test, ad fidem Codicis Vaticani ediderunt A. Kuenen et C. G. 

Cobel. Lugd. Bat., 1860. 
Novum Testamentum Vaticanum. Post Angeli Maii aliorumque imperfectos labores 

ex ipso codice edidit. Tischendorf. Lips., 186*7. 
Bibliorum sacrorum graecus codex Vaticanus studiis Caroli Vercellone et Josephi 

Cozza editus. Tom. V, (contains the N. T.) Pol. Rom., 1869. 
Testamentum Nov. post Lachmannum et Tischendorfium ad fidem optimorum librorum 

denuo diligenter recognovit lectionumque varietatem notavit Aug. Hahn. Edit. 

ster. Lips., 1861. 
* Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus. Auspiciis aug. Imperatoris Alexandri 

11. ex tenebris protraxit, in Europam transtulit, ad juvandas sacras htteras ed. 

Constantinus Tischendoi"f. 4 voll. Petrop., 1862. (A costly library edition.) 
A cheaper edition is Testamentum Novum Sinaiticum s. Nov. Test, cum epist. Bar- 

nabae et fragmentis Pastoris ex codice Sinaitico, etc. Lips., 1863.^ 8vo. 1864. 
E. Reuss, Bibliotheca Novi Testamenti Graeci, Brunsvigae, 18*72, gives a descriptive 

list of all the published editions of the New Testament. 

Synopses. 

Synopsis evv. Matth., Marc, et Luc, una cum iis Jo. pericopis, quae hist. pass, et 

resurr. Chr. complectt. ; textum recogn. etc., J. J. Griesbach. Hal., 17*76-97-1809. 

St. John's Gospel is wanting in the 1st ed., 17Y4. 
Synopsis ew., etc. ; ex rec. Griesb. edd. W. M. L. de Wette et P. Luecke. Berol., 

1818, 1841. 4. 
Synopsis Mt., Mc. et Luc. c. Jo. peric. parallelis, ed. M. Roediger. Hal., 1829-39. 
R. Anger, Synopsis evv. Mt., Mc, Lc cum locis qui supersunt parall. literarum et tra- 

ditt. evv. Irenaeo antiquiorum. Lips., 1851. Ed. 2, 1868. 
C. Tischendorf, syn. ev. ex 4 evv. ord. chron. concinnata. Lips., 1851 ; ed. 4, 1878. 
J. H. Friedlieb, quatuor evv. in harmoniam redacta. Vratisl., 1847. 
H. N. Clausen, quat. evv. tabulae synopticae. Havn., 1829. 
Sevin, die drei ersten Evangelien synoptisch zusammengestellt. Wiesb., 1866. 
Synopses in German by H. Planck (Gott., 1809), Pr. A. Beck (Berl., 1826), G. C. R. 

Matthai (Gott., 1826), J. Gehringer (Tiib., 1842), P. J. Sindler (Augsb., 1852). 
A Harmony of the Gospels by Sevin, 1867. 
Upon the whole of this richly endowed branch of literature comp. Hase, Leben Jesu 

(4th ed. Lpz., 1854), pp. 20-26. 

1 Older editions of the New Test., aside from those contained in the Polyglotts : (Comp. 
de Wette, §. 41, sqq.) ; 5 by Erasmus (1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535), 3 by Robert Stephens (1546, 1549, 
1565), 4 larger eds. by Theodore Beza, (published by Stephens, 1565, 1582, 1589, and 1598), and 
6 smaller, 1556-91 ; upon the 3d ed. of Stephens, as improved by Beza, depends the authority of 
the so-called Textus Receptus ; John Fell (following the London Polyglott, 1675), John Mill 
(1707), Kiister (1710-23), J. A. Bengel (1734 ; republished in manual eds. 1739, 1753, 1762, 1776, and 
by his son, Ernst Bengel, in 1790), J. J. Wetstein (1751 ; new ed. by Lotze, Botterd., 1831). Larger 
critical editions of more recent date: *J. J. Griesbach (Halle, 1774, 1775, 2 vols. ; Leips., 1803, 
1807, 4 vols.), Chr. Fr, Matthai (1783-88), F. C. Alter (1786, 1787), Andr. Birch (1788, 1801), David 
Schulz (Griesb. T. Berl., 1827), M, A Scholz (Lpz., 1830), K. Lachmann u. Ph. Buttmann, (Berl., 
1842, 1850. 2 Bde.), E. v. Muralt (Hamb., 1846, 1848), W. Greenfield u, J. P. Engles (Philad., 1851). 



CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE SCKIPTURES. 221 

3. TTieoretical works on Criticism and Critical Helps} 
L. Cappelli Critica sacra s. de vaiiis quae in sacris V. T. libris occurrunt lectionibus 

libri VI. Rec. multisque animadverss. auxit G. J. L. Vogel. Vol. 1. Hal., 1775 

Voll. 2, 3, ed. J. G. Scharfenberg., 1778, 1786. 
J. J. Griesbach, symbolae criticae ad suppl. et corrig. variarum N. T. lectt. collec- 

tiones. Hal., 1785-93. 2 voll. 

Commentarius criticus in textum graec. N. T. Jen., 1798-1811. 

J. G. Reiche, commentarius crit. in N. T. 3 Tom. Gott., 1853-62. 

* F. Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik u. Kritik mit bes. Beiziehung auf N. T., published 

by Liicke. Berl, 1838. (Vol. 2 of the Nachl. zur Theol.) 
f J. M. A. Lohnis, Grundziige d. bibl. Hermeneutik und Kritik. Giessen, 1839. 
Convenient for students : "^ Quellensammlung zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen 

Kanon bis auf Hieronymus, published by J. Hirchhofer. Ziirich, 1844. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITEEATURE. 

1. Critical Editions of the Old Testament in Hebrew. 

An Interlinear Hebrew-English Psalter. The Book of Psalms in Hebrew, with a 
closely literal English Translation under each word. 8vo, pp. 240. London, 
1882. 

Davidson, Samuel. Revision of the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. Synopsis 
of Readings, Revised from Critical Sources. 8vo, pp. 234. London, 1882. 

Hahn's Hebrew Bible. New ed. Revised by Isaac Leeser and Joseph Jaquett. 8vo. 
Philadelphia. 

Hebrew and English Psalms. The Hebrew Text of Van der Hooght, with the Au- 
thorized Translation of 1611. In parallel columns. 8vo, pp. 100. London, 
1882. 

Hebrew Psalter. 32mo. Andover, 1864. 

Hughes, Joseph. The Prophecy of Joel. The Hebrew Text printed Metrically, with 
a new English Translation and Critical Notes. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Letteris,' Myer Levi. The Hebrew Bible, Revised and carefully Examined. With a 
Key to the Masoretic Notes. 8vo, pp. 1404. New York, 1872. 

Modern Polyglot Bible in Eight Languages. Giving the Hebrew Text, the Septuagint, 
and the Vulgate, and a Series of the best European Translations. To which is 
added the Peshito-Syriac New Testament, with Tables of the various Readings of 
the Hebrew, the Septuagint, the Greek, and Syriac New Testaments, etc. Crown 
folio, 2 vols. London, .1882. 

D vnn "IQD- The Book of Psalms, in Hebrew and English. Arranged in Paral- 
lelisms. Andover, 1862. 

The Hebrew and English Scriptures of the Old Testament. Consisting of the Orig- 
inal Hebrew Text, and the Authorized English Version. With Appendices and 
Clavis to the Masoretic Notes. 4to, small. London, 1882. 

' See the more general critical and philological works of Valesius (1740), Heumann 
(1747), Morell (1768), J. Clericus (1778), Beck (1791), in Ast (in the work mentioned 
under Hermeneutics, at the end). " A barely sufficient guide (to New Test. Criticism) 
is found partly in the prolegomena to the critical editions (by Bengel, Wetstein, etc.) 
and is partly contained in that alia podrida to which the title of Introduction to the 
New Test, is commonly applied." Schleiermacher, §. 123, note. Hence comp. the 
literature under Introduction, su^ra. 



223 SPECrAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The Hebrew Bible of the Polyglot Series. The Text after Van der Hooght. Also 

the various Readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch. 8to, pp. 635. London, 

1882. 
Walton's Polyglot. Biblia Sacra Polyglotta. Edidit Brianus Waltonus. 6 vols., 

folio. With Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebrew, Chald., Syr., Samar., etc. 

2 vols., folio. Together, 8 vols., folio. 1657-69. 
Wright, C. H. H. The Book of Genesis in Hebrew ; with a Critically Revised Text, 

various Readings, and Grammatical and Critical Notes. 8vo. London, 1859. 

2. Critical Editions of the Septuagint. 

Hexaglot Bible ; compising the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in 
the Original Tongues ; together with the Septuagint, the Syriac, (of the New 
Testament.) the Vulgate, the Authorized English and German, and the most 
approved Erench Versions, arranged in parallel columns. Vols. I, II, III, (to be 
completed in 6 vols.) 4to. London, 1871-3. 

Septuagint Text, with Variorum Readings. 5 vols., folio. London, 1880. 

The Greek Septuagint. With an English Translation in parallel columns. 4to. 
London, 1882. 

The Septuagint according to the Vatican edition. Together with the real Septuagint 
Version of Daniel and the Apocrypha, including the Fourth Book of Maccabees, and 
an Historical Account of the Septuagint and of the Principal Texts in which it is 
Current. 8vo, pp. 958. London, 1882. 

The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament. Tables of the Various Readings 
of the Alexandrine Text, and the Septuagint according to the Vatican Text. 8vo, 
pp. 689. London, 1882. 

Tischendorf, Constantinus. Vetus Testamentum Graece Juxta LXX. Interpretes. 
8vo. Leipsic, 1869. 

Vetus Testamentum, Graece. Juxta LXX. Interpretes. Pp. 1088. Oxford, 1859. 
(Gives the Hebrew and Greek Texts in parallel columns.) 

3. Editions of the Vnlcfate. 

The Latin Bible. Biblia Sacra Vulgata Editionis Sixti V. et dementis VIIL 8vo, 

pp. IIS. London, 1882. 
The Vulgate New Testament, compared with the Douay Version of 1582. Parallel 

columns. Small 4to. London, 1882. 

4. Critical Editions of the New Testament. 

Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament, with a Critically Revised Text ; a Digest of 
various Readings, etc., and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. 4 vols., 8vo, 
pp. civ, 924 ; Ixxxvii, 723 ; cxxix, 435 ; cclxxxviii, 750. London, 1868. 

Greek Testament with English Notes. Abridged by B. H. Alford, 8vo. Lon- 
don, 1869. 

Bagster's Large Print Greek Testament, wuth various Readings from Griesbach, 
Scholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, and references to Parallel Passages. 8vo. 
London. 

Critical New Testament, Greek and English, containing the Greek Text of 

Scholz, with Readings, both Marginal and Textual of Griesbach, and variations of 
Stephens, Beza, and the Elzevir. 16mo, pp. 624. New York, 1868. 

Bloomfield, S. T. The Greek Testament with English Notes, Critical, Philological, 
and Exegetical. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 629, 631. Philadelphia, 1868. 



CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 223 

Buttz, Henry A. The Epistle to the Romans in Greek, etc. With References to 

the New Testament Grammars of Winer and Buttman. 8vo, pp. 42. New York, 

1876. 
Cambridge Greek Testament. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia, 1550. 12mo. Cam- 
bridge. 
Codex Vaticanus. Novum Testamentum Graece ex Antiquissimo Codice Vaticano 

edidit Angelas Mains S. R. E. Card. Ad fidem Editionis'Romanae Accuratius 

Impressum. Svo, pp. 502. London, 1859. 
Cowper, B. H. Codex Alexandrinus, H KAINH AIABHKH, etc. Ad Fidem Ipsius 

Codicis Denuo Accuratius edidit. Svo. London. 1866. 
Dobbin, Orlando T. The Codex Montfortianus. A Collation of this Celebrated 

MS. throughout the Gospels and Acts, with the Greek Text of Wetstein, and with 

certain MSS. in the University of Oxford. Svo, pp. 280. London, 1882. 
Fairbairn, P. The Pastoral Epistles; the Greek Text and Translation. 12mo. 

New York. 
Green, T. S. The Twofold New Testament. A newly-formed Greek Text, with 

new Translation into English. In parallel columns. 4to, pp. 466. London, 

1882. 
Grinfield, E. V. Novum Testamentum Graecum, Editio Hellenistica. Scholia 

Hellenistica in Novum Testamentum. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1843-48. 
Hahn, A. Greek Testament, edited by E. Robinson. 12mo, pp. 536. New York, 

1842. 
Hansell, E. H. The New Testament. The most Ancient MSS. of the Original Greek, 

printed in parallel columns, with a Collation of the Sinaitic Codex. 3 vols., Svo. 

London, 1880. 
Major, J. R. The Gospel According to St. Mark, in the Original Greek, with a Digest 

of Notes from various Commentators. 16mo. London, 1871. 
New Testament, Griesbach's Text, vt^ith the various Readings of Mill and Sholz, 

Marginal References, and Parallels, and a Critical Introduction. 12mo, pp. 650. 

London, 1859. 
Novum Testamentum Textus Stephanici, A. D. 1550. Accedunt variae Lectiones 

editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lachmannii, Tischendorfii, et Tregellesii. Curante F. H. 

Scrivener. ISmo. Cambridge, 1872. 
Scrivener, F. H. An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis, a Oraeco-Latin MS. 

of St. Paul's Epistles, etc., etc. With a Critical Introduction. Svo. Cambridge. 

1859. 
A Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, with the Received Text of the 

New Testament; to which is Prefixed a Critical Introduction. 16mo. London, 

1867. 
Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis, being an exact copy, in ordinary type, of the cele- 
brated Uncial Graeco-Latin MS. of the Four Gospels and Acts, etc., etc. With a 

Critical Introduction, etc. Svo. Cambridge, 1864. 
Novum Testamentum Graecum. ISmo. New York. 



Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament, for English Bible Students. 
2d ed. Revised and Corrected. The Authorized Version compared with Critical 
Texts. Svo. London. 1882. 

The Codex Zacynthius. Edited by S. P. Tregelles. Folio. London, 1882. 

The Englishman's Greek New Testament. Giving the Greek Text of Stephens, 1550 : 
With various Readings of Elzevir, 1624, Griesbach, Lachmann, Tischendorf, Tre- 
gelles, Alford, and Wordsworth; with an Interlinear Literal Translation. To 
which is added the Authorized Version of 1611. Crown Svo. London, 1882. 



224 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

The Greek Testament. With the Readings adopted by the Revisers of the Author- 
ized Version. 16rao, pp. 560. Oxford, 1881. 
The New Testament. Greek and English, in parallel columns. Edited by J. Schole- 

field. New edition with Marginal References. By Dr. Scrivener. 16mo. London, 

1880. 
The New Testament. Greek Text. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia. 16mo. London, 

1880. 
Tregelles, S. P. A Collation of the Critical Texts of Griesbach, Sholz, Lachmann, 

and Tischendorf, with the Received Text. 8vo, pp. 96. London, 1882. 
The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authorities. 5 parts, 4to. 

London, 1879. 
Westcott, B. F., and Hort, F. J. A. The New Testament in the Original Greek. 

With an Introduction by Philip Schaff. 12mo, pp. 580. New York, 1881. 
Wordsworth, Chris. The New Testament in the Original Greek. With Notes and 

Introductions. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1866. 

5. Synopses and Harmonies. 

Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. The Connection and Harmony of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. 12mo. London, 1853. 

Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon Earth. Considered in its Historical, 
Chronological, and Geographical Relations. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 624. New York, 
1868. (A harmony of the Gospels with each other, and with contemporary 
history.) 

Buck, D. D. The Closing Scenes of the Life of Christ. Being a Harmonized Com. 
bination of the Four Gospel Histories of the last Year of the Saviour's Life. 12mo, 
pp. 293. Philadelphia, 1869. 

Calvin, John. A Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Translated by Rev. 
W. Pringle. 3 vols., 8vo. Edinburgh, 1845. 

Clark, George W. A new Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to the 
Common Version. 12mo, pp. 365. New York, 1870. 

Fuller, J. M. The Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony from the Text 
of the Authorized Version ; with four maps. 12mo. New York, 1875, 

Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the 
Text of Tischendorf, with a Collation of the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts 
of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Revised ed., 8vo. Andover, 1882. 

A Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to the Authorized Ver- 
sion. 8vo, pp. 287. Andover, 1871. 

Piatessaron. The Life of our Lord in the Words of the Gospels. 16mo, pp. 



259. Andover, 1871. 

Greswell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Har- 
mony of the Gospels. 2d ed., 4 vols., 8vo, pp. 618, 654, 708, 930. Oxford, 1837. 

Haley, John W. An Examination of the Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. With 
an Introduction by Alvah Hovey. 8vo, pp. xii, 473. Andover, 1882. 

Macknight, James. Harmony of the Gospels v/ith Paraphrase and Notes. 2 vols., 
8vo. London, 1819. 

Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the 
Text of Hahn; newly arranged, with Explanatory Notes. 8vo. Boston, 1868. 

Harmony of the Four Gospels in English. 12mo. Boston, 1868. 

Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in Greek of the Received Text, for the 
use of Students and Others. 12mo, pp. 406. New York, 1854. 

Harmony and Exposition in English. 8vo, pp. 569. New York, 1852. 



CRITICAL HELPS. 225 

Stroud, Will. A new Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, comprising a Synopsis 
and a Diatessaron ; together with an Introductory Treatise, and numerous Tables, 
Indexes, and Diagrams. 4to, pp. 602. London, 1853. 

The Gospels Consolidated. The Four Gospels Consolidated into one Continuous Nar- 
rative. 4to, London, 1882. 

The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge. A Selection of more than 500,000 Scripture 
References and Parallel Passages ; together with a Harmony of the four Evan- 
gelists. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Wiesler, Karl. Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. Translated by E. Yen- 
ables. 8vo, pp. 459. London, 1864. 

6. Helps to the Study of Criticism. 
Barrett, Richard. Synopsis of Criticisms upon those Passages of the Old Testament 

in which Modern Commentators have differed from the Authorized Version. 5 vols., 

8vo. London, 184Y. 
Birks, F. R. Essay on the Right Estimation of Manuscript Evidence in the Text 

of the New Testament. London, 1880. 
Boyce, W. B. The Higher Criticism of the Bible. A Manual for Students. 12mo, 

pp. xxi, 473. London, 1881. 
Burgon, John W. The last Twelve Yerses of the Gospel according to St. Mark 

Yindicated against Recent Critical Objectors and Established. 8vo. Oxford, 18*71. 
Crowfoot, J. R. Observations on the Collation in Greek of Cureton's Syriac Frag- 
ments of the Gospel. 4to. London, 1872. 
Davidson, Samuel. A Treatise on Biblical Criticism, exhibiting a Systematic Yiew of 

that Science. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 463, 484. Boston, 1853. 
Gerard, Gilbert. Institutes of Biblical Criticism ; or, Heads of the Course of Lect- 
ures on that Subject, read in the University of King's College, Aberdeen, Svo. 

Boston, 1823. 
Green, Thomas S. A Course of Developed Criticism on Passages of the New Testa- 
ment materially affected by various Readings. 8vo, pp. 202. London, 1882. 
Hammond, C. E. Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the New Testament. 

(Clarendon Press Series.) i6mo, pp. 146. Oxford, 1872. 
Horsley, Samuel. Biblical Criticism ; or, the First Fourteen Historical Books of the 

Old Testament ; also the First Nine Prophetical Books. 2d ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 

484, 511. London, 1845. 
Milligan, William, and Roberts, Alexander. The Words of the New Testament, as 

Altered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism. 12mo, pp. 262. 

Edinburgh, 1873. 
Porter, J. S. Principles of Textual Criticism. 8vo. London, 1848. 
Roberts, Alex. Companion to the Revised Yersion of the English New Testament. 

12mo, pp. viii, 213. New York, 1881. 
Sargent, Frederick. A Compendium of Biblical Criticism on the Canonical Books 

of the Holy Scriptures ; Revised and Enlarged. Svo. London, 1871. 
Schaff, Philip. Companion to the Greek Testament and English Yersion. New 

York, 1883. 
Scrivener, F. H. Lectures on the Text of the New Testament and the Ancient MSS. 

which contain it. Crown Svo. New York. Third ed., London, 1883. 
Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament for English Students. ISmo. 

London. 
Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, Timo, 

pp. 454. Andover, 1871. 
15 



226 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

Tregelles, S. P. An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament ; 

with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles. 8vo, pp. 3H. London, 

1854. 
Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical 

Criticism and Interpretation. 8vo, pp. 279. London, 1868. 

7. Concordances. 
Brown, John. A Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa- 
ments. A new ed., carefully revised by Samuel Ives. Thick 24mo. London, 

1867. 
Companion to the Bible, and Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary ; being 

a Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1854. 
Cruden, Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal 8vo. 

New York, 1871. 

Condensed ed. 8vo. Boston. 

Davidson, B. Hebrew Concordance of the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. 2 vols., 

royal 8vo. London, 1882. 
Eadie, John. An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures ; or, the Bible 

Presented under Distinct and Classified Heads or Topics. Royal 8vo. Boston, 

1862. 
A new and Complete Concordance on the Basis of Cruden. Crown 8vo. Lorn 

don, 1870. 
Englishman's, The, Greek Concordance of the New Testament ; being an Attempt at 

a Verbal Connection between the Greek and the English Texts. 4to, pp. 482. 

New York, 1879. 
Englishmen's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, The, of the Old Testament. 2 vols., 

royal 8vo. London, 1866. 
Henderson, William. A Dictionary and Concordance of the Names of Persons and 

Places, and of Terms which occur in Scripture. 8vo, pp. 689. Edinburgh and 

New York. 
Hudson, Charles F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testa- 
ment. Revised and Completed by Ezra Abbot. 24mo, pp. 510. Boston, 1870. 
Schmidt, Erastus. A Greek Concordance to the New Testament. A Concordance of 

the Words of the Greek New Testament, with their Context. 8vo, pp. 283. 

London, 1882. 
Student's Concordance to the Revised Version of 1881. (Shows changes in all words 

referred to.) New York, 1883. 
Thorns, John Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Revised Version of the 

New Testament. Published under the Authorization of Oxford and Cambridge 

Universities. 8vo. New York, 1883. 
Wigram, G. V. The Hebraist's Vade Mecum ; a first attempt at a Complete Verbal 

Index to the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. London, 1867. 
Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Every word in alphabetical 

order, with Hebrew or Greek Original. Edinburgh and New York, 1881. 

8. Biblical Dictionaries and Cychpmdias. 
Abbot, Lyman. A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. New York, 1875. 
Ayre, John. The Treasury of Bible Knowledge ; being a Dictionary of the Books, 

Persons, Places, Events, etc., in the Holy Scriptures. 18mo. New York, 1866. 
Barnum, Samuel W. A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. Abridged from 

Smith, with Additions. 8vo, pp. 1219. New York and London, 1868. 



BIBLICAL DICTIONARIES AND CYCLOPEDIAS. 227 

Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology. By various 
Writers. Royal 8vo. Philadelphia, 1870. 

Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious 

Thought. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1874. 

Brown, John. A Dictionary of the Bible, etc. Svo. London, 1868. 

Cassell's Bible Dictionary. Illustrated with nearly six hundred Engravings. 2 vols, 
in one. 4to, pp. 1159. London, 1869. 

Darling, James. Cyclopasdia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of Theological and 
General Literature, and Guide to Books, etc. 2 vols., royal 8vo. Vol. I, Authors; 
columns, 3,338. Vol. II, Subjects, Holy Scriptures ; columns, 1,920. London, 
1854-59. 

Davidson, D. Pocket Biblical Dictionary, Condensed from Calmet, Brown, Clarke, 
Jones, and the most Recent Sources of Information. New ed., 24mo. London, 
1868. 

Eadie, John. A Biblical Cyclopaedia ; or. Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geogra- 
phy, Natural History, Sacred Annals, etc. 13th ed., Svo, pp. viii, 690. London, 
1870. 

Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge ; or. Dictionary of the Bible. Theological, 
Religious, Biographical, etc. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1870. 

Fairbairn, P. The Imperial Bible Dictionary. Historical, Biographical, Geograph- 
ical, and Doctrinal, etc. Illustrated. 2 vols., royal Svo, pp. x, 1007, 1151. 
London, 1866. 

Farrar, John. A Biblical and Theological Dictionary ; Illustrative of the Old and 
New Testaments. 3d ed., 12mo, pp. 663. London, 1852. 

Fausset, A. R. The Englishman's Critical and Expository Bible Cyclopaedia. 
Illustrated. 4to. London, 1878. 

Herzog's Protestant, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Encyclopaedia ; -with Additions 
by J. H. A. Bomberger, assisted by distinguished Theologians of various Denom- 
inations. 2 vols., royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1858-60. (This translation was never 
completed.) 

Inglis, James. The Bible-Text Cyclopaedia : a Complete Classification of Scripture 
Texts in the form of an Alphabetical Index of Subjects. Post Svo, pp. 528. 
London, 1861. New ed., 1865. 

Journal of Sacred Literature. Edited by Drs. Kitto, Burgess, etc. The Five Series 
complete. 40 vols., Svo. London, 1848-60. 

Kitto, John. A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 

3 vols., Svo, pp. 872, 876, 872. Edinburgh, 1862-66. 

Malcom, Howard. Theological Index. References to the Principal Works in every 
Department of Religious Literature. Royal Svo, pp. 488. Philadelphia, 1870. 

M'Clintock and Strong. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Lit- 
erature. Svo, 10 vols. New York, 1867-80. 

Schaff, Philip. A Religious Encyclopaedia ; or. Dictionary of Biblical, Doctrinal, and 
Practical Theology. 8vo, 3 vols. New York, 1882. 

Smith, William. Dictionary of the Bible. American ed. by Hackett and Abbot. 

4 vols., Svo. New York, 1867-70. The same Abridged. 1 vol., Svo. Boston, 1865. 
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Svo, 2 vols. Hartford, 1876-80. 

Dictionary of Christian Biography. Svo, 3 vols. Boston, 1877-1883. (To be 

completed in 4 vols.) 

Staunton, Wm. An Ecclesiastical Dictionary, containing Definitions of Terms per- 
taining to the History, Ritual, Discipline, Worship, Ceremonies, and Usages of the 
Christian Church. Svo. New York, 1861. 



228 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION XYIII. 

HERMENEUTICS. 

ti. Seyffarth, uber Begriff, Anordnung imd Umfang der Henneneutik des N. T. (Lpz. 1824), 
womit jedoch zu vergleichen die Recens. in Winers und Engelhardts Journal Bb. 4. S. 324 ff. 
A. Tholuck, iiber den Mangel an Ueberelnstimmung unter den Auslegern des N. T. (theol. 
Studlen und Kritiken Jahrg., 1832, S. 325) . Planck's Sacred Philology and Interpretation, trans- 
lated by Turner ; Kitto's Cyclopaedia, vol. li, p. 20. For a very lull history and bibliography, 
see Terry's Hermeneutics, Part IIL 

Biblical Hermeneutics treats of the principles on wMch Scripture 
is to be explained. These principles are, upon the whole, the same 
Deflnition of that aj)ply to any work of human origin, and Hermen- 
Hermeneutics. eutics, as a theological science, differs from the science 
in its general (philosophical and philological) character simply with 
regard to the object upon which it is employed. In this connexion 
the peculiarly religious character of the Bible certainly demands 
recognition. 

Hermeneutics from egfirjvevo) (which is to be traced back to the 
Hermes of the ancients^) is, in Schleiermacher's language, an art- 
doctrine ; "for the complete understanding of a discourse or writ- 
ing is a work of art, and requires a technical apparatus." ^ It 
Distinguished Stands in an inverted relation to rhetoric, in so far as 
from rhetoric, -(^j^g latter is dependent on logic ; for while the logical 
part of rhetoric furnishes the laws by which our thoughts are to be 
connected, arranged, and presented, Hermeneutics teaches how to 
apprehend the given discourses or writings of another person, and 
how to follow and interpret them. In proportion as the logically 
ordered thinking in a discourse or book becomes clear, as it will 
when the matter to be imparted is developed before the mind of 
the hearer or reader in a well-arranged style, will the need of ex- 
planation and .of an art of explanation be small ; for which reason, 
e. g., purely mathematical lectures need no hermeneutics if defini- 
tions are first understood. But when the logic is hidden in the dis- 
cussion, and when the words do not represent mere formulas and 
figures (the expression of magnitudes), but are, according to the 
nature of the subject under consideration, the not fully adequate 
signs of a profoundly apprehended original, when they are the 
bearers, borrowed from the world of sense, of ideas which are in- 
visible, there arises the need of an interpreter who shall know 
how to trace back to the original idea the letter w^hich was first 
correctly apprehended through the mechanical processes of gram- 
mar, and who shall thus restore the written or spoken word, so 

* See Creuzer, Symbolik, i, pp. 9-15 : 365 sqq. ; ii, p. 617. 
2 Schleiermacher, § 132. 



PECULIARITIES OF BIBLE LANGUAGE. 229 

that it becomes for the reader or hearer what it was to the 
writer or speaker from whom in the freshness of its originality it 
emanated. 

For this reason the ancients already joined divination to her- 
meneutics ; and this likewise indicates why an exposition according 
to rules of art is more necessary with poets, epigrammatists, and 
poetizing philosophers, than with simple prose-writers.^ Works, 
moreover, that belong to a distant age, and are written causes which 
in a language which has itself passed through many his- '^^^^ berme- 
torical vicissitudes, are more likely to engage the atten- sary. 
tion of hermeneutics than writings and discourses belonging to our 
own times, whose meaning is more apparent to us by reason of their 
nearness. And, lastly, the allusions contained in a discourse or 
writing will need a key to their interpretation, in proportion as they 
bear upon individual matters, which is especially the case in episto- 
lary compositions. If we apply these considerations to the Bible, 
it will appear that it needs the art of hermeneutics in each of 
these regards. Few books, in the first place, in the form of expres- 
sion, fall so much behind their wealth of contents, and r^^^ reasons 

few, accordingly, belong so fully to the class of pregnant why the Bihie 

-, ^^ T.I ^ J- needs care in 

writmgs, as do these modest envelopments oi supreme its interpreta- 

ideas. Luther strikingly likens them to the swaddling- *^°°- 

clothes in which the Christ-child lay, and the great Reformer 

was led to use the expression that the words in Scripture are not 

merely "written words, but living words," whence it becomes a 

frequent necessity to read between the lines. But the Bible at the 

same time shares with all works of antiquity, including the less 

pregnant also, the fortune of having been written in times, and 

among a people, into whose circumstances we must enter and live, 

and in languages with whose spirit and expression we must become 

familiar, if we desire to accurately understand what is written.* 

* " There is no lack of examples in our own experience of an author's mind being, 
e. ff., exalted to such an intuitive penetration of its object as to be enabled to speak 
of it with an unusual pregnancy of word and meaning which his own reflection is un- 
able to resolve into details ; it even happens that when he descends from his intuitive 
center-point to hie ordinary level of thought, his own work will appear like a strange 
object, respecting the development of whose meaning he finds as much difficulty as 
do others." — J. T. Beck, Enil. in das Syst. d. Chr. Lehre, p. 253. An example is found 
in Hamann. 

^ " He who would interpret, needs, by drawing as near as may be possible, to de- 
Bcend to the condition of the first readers and hearers." — Lutz (Hermeneutic). " Pour 
ne pas errer sur le sens que nous appelons exterieur, il faut avoir une idee precise do 
la langue des auteurs, je veux dire de la valeur des signes et des formes de cette 
langue, compares aux formes et aux signes correspondants de notre propre langue. 



230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

How thoroughly individual, too, is the Bible, never dealing in ab- 
stract generalities, always singling out the concrete instance, the 
special condition and its needs, the disposition and mode of culture 
of persons and communities ! ^ How natural, then, that we should 
seek to obtain a key ! This can be no magic key, however, which 
some angel must bring down from the third or the seventh heaven, 
or whose possession is restricted to a sacred caste ; but, generally 
The key to sp( aking, the same art has its application here, which 
fouiS'^in^he^- must be employed, according to the natural laws of a 
meneutics. historico-logical method of estimating the past, upon 
every work that requires explanation. This art belongs to the 
higher department of the science of language, of philology, and 
hence of applied philosophy. 

Biblical her- ' It is a theological science merely in its special appli- 
meneutics a cation to this obiect,^ for every rule established by the- 

hranch of gen- i . , , . ^ , . . <• i o • 

erai herme- ological hermeneutics tor the exposition oi the bcript- 
nentics. ^j.gg jn^ig^ \yQ based upon the general principles of her- 

meneutics or deducible from them, and all that can be done in the 
interest of the Bible is that such principles be properly applied. 
Arbitrary departure from them, or making so-called " exceptions to 
such rules," is never beneficial. When the latter course is fol- 
lowed the proper inference is that the general law itself has not 
been apprehended, or that confusion or a misconception is in- 
volved. Should a one-sided, scanty legislation confine the inter- 
pretation of the Scriptures to the purely external meaning of the 
letter so exclusively as, while considering the notation of the let- 
ter (the grammar), to forget the notation of the spirit, should it 
designedly seek to blot out the individuality and originality of an 
author, in order to put in the place of the forms which reveal a rich 
fulness of ideas, the vaguely outlined shadows of abstract common- 
places, it will of course be exposed to the danger of seeing those 
who are not content with such meagre fare forsake its school and 
submit themselves to the impression of an undefined feeling. This 
is a result the more likely to come to pass because of the failure 

En d'autres termes, il faut savoir a quel taux il faut prendre le mots principaux, qui 
reviennent le plus souvent et entrent dans le passages les plus importants." — Vinet 
(Homiletique), p. 124. 

1 Comp. Schleiermacher, § 135 : " The explanation of the New Testament Scriptures 
is especially difficult, both on account of . the nature of their contents, and by reason 
of external conditions." 

' Schleiermacher, § 13Y, sq. It is evident that within this specifically biblical her- 
meneutics, another and yet more special (Old and New Test., Pauline, Johannean, etc.) 
may be conceived of and wrought out. Comp. ib., § 136. 



WHO IS THE COMPETENT INTERPRETER? 231 

of such teachers to instil the scientific principles sought at their 
hands. 

If hermeneutics has regard to the deeper psychological fea- 
tures of the writers to be explained, whether they occupy the field 
of poetry, philosophy, or religion, and if it establishes as the lead- 
ing principle that he only is competent to correctly appreciate an 
author whose mind possesses elements related and analogous to that 
author's, or, at least, who has learned how to think himself into the 
mental state of his author,^ it certainly has also the right to require 
an unconditional submission to its rules on the part of the expositor 
of the Bible. All the wanderings of the so-called allegorical in- 
terpretation find their excuse in narrow hermeneutics, whether of 
the orthodox or the rationalist letter, and may be corrected and 
finally laid aside by the application of the true science of spiritual 
exposition.^ 

The science of hermeneutics could not be formed before frequent 

experiments in interpretation had been made, and such ^ , , 
•1-1 11-1 Gradual 

practice had resulted m the more or less conscious ap- growth of her- 
plication of the laws of interpretation which w^ere de- ™^^^^*^cs- 
veloped in the way of practical exposition. Even then it remained 
" an aggregate of separate, often valuable and praiseworthy, obser- 
vations," ^ rather than a systematic art, " whose precepts would con- 
stitute a system resting upon clear principles deduced from the 
nature of thought and of language." This experience belongs 
alike to general and biblical hermeneutics. 

' *' Who will the poet understand must journey into poet-land." Luther already 
observed that the Eclogues of Yirgil are thoroughly plain to him alone who has lived 
with shepherds, and that he alone can properly understand Cicero's epistles " who has 
served twenty years in a first-class regiment." Lutz observes similarly (in Herme- 
neutik\ " The contents (of the Scripture) are understood only by him who apprehends 
and values them in the spirit of one who is saved by Christ and out of interest for 
the Christian Church." Comp. also Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 32*7, and Krauss, Be- 
deutung des Glaubens fur die Schriftausleg%mg. 

2 Diestel {infra), p. 778, justly observes, in opposition to one-sided tendencies in 
exegesis, that only an all-sided illumination can do justice to the object to be ex- 
plained. He designates (1) the rational, (2) the historico-philosophical, and (3) the 
religious principles, as elements which must interpenetrate each other in any truly 
theological method of investigation. At the same time we are to remember that " an 
absolute knowledge of the religion of the people of God will continue to be a far-off 
goal that twinkles in the distance, so long as human development shall continue ; and 
in the same measure, even as Christianity likewise can never be exhausted, and the 
knowledge of it, in its depth and fulness can only represent a constant approxima- 
tion toward the highest ideal." 

^ Schleiermacher, Outline of Theology, § 133. See also the succeeding paragraphs 
to 8 140 inclusive. 



332 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 



1. General Hermeneutics.^ 
G. F. Meier, Versuch einer allgemeinen Auslegekunst. Halle, 1756. 
J. J. G. Scheller, Anleitung zur Erklarung der alten Schriftsteller, mit Vorrede von 

Ch. A. Klotz. Lpz., 1783. 
Ch. D. Beck, commentatt. academ. de interpret, vett. scriptorum. Lips., 1791. 
F. Ast, Grundlinien der Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik. Landsh 1808 

S. 105. ff. 

F. A. Wolf, Darstellung der Alterthumswissenschaf t. Published by S. F. W. Hoff- 
mann. Lpz., 1833. S. 23 f. 27. 

2. Its application to the Bihle."^ 

Mth. Flaccii clavis s. scripturae. Bas., 1537. 2 voll. f. Neue Auffl. von J. Musaus. 

Jen., 1674. Lpz., 1695, etc. 
S. J. Baumgarten, Ausf. Vortrag der bibl. Hermeneutik ; published by J. C. Bertram. 

Halle, 1769. 4. 

G. A. Bauer, Entw. einer Hermeneutik des A. und N. T. Lpz., 1709. 

G. W. Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik des A. T. Liib., 1799, 1800. N. T. Lpz., 

1812. (Each in 2 vols.) 
J. H. Pareau, Instit. interpr. Y. T. Ultraj., 1822. 8. 
Ernesti, Institutio interpr. N. T. ad usum lectionum. Ed. 1-3. Lips., 1761-75 ; ed. 4. 

observatt. auct. cur. C. F. Ammon, 1792 ; ed. 5, 1809. 8. 
S. F. Nth. Morus, Super hermeneutica N. T. acroases academ. Ed. et additamentis 

instr. H. C. A. Eichstaedt. Lips., 1797-1802. 2 voll. 
Ch. D. Beck, Monogrammata hermen. librr. JST. T. Lips., 1803. 
K. G. Bretschneider, Die historisch-dogmatische Auslegung des N. T. nach ihren Prin- 

cipien, Quellen und Hiilfsmitteln dargestellt. Lpz., 1806. 
A. G. Keil, Lehrb. der Hermeneutik des N. T. nach Grundsatzen der gramm.-histor. 

Interpretation. Lpz., 1810. (Lat. by Emmerling. Ibid., 1811.) 
J. J. Griesbach, Yorlesungen iiber die Hermeneutik des N. T., published by J. E. S. 

Steiner. Niirnb,, 1815. 
Fr. Liicke, Grundriss der neutestamentl. Hermeneutik und ihrer Geschichte, zum Ge- 

brauche fur akadem. Yorlesungen. Gott., 1817. 
G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Grundr. eines Systems der neutestamentl. Hermeneutik. Erlang., 

1817. 
F. H. Germar, die panharmonische Interpretation der heiligen Schrift. Schlesw., 1821. 
Beitrag zur Allgemeinen Hermeneutik und zu deren Anwendung auf die theolo- 

gische. Altona, 1828. 
H. Olshausen, Ein Wort uber tiefern Schriftsinn. Konigsb., 1824. 
Die biblische Schriftauslegung ; noch ein Wort iiber tiefern Schriftsinn. Hamb., 

1825. 
R. Stier, Andeutungen fiir glaubiges Schriftverstandniss im Ganzen und Einzelnen. 

Konigsb., 1824. (See Winer and Engelhardt's Journal, No. 4, p. 422 sqq.) 

' Older works in Danz, p. 226 ; to which add, Rudorff, Diss, de arte interpretandi scriptores 
veteres profanos. Lips., 1747. 

2 Much that applies here may also be found in the above-mentioned works (under Grammar, 
Introduction, Criticism, etc.) by Glassius (Philologia sacra), Richard Simon, etc. Here, too, 
Semler opened the way in part : Apparatus ad liberal. V. T. interpret. Hal., 1773. Ad N. T. 
1767. Neuer Versuch, die gemeinniitzige Auslegung und Anwendung des N. T. zu befor- 
dern, 1786. Individual forerunners : Rambach, Pfeififer, Wolke, Carpzov, etc., see Danz. uM 
supra. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF HERMENEUTICS. 233 

E. F. Hopfner, Grundlinien zu einer fruchtbaren Ausleguiig der heil. Schrift. Lpz., 

1827. 
G. Chr. R, Matthai, Neue Auslegung der Bibel, zur Erforschung und Darstellung 

ihres Glaubens, begriindet mit Charakteristik der neuesten theologischen Grund- 

satze, Richtuugen und Parteien. Gott., 1831. Comp. Likke in Studien und Krit- 

iken, 1833. 2. 

* Schleiermaelier und f Lohnis. See above under Criticism. 

H. Nic. Clausen (auch Klausen), Hermeneutik des N. T. From the Danish, by Schmidt- 

Phiseldeek. Lpz., 1841. 
C. G. Wilke, Die Hermeneutik des N. T. systematisch dargestellt. Lpz., 1843-44. 

2 Bde. 
Kuenen, Critices et hermeneutices librorum Xovi Foederis lineamenta. Lugd. Bat., 

1858. 

* J. L. Lutz, Bibl. Hermeneutik, published by A. Lutz. Pforzh., 1849. 2d ed., 1861. 
f J. Kohlgruber, Hermeneutica bibl. generalis. Oenip., 1850. 

•{•J. B. Guentner, Hermen. bibl. generalis; ed. alt. Vien., 1851. 
t Setwin, Hermeneuticae biblicae institutiones. Yindabonae, 1872. 
A. Immer, Hermeneutik des N. T, Wittenb., 1873. 

Historical : 
J. G. Rosenmiiller, hist, interpret, librr. sacrr. in eccl. christ. Hildb. et Lips., 1795- 

1814. 5 roll. 
G. W. Meyer, Geschichte der Schrifterklarung seit der Wiederherstellung der Wissen- 
schaften. Gott., 180^-1808. 5 vols. 

For the History of the Exposition of the Old Testament : 

* L. Diestel, Geschichte des Alten Testaments in der chritl. Kirche. Jena, 1869. 

R. Siegfried, die Aufg. der Gesch. der Alttest. Auslegung in der Gegenwart. Jena, 
1876. 

ENGLISH AXD AMERICAN LITEEATUKE. 
1. Hermeneutics. 

Alexander, Archibald. Principle of Design in the Interpretation of Scripture. 

Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review for July, 1845. 
Apthorp, East. Discourses on Prophecy. Warburtouian Lectures. 2 vols., 8vo. 

London, 1786. (One of these Lectures is on the Canons of Interpretation.) 
Arnold, Thomas. Sermons chiefly on the Interpretation of Scripture. New ed. 

London, 1878. 
Barrows, E. P. A Xew Introduction to the Study of the Bible. Part IV, Biblical 

Interpretation. 8vo. London. 
Blunt, J. H. Key to the Knowledge and Use of the Holy Bible. 8vo. London, 

1873. 16mo. Philadelphia, 1873. 
Bosanquet, S. R. Interpretation ; being Rules and Principles assisting to the Read- 
ing and Understanding of the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1874. 
Campbell, George. The Four Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations, 4 vols., 8vo. 

Boston, 1811. (Dissertation IV is on the right method of proceeding in the 

critical examination of the New Testament.) 
Cellerier, J. E. Biblical Hermeneutics, chiefly a Translation of the Manuel D'Her- 

meneutique Biblique, par J. E. Cellerier. By Charles Elliott and William J. 

Harsha. 8vo. New York, 1881. 
Conybeare, J. J. An Attempt to Trace the Hist^^ry and to Ascertain the Limits of 

the Secondary and Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture. Bampton Lecture for 

1824. 12mo, pp. xii, 331. Oxford, 1824. 



234 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Conybeare, W. D. An Elementary Course of Lectures on the Criticism, Interpreta- 
tion and Leading Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo. London, 1836. 

Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied ; including a His- 
tory of Biblical Interpretation from the Earliest of the Fathers to the Reforma- 
tion. 8vo, pp. 760. Edinburgh, 1843. 

Dixon, Joseph. A General Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures in a Series of Dia 
sertations, Critical, Hermeneutical, and Historical. 2 vols., 8vo. Dublin, 1852. 
2 vols, in one, 8vo. Baltimore, 1853. (A Roman Catholic work.) 

Dobie, David. A Key to the Bible, being an Exposition of the History, etc., of Sa- 
cred Interpretation, 12mo. New York, 1856. 

Doedes, J. J. Manual of Hermeneutics for the Writings of the New Testament. 
12mo, pp. 141. Edinburgh, 1867. 

Ellicott, C. J. Scripture and its Interpretation. One of the Essays in Aids to Faith. 
Replies to Essays and Reviews. 8vo. London, 1863. 

Ernesti, J. J. Principles of Biblical Interpretation. Translated from the Institutio 
Interpretis, by Chas. H Terrot. 2 vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1832. 

Fairbairn, Patrick, Hermeneutical Manual ; or, Introduction to the Exegetical 
Study of the New Testament. 8vo, pp. 492. Edinburgh, 1858. Philadelphia, 1859. 

Prophecy Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, Special Function, and 

Proper Interpretation. 8vo. New York, 1866. 

The Typology of Scripture ; Viewed in Connection with the Whole Series of 

Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 504, 555. Edinburgh, 1870. 
New York, 1877. 

Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., 
8vo. Philadelphia, 1841. Thirteenth ed., 4 vols., 8vo. London, 1872. (Part II, 
vol. i, treats of interpretation.) 

Immer, A. Hermeneutics of the New Testament. Translated from the German by 
Albert H. Newman. 8vo, pp. xvii, 395. Andover, 1877. 

Irons, W. J. The Bible and its Interpreters. Miracles, and Prophecies. 2d ed. 
London, 1869. 

Jones, Wm. Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Scriptures. 8vo. 
London, 1789. (Also in Vol. IV of Theological and Miscellaneous Works. 1810.) 

Jowett, Benjamin. On the Interpretation of Scripture. One of the Essays in Essays 
and Reviews by eminent English Churchmen. 8vo. London, 1861. 

Lamar, J. S. The Organon of Scripture; or, the Inductive Method of Biblical In- 
terpretation. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860. 

Lee, Samuel. The Study of the Holy Scriptures. 8vo. London, 1830. (Contains a 
dissertation on the interpretation of prophecy.) 

Macknight, James. Concerning the Right Interpretation of the Writings in which 
the Revelations of God are Contained. (Essay VIII, appended to his Transla- 
tion and Commentary on the Apostolic Epistles. Many eds.) 

Maitland, Chas. The Apostles' School of Prophetic Interpretation, with its History 
to the Present Time. 8vo, pp. 472. London, 1849. 

Maitland, S. R. Eight Essays on the Mystical Interpretation of Scripture, etc. Svo. 
London, 1852. 

Marsh, Bishop Herbert. Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, 
with the History of Biblical Interpretation. 8vo. London, 1828, 1838, 1842. 

M'Clelland, Alexander. Manual of Sacred Interpretation, for the Special Benefit of 
Junior Theological Students. 12mo. New York, 1842. 

A Brief Treatise on the Canon and Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. New 

York,1850. (Above book enlarged.) 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF INSPIRATION. 235 

Muenscher, Joseph. Manual of Biblical Interpretation. 16mo, pp. 318. Gambler, 

Ohio, 1865. 
Pareau, John Henry. Principles of Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated 

by P. Forbes. 2 vols., 16mo, pp. 369, 319. Edinburgh, 1835. 
Pierce, B. K. The Word of God opened. Its Inspiration, Canon, and Interpretation 

Considered and Illustrated. New York, 1868. 
Planck, G. J. Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpretation. Translated 

from the Original German by Samuel H. Turner. Edinburgh, 1834. 16mo, pp. 

288. New York, 1834. 
Sawyer, Leicester A. The Elements of Biblical Interpretation ; or, an Exposition of 

the Laws by which the Scriptures are capable of being correctly Interpreted. 

]2mo. New Haven, 1836. 
Scott, J. Principles of New Testament Quotation Established and Applied to Bib- 
lical Science. Edinburgh, 1875. 
Seller, G. F. Biblical Hermeneutics ; or, the Art of Scripture Interpretation. From 

the German. 8vo. London, 1835. 
Smith, John Pye. Principles of Interpretation as Applied to the Prophecies of Holy 

Scripture. London, 1829. 2d ed., 1831. 
Stuart, Moses. Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy. 12mo. Andover, 1842, 
Terry, M. S. Biblical Hermeneutics ; a Treatise on the Interpretation of Scripture. 

8vo, pp. 787. New York, 1883. 
Tholuck, Augustus. On the Use of the Old Testament in the New, and especially 

in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by J. E. Ryland. Vol. XXXIX of 

Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 1842. 
Hermeneutics of the Apostle Paul, with Special Reference to Gal. iii, 1 6. Vol. 

XXXIX of Biblical Cabinet. 
Hints on the Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated by R. B. Patton. 



Vol. II of Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 1833. 
Turner, S. H. Thoughts on the Origin, Character, and Interpretation of Scriptural 

Prophecy. 12mo. New York, 1860. 
Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical 

Criticism and Interpretation, etc. Royal 8vo. London, 1868. 
Van Mildert, William. An Inquiry into the General Principles of Scripture Interpre- 
tation. Bampton Lectures for 1814. 8vo. Oxford, 1815. 8d ed. London, 1838. 
Wemyss, Thomas, A Key to the Symbolical Language of Scripture, etc. 16mo, pp. 

520. Edinburgh, 1835. 
Winthrop, Edward. Premium Essays on the Characteristics and Laws of Prophetic 

Symbols. 12mo. New York, 1860. 
Whitaker, William. On the Interpretation of Scripture. Cambridge, 1849. 
Whittaker, John William. A Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Interpreta- 
tion of the Hebrew Scriptures. London, 1819. 
Whitby, Daniel. Dissertatio de SS. Scripturarum Interpretatione, secundum Patrum 

Commentarios. 8vo. London, 1714. (Elicited by the Arian Controversy.) 
Wordsworth, C. On the Interpretation of Scripture. An Essay in Reply to Essays 

and Reviews. 8vo. London, 1862. 

2. Lispiration. 
Alexander, Archibald. Evidences of the Authenticity, Inspiration, and Canonical 

Authority of the Holy Scriptures, 12mo, pp. 308. Philadelphia. 
Atwell, W. E. Pauline Theory of the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Svo. 

London, 1878. 



23« SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Bagley, Benjamin. An Essay on Inspiration. 8vo. London, 1*707. 2d ed. 

1Y08. ' 

Bannerman, James. Inspiration : the Infallible Truth and Divine Authority of the 

Holy Scriptures. 8vo, pp. 595. Edinburgh, 1865. 
Barry, William. An Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration of the 

Apostles and other Writers of the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1191. 2d ed., 
1822. 
Bayler, Joseph. Verbal Inspiration the True Characteristic of God's Holy Word. 

12mo. London, 1870. 
Boyle, W. R. A. The Inspiration of the Book of Daniel, and other Portions of 

Scripture. 8vo. London, 1863. 
Burgon, John W. -Inspiration and Interpretation; Seven Sermons before ihe 

University of Oxford. 8vo. London, 1874. 
Calamy, E. The Inspiration of the Holy Writings of the Old and New Testament 

Considered and Improved. 8vo. London, 1710. 
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit. 16mo, pp. 129. 

Boston, 1841. (Also in his collected works.) 
Curtis, S. E. The Human Element in the Inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures. 12mo, 

pp. 386. New York, 1867. 
Dewar, Daniel. Divine Revelation : its Evidences, External, Internal, and Collateral. 

Together with its Canonical Authority and Plenary Inspiration. 2d ed., 8vo. 

London, 1859. 
Dick, John. An Essay on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 4th ed., Svo. 

Glasgow, 1840. 
Doddridge, Philip. A Dissertation on the Inspiration of the New Testament, etc. 

In works, vols, iv and viii. 
Elliott, Charles. A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Edinburgh 

and New York, 1877. 
Findlay, Robert. The Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures asserted by St. Paul. 

2 Tim. iii, 16. London, 1803. 
Fowle, F. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science, being Essays on Immor- 
tality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. 8vo. London, 1882. 
Garbett, E. God's Word Written : the Doctrine of the Inspiration of Holy Scripture 

Explained and Enforced. 12mo, pp. 365. Boston, 1867. 
Gaussen, S. R. L. Theopneusty ; or, the Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 

From the French, by E. N. Kirk. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1842. 
Given, .John James. Truth of Scripture in Connection with Revelation. Inspiration 

and the Canon. Edinburgh, 1881. 
Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. Svo, pp. xvi, 480. Edin- 
burgh, 1874. 
Haldane, J. A. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. 1 2mo. Boston. 
Hannah, J. The Relation between the Divine and the Human Element in the Scrip- 
ture. Bampton Lectm^es for 1863. Pp. xix, 364. London, 1863. 
Henderson, Ebenezer. Divine Inspiration ; or, the Supernatural Influence exerted in 

the Communication of Divine Truth, etc. Svo. London, 1836. 4th ed., 1852. 

(A work highly commended for impartiality.) 
Hinds, Samuel. An Inquiry into the Proofs, Nature, and Extent of Inspiration, and 

into the Authority of Scripture. 8vo. Oxford, 1831. 
Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo, 

2 vols. Philadelphia, 1841. (The opening chapters, iv to vi, both inclusive, treat 

of inspiration.) 



ENGLISH LITERATURE OF INSPIRATION. 237 

Jamieson, Robert. The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Baird Lectures for 

1873. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1874. 
Lee, William. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. Its Nature and Proof. 8vo, pp. 

478. New York, 1876. 
Lewis, Tayler. The Divine Human in the Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. New York, 

1860. (Holds that the language of the Bible is, in a certain sense, inspired, and 

yet rejects verbal inspiration.) 
Liber Librorum : its Structure, Limitations, and Purpose. 16mo, pp. 232. New 

York, 1867. (Holds that reason enlightened by the Spirit is the verifier of rev- 
elation.) 
Lord, Eleazar. The Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 12 mo. New York, 

1858. (Takes an extreme view.) 
Lowth, Wm. A Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Writings 

of the Old and New Testaments. 8vo. Oxford, 1692. (An answer to Le 

Clerc.) 
Mahan, Milo. Palmoni ; or, the Numerals of Scripture a Proof of Inspiration. A 

Free Inquiry. 12mo. New York, 1863. 
M'Caul, Alexander. Testimonies to the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the 

Holy Scriptures, as Taught by the Church of England. 12mo. London, 1862. 
M'Leod, Alexander. Yiew of Inspiration. 12mo. Glasgow, 1827. 
Moore, James Lovell. Inspiration of the New Testament. 8vo. London, 1793. 
Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1849. 

(Chapter vi treats of inspiration.) 
Noble, S. Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures Asserted. 8vo. London, 1856. 
Owen, John. The Divine Original and Plenary Inspiration of Scripture. Works, vol. 

ix. Philadelphia, 1871. 
Rennell, Thomas. Proofs of Inspiration ; or. Grounds of Distinction between the 

New Testament and the Apocryphal New Testament. 8vo. London, 1822. 
Rowe, C. A. The Nature and Extent of Divine Inspiration. 8vo, pp. 439. London, 

1864. 
Ryle, John Charles. Bible Inspiration. Its Reality and Nature. 2d ed. London, 

1883. 
Smith, J. A. The Spirit in the Word ; or. Letters to a Bible Class on the Canon of 

Scripture and its Interpretation. 16mo. Chicago, 1865. 
Spring, G. The Bible not of Man ; Divine Origin of Scripture drawn from the Scrip- 
tures themselves. 12mo. New York, 1847. 
Warington, George. The Inspiration of Scripture ; its Limits and EfPects. 16mo, 

pp. 284. London, 1867. 
Whytehead, Robert. The Warrant of Faith ; or, a Hand-Book to the Canon and 

Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12rao. London, 1854. 
Woods, Leonard. Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. Andover, 

1829. 
Wordsworth, Christopher. On the Inspiration of Scripture ; or, the Canon of the 

Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha. 8vo, pp. 447. London, 1851. 



238 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

SECTION XIX. 
EXEGESIS. 

Exegesis, as an art product, accomplislies that for which herrae- 
Deflnition of neutics, the theory, lays down the rules, and toward 
exegesis. which the other auxiliary sciences direct their efforts, 

namely, the exposition of holy Scriptures, based on comprehension 
of the languages and antiquities involved. 

Reference must be made for the sake of clearness to the terms 
in common use, though in this as in many other instances the usage 
is arbitrary. The words kpiirjvela and e^riyqaLg have at bottom the 
^. ^. . ^ ^ same meaninpT : but exeo^esis has come to denote the 

Distinguished ^ o ' * ^ 

from herme- action of the expositor himself, and hermeneutics the 

" ^^' theory of the art of exposition. 

In the broad sense of the term, exegesis includes both the inter- 
inciudes both pretation and the explication of Scripture. The former 
interpretation of these confines its endeavors solelv to the apprehend- 

and explica- . „„ ^ ^ ■,"('-,' 

tion. mg 01 tacts narrated by an author, or oi doctrmes pre- 

sented by him, in a purely objective light; while the latter brings 
them into relation with other facts or doctrines, or possibly with 
the judgment of the expositor himself with respect to the facts as 
stated, or the doctrines as presented. Mere interpretation will, ac- 
cordingly, be less susceptible to influence from the individual views 
of the expositor than explication, which is more open to the infu- 
sion of elements derived from his subjectivity. The former cor- 
responds to translation, and is its authentication; the latter finds its 
expression in paraphrases. 

We follow the accepted usage, though it might well be reversed, 
since the expositor in fact does nothing more than simply explain 
the meaning and throw light upon what is dark, while the inter- 
preter still further subdivides and spreads out the matter that has 
been explained.^ Thus it is said of a preacher that he knows how 
to interpret a text when he not only clears up what is dark to the 
mind, but when he at the same time develops in every direction 
what has been made plain, for the purpose of a fuller understand- 
ing of it. In the terminology of the science, however, the words 
have come to bear the above signification. The work of the inter- 

'Comp. Eberhard, Synon. Handworterhuch, s. v. erklaren, auslegen, deuten, p. 101 ; 
Ast, p. 184: "To explain is to develop and lay down the meaning; for explanation 
presumes understanding and rests upon it, since only what has been rightly conceived 
and comprehended, what is understood, can be imparted and explained as such to 
others." 



PREDISPOSITION NOT ALWAYS PREJUDICE. 239 

pres is ended when the author's meaning has been simply stated/ 
e. a., when it has been shown that he records a mir- 

111 1 • 1 • rx^^ ^^® functions 

acle, or that ne teaches a certain doctrme. Ihe com- of the inter- 

mentator, however, ffoes further, seeking: to understand FJ?^^ ^^^ ^^ 
' ' <-' ' o tne commen- 

how the author came to narrate and teach as he does, tator dis tin- 
He compares him with himself, with his contempora- ^"^^ 
ries, with the spirit of the time in which he lived (historical, as 
contrasted with merely grammatical exposition), and he finally 
brings practically what he has ascertained into connexion with 
the sum total of tlie facts possessed. This will indicate the extent 
to which it is possible to speak of pure objectivity in connection 
with exegesis. Interpretation must certainly remain independent 
of every existing dogmatical system,^ and it has become interpretation 
increasingly so in recent times. Rationalism especially should be mde- 
has ceased to dispose of miracles, by perverting them, dogmatical sys- 
in the way of an exegesis framed to favor its system. *^°^^- 

It would even appear that the negative tendency of the present 
day finds, in connection with its so-called avoidance of predisposi- 
tion, a special pleasure in placing a greater burden in this respect 
on the biblical writers than is admitted to belong to rj^g so-caiied 
them by an unprejudiced exegesis, in order, however, avoidance of 
it must be admitted, to afterward throw overboard the sition" aprej- 
whole, as being without substance and meaning^. But ^^^^^' 
this very absence of predisposition is governed by a prejudice, that 
of "modern culture," and this has its influence upon exposition, 
even though the interpretation may not be affected thereby. In- 
stead of quietly, and with unbiassed spirit, entering upon the sub- 
ject in hand, the exposition assumes a hostile attitude toward the 
writer at the beginning, and treats him with injustice. The school 
which occupies the purely grammatical and historical point of ob- 
servation, and abstains from judging at all, avoids such impas- 
sioned courses, and its position is certainly more worthy of respect 

^ On the distinction between sense, signification, and understanding, see Schleier- 
macher, HermeneutiJc.^ p. 41. 

^ " To ascertain the contents of Scripture in obedience to the accepted views of the 
Church remains, despite all exceptions and provisos, a dishonest procedure from the 
outset, by which we have before we seek, and find what we already have." — Meyer, 
preface to Krit.-exeget. Handh., 2 ed., p. 12, sq. " Seek to discover the real meaning 
of your author by the use of all proper means at your command ; lend him nothing 
that is yours, but take nothing from what is his. Never insist upon what he should 
say, but never be alarmed at what he does say." — Riickert (see Rheinwald, Repert, 
1839, 5. p. 97). Comp. Kling in Stud. u. Krit, 1839. Bengel cries to the expositor 
of the Scriptures, in similar language, " Non timide, non temere," and adds the 
counsel, " Te totum applica ad textum et totum textum applica ad te." 



240 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

in both a moral and a scientific light. But is it satisfactory? 
Does not the ultimate and really scientific profit consist 

A religious dis- . „ . ■, ^ t-t it t 

position essen- m transformmg whnt learned mdustry has discovered 

Tightinterpre- ^^^^ ^ possession of the mind? Why concern myself 
tation of the about an author who is nothing to me, and who confers 
^^^^^' nothing upon me, and with whom I am not inwardly 

conscious of being in any wise connected ? As only a poetic intel- 
lect is capable of interpreting a poet, so is a religious disposi- 
tion the only one that can apprehend and understand a religious 
writer, or, more particularly, only a Christian intellect can cor- 
rectly render a Christian author. And as the letters of an ab- 
sent member of the family are understood in their profoundest 
meaning at home, while the stranger finds in them a mere surface 
matter too tedious for consideration, so is it with these writings of 
^ .... the sfift conferred by love divine.' The exegete will 

The spirit of * -^ • i • i 

the true exe- accordingly rcA^eal the bottom of his heart m the man- 
^®*®* ner in which he explains his author, and his subjectivity 

will be a disturbing element so long only as it remains out of har- 
mony with the key tone of the spirit of the Bible. ^ This does not 
imply that the exegete must, from the first, make an unconditional 
surrender of his own thoughts. He should retain suflScient men- 
tal independence and freedom from prejudice to properly esti- 
mate the personal peculiarities of his author, and whatever may 
belong to his individual culture, his relations to his age, etc. He 
may, in one respect, occupy a position above his author, while in 
another he must be subordinate to him. Here, too, a living inter- 

' " Verily I say unto you that Lord Byron would, with a scanty knowledge of the 
Hebrew language, have given a rendering of the chief penitential psalm of David 
(the fifty-first) superior to that of many of the most celebrated grammarians." Um- 
breit (Review of Tholuck's Comment zu d. Psalm^en^ in Stud. u. Krit.^ 1845, 1, p. 
111). 

2 " He who lacks a profound apprehension and a living conception must, with every 
degree of technical skill for interpreting Nature or the holy Scriptures of the New as 
well as the Old Testament that he may possess, remain a bungler who gnaws away at 
the shell and never penetrates to the intellectual heart in which the idea sparkles in 
its everlasting truth." Umbreit in Stud. u. Krit.., 1832, No. 3, p. 656. Usteri ( Comm. uber 
d. Brief, an d. Galater, p. vi) expresses a similar opinion : " It appears to me that the 
grammatico-historical principle is merely the conditio sine qua non, or the negative rule 
of interpretation ; the positive task of the exegete seems to me to require, so to speak, 
that he should sink himself wholly into the spirit of the author, in order that the 
picture drawn in the Scripture, with its accessories of time and place, may afterward 
be held up before the reader's eye in the light of his researches in language and 
matters of fact." Comp. Billroth, Comm. r,u d. Briefen a. d. Corinther., p. v. ; Liicke 
in Stud. u. Krit, 1834, 4, pp. 769-71 ; Schleiermacher, Herm., p. 50; Bunsen, (rO« in 
d. Geschichte., p. 122, .'iqq. ; Krauss, supra. 



THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. 241 

action, a sympathetic yielding to the spirit of the work, and an 
incorporation of the results of the inquiry with what before existed, 
are needed to further the exposition/ It is apparent, as a general 
truth, that exegesis is not finished at one effort. He who complete exe- 
reads an author for the tenth time, and the hundredth ^®f^ ^®.p!:°^: 

' ent on spintual 

time, will explain him otherwise than he who reads but growth. 
once.^ Such multifarious intellectual activity in the work of exegesis, 
such harmonizing of the grammatico-historical with the higher, ideal, 
and sympathetically religious interpretation, has been termed panhar- 
monic interpretation, (Germarus), and subsequently the name pneu- 
matic has come into favor (Beck). The word is of no importance; 
but our age largely feels and acknowledges that while the human 
standpoint must be retained in the explaining of the human ele- 
ment in the Scriptures (which will ever be the necessary barrier 
against all the perversions of superstition), the Holy Spirit himself 
must in the final instance be the real interpreter of his words, the 
angelus interpres who opens for us the meaning of the Bible. ^ 

SECTION XX. 
THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. 

The application of the Scriptures finally should carefully be 

distinguished from both the interpretation and the 

P . . . ^ . Scnpture,when 

exposition ; for while it is based upon the former, it interpreted, to 
yet belongs, according to its nature, to a different de- appiied^^*^^^^^ 
partment — the practical. 

The holy Scriptures were at first explained for devotional pur- 
poses — the Old Testament by the writers of the New, and both 
the New and the Old by the Church fathers, although some among 
the latter already began to distinguish between practical and sci- 
entific exposition. It is still the office of exegetical study to pro- 
duce fruit for the benefit of the Church, of the exegesis of the 
schools to serve the exegesis of the pulpit, a principle practical exe- 

often overlooked from a spirit of scientific supercilious- gesis the re- 
t:» . • • . • /• • . -.IP/- ,1 suit of the sci- 

ness. i3ut IS scientmc exegesis to govern itseli from the entiflc. 

^ So Liicke also speaks of a mental disposition on the part of the exegete to im- 
met'se himself in, and to emerge from, the spirit of the work he seeks to explain 
Comp. Herm. Sehultz, Uber doppelf., Schriftsinn, {Stud. u. Krit., 1866, 1, p. 37). 

^ Thus Luther boasts that he had read the Bible through twice a year for several 
years, and that he had each time beaten off a few more fruits from its branches and 
twigs. 

^ Accopding to Luther (comp. Liicke's Supplement to Neander in his N. T. Herme- 
netitik), or, according to Flaccius, "In order that God himself should remain the 
supreme Lord and Judge in all controversies and debated questions." In Pelt, p. 
175. 

16 



243 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

outset by the demands of the pulpit, so as to accept from the start 
the idea that the interpretation which will best promote the work 
of edification is the true one ? Or is a special kind of interpreta- 
tion (with Kant '), the churchly-practical (or, in his language, the 
moral), to be established beside the scientific in such a way that both 
shall remain independent of each other ? Neither of these. Prac- 
tical exegesis must result from scientific, and a conscientious 
preacher will present no interpretation to the people which cannot 
be scientifically justified. Such an interpretation could lay no 
claim to the title " moral," but would be thoroughly immoral, like 
every thing that is not of the truth. The preacher should, how- 
ever, bring the truth of Scripture to bear in every direction 
upon the religious needs of the age and congregation. He should 
Process by eliminate, from the immediate surroundings in which 
r^mad^^^ra^^ ^^ ^^ found by the exegete, the passage of Scripture 
ticai. upon which his remarks are based, and without doing 

violence to its original meaning, should endeavor, now to generalize 
its teaching, and again to apply it to the most individual and spe- 
cial matters, so as to transform what is outwardly and historically 
given into a picture of inward states, and into an exponent of the pres- 
ent situation; for w^hat was said to the Churches at Rome, Corinth, 
Philippi, etc., is still said by the Spirit to the Churches of to-day. 

It would, however, be a serious confounding of different de- 
partments for scientific exegesis to apprehend the statements im- 
mediately in their subjective application to human conditions," as 

^ Religion innerhalh d. Grenzen d. hlossen Vernunft, Konigsb., 2 ed., 1794, p. 158, 
.sqq. ; per contra^ Rosenmiiller's B'emerkiingen^ Erl., 1794. 

'^ This applies especially to the Old Test., Avhere it is the task of exegesis to appre- 
hend the writer from out of his own age, and to comprehend even the so-called Mes- 
sianic sections in their immediate historical surroundings. While it furnishes the 
threads which lead over into the New Test., it must yet refer their connection to other 
'branches, and never should " Old Test, exegesis in its known scientific and artistic 
limitations be confounded with the retrogressive Christian inquiries which have their 
starting-point in the New Testament," (Umbreit, supra, against v. Meyer and his 
school). A different view in Kurtz, Gesch. des Alien Bundes, p. 8 : " The nature of 
prophecy is entirely misunderstood when its principal importance is found in the 
service it renders to Christianity — in which, of course, all prophecy comes to its ful- 
filment — by attesting its divine origin. Christianity would be in an unfortunate pre- 
dicament, were it still unable to dispense with the attestation derived from the actual 
fulfilment of predictions, and it would be even worse for prophecy were it to remain 
without meaning and significance until hundreds or thousands of years should have 
passed away. Prophecy is designed — every other signification is secondary and sub- 
ordinate to this — to open up the understanding of the present, its position and its duty, 
not only the immediate present in which it was first given, but also everi/ subsequent 
present (?) to the extent to which the latter has substantially the same basis, the same 
needs, and the same task." 



RELIGIOUS EARNESTNESS IN EXEGESIS. 243 

the preacher is authorized to apprehend them, or for the preacher 
to timidly content himself with the most immediate and apparent 
meaning of the letter.* The scientific expositor may likewise 
explain the writer to the edifying of his hearers; but this is assur- 
edly not done by entering upon edifying observations, or by con- 
structing a patchwork of passages taken from ancient and modern 
ascetics. He must rather proceed by a quiet stating and unfolding 
of the sense of Scripture which confines itself within self-imposed 
limitations, and in this he resembles and excels the mathematician, 
who is able, by the cogency of his proofs, even to excite the feelings 
of persons who attentively follow his demonstration. Hints rela- 
ting to the further practical development may be given in connec- 
tion with scientific exegesis,'^ but the practical work, in the proper 
sense, and for homiletical j)urposes, belongs to practical theology. 
It follows, accordingly, that interpretation, exposition, and appli- 
cation, reach over into a further theological field, the interpreta- 
tion into history, exposition into dogmatics, and application into 
practical theology. 

SECTION XXI. 

THE METHOD OF APPLYING EXEGESIS. 

In the carrying forward of exegesis it may be handled either 
cursorily or statedly. Both modes of instruction are to be united. 
The use of learned commentaries will be of real value coj^mentaries 
to him only who has tried his own powers in the way not to be too 
of exposition ; for too many aids rather confuse than 
guide aright, and the beginner needs to be on his guard against 
reiving upon the authority of others as greatly as against a mis- 
taken striving after originality. A moral and religious earnest- 
ness when approaching the holy Scriptures, and a mind decidedly 
devoted to the cause of the Bible and Christianity, will be the 
most efficient aids to preserve him from error and to secure that 
self-renunciation without which no work of real greatness can be 
accomplished. 

^Rosenkranz, Encykl, 1 ed., p. 125: "The distinction between popular and scien- 
tific exposition lies in the reference to the original limitation of the sense. The 
former must be governed by the principle of treating the sense of Scripture in as 
fruitful and manifold a way as is admissible : it may freely make every addition to 
the text that it will bear, avoiding only what is strained and directly perverted. The 
latter, on the other hand, is to ascertain the sense of Scripture which it was origin- 
ally designed to bear." Comp. Vinet, Homiletics, pp. 146, ff., who distinguishes 
between amplification and paraphrase, so that the former would be suitable for prac- 
tical use, but not the latter. Comp., too, Hagenbach, Pref. to Festpredigten, Basle, 
1830, ix-xi. 

' De Wette, Prakt. Erkldrung der Psalmen. 



244 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Before entering upon theology the student should have read his 
Bible through many times, and especially the New Testament, 
while the more important parts should, have been perused in the 
dent's ^i'ig^"^l- Private reading should be also regularly 
self-training in continued while the course of theological study is pur- 
exegesis. sued ; for we are to live in the Scripture, as it were to 

arise and lie down in it. Thus only can we receive living impres- 
sions from it; while if it be regarded solely as the object of purely 
scientific inquiry it will remain external to our minds, and not be 
inwardly assimilated with our being. Let, furthermore, the thought 
be banished, that it is necessary from the beginning to intrench 
one's self behind a wall of commentaries. This has the appearance 
of greater thoroughness than is warranted by the truth, and it often 
becomes impossible to see the forest because of the mass of trees. 
It is better to practice the writing of translations of the section to 
be explained, and it may be well even for instructors to precede or 
follow their expositions with an English or Latin translation. 
The latter will be more suitable in proportion as the version par- 
takes of the nature of a paraphrase, the former {i. e., the writ- 
ing by the student,) as it is confined to a mere verbal rendering, 
which itself needs further explanation. It will be also useful to 
look up and compare the parallels adduced in connection with 
the lecture, and carefully to compare the quotations in the New 
Testament from the Old with the original and the LXX. before 
entering upon the use of commentaries. It is a grave error to 
suppose that the task of exegesis is confined to the selection of one 
from among the different versions which already exist, rather than 
to engaging in personal investigation and examining with an inde- 
pendent eye.^ 

When, however, additional helps are employed it will still be 
Additi advantageous to consult those chiefly which, after the 

1 ^^s to self- manner of the scholiasts, afford grammatical and Ijis- 
training. torical aid (Schoettgen, Lightfoot, Grotius, Wolf, Ben- 

gel), and only subordinately those which develop the writer's train 
of thought in his peculiar fashion.'^ The latter should form the 

^ In harmony with this, Melanchthon, Postillell, 626, ah-eady counsels, " Amate doc- 
triham et scripta Pauli et saepe legite ; id magis proderit, quara si legatis magnos 
acervos commentariorum. Qui ordinem observat in Epistolis Pauli et saepe relegit, 
plus discit, quam qui multos evolvit commentarios." Gaussenius, diss. 1, p. 26 : 
" Atque illud est, quod soleo studiosis usque ad fastidium ineulcare, ut ad commen- 
tarios non adeant, quin prius illis aqua haereat neque ultra possint in loci examine 
proprio remigio pergere." 

^ " Caeterum, cum commentarios dico, eos intelligo, qui scripturam brevibus ad 
seusum literalem accommodatis observationibus illustrant ; non qui occasione scrip- 



HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION. 245 

crown of the industrious research. On the other hand, the false 
ambition to construct new and independent expositions will be less 
prevalent where the number already extant is not known (if 
known it could now excite nothing more than a desire to add an- 
other one to the many already in existence), and the confirmation 
given by an approved exegete, who is afterward consulted, to the 
results obtained by our own independent effort, will only serve to 
increase our satisfaction. This does not mean, however, that in 
every instance the support of some learned authority is necessary 
to warrant confidence in the explanation arrived at by independent 
effort; for we must, as Protestants, admit that hew expositions, 
that is to say, such as are more thoroughly sustained by the lan- 
guage and historical data, are always possible, in proportion as 
philology and historical studies advance among us, although dis- 
trust of our own powers of observation, which cannot be too 
highly recommended, should lead us in such matters to apply the 
strictest and most searchinoj tests. In this regard, too, a straig^ht- 
forward, simple disposition is often able to discover the best 
method.^ Woe to him who converts the Bible into a medium for 
exhibiting his vanity ! To him truth in its pureness will certainly 
not be disclosed, even though he should succeed in extracting some 
particulars which cover him with an ephemeral distinction. But 
blessed is the exegete by whose side, as by that of the picture of 
St, Matthew, the evangelist, the angel stands with a face of infan- 
tile innocence and unprejudiced acceptance of the truth! 

Sketch of the History of Interpretation. 

Comp. Diestel, s^ipra. 

The exposition of the Bible, as has already (sec. xx) been remarked, 

was at first intended to meet a practical want. It was j^rst exposi- 

of primary importance to master the contents of the sa- ^^n^ ^whoJi^ 

cred books. To settle their original form, and distinguish practical. 

turae suas, quas locos communes vulgo vocant (ihre Dogmatik) in medium protru- 
dunt, quibusque adeo libri sacri non tarn sunt commentariorum argumentum, quara 
praejudiciorum loci quidam atque indices." — Gaussenius 1, 1, p. 21. 

' " Certe, quemadmodum vina, quae sub primam calcationem moUiter defluunt, sunt 
suaviora, quam quae a torculari exprimuntur, quoniam haec ex acino et cute uvae 
aliquid sapiant, similiter salubres admodum et suaves sunt doctrinae, quae ex Scrip- 
turis leniter expressis emanant, nee ad controversias . . . trahuntur." — Baco Verul. 
de augraentis scientiar. IX, p. 488. Sam. Werenfels, in the Dissertation mentioned 
below, likewise warns against those who rather seek their argutiolas, allegoriolas, 
allusiunculas, etc., in the Scriptures than the direct and simple meaning. The sim- 
ple lay-mind occasionally finds the true goal more readily than the vision of the 
learned exegete befogged with the vapors of the school. 



246 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

the consciousness of the time of their origin from that of a later 
period was reserved to become the task of a subsequent reflective 
age. (Comp. Rothe, Zmv Dogmatih, p. 186, sqq.) But after the 
Jews, particularly those of Alexandria, became acquainted with 
the wisdom of the Greeks, they were, above all, concerned to show 
that the divine, with which they believed themselves here also to 
be in contact, was grounded in the Scriptures, and to discover the 
germs of a profound gnosis beneath its humble guise ; on the other 
hand, their Palestinian brethren held fast to the historical inter- 
pretation. The former tendency led to the allegorical method,* 
Rise of the which must be regarded as a stage in the natural de- 
an egoricai velopment of the history of Bible exposition, rather 
terpretation!"^' than as the arbitrary invention of certain persons. 

When Christianity had been introduced into the world, and the 
prophecies and expectations of former times had thus been realized, 
it was natural that an age, yet wholly under the influence of the 
mighty impression which the appearance of Christ had left behind, 
should find the Messiah everywhere in the Old Testament, and 
should discover traces of his beinp^ in the most incidental matters. 
"The brighter and more glorious the light which Jesus shed over 
the Old Testament at large and as a whole, for the Israelites who 
had learned to believe in him, the more confident were they that 
every particular in the sacred book, however dark, would receive 
light from the same source." (Rothe, p. 196.) Every red cord 
became a type of the blood that was shed, and every thing that 
even remotely resembled a cross was held to prefigure the cross on 
Calvary. (Comp. Barnabas, Justin Martyr, et al.) This was the 
case even before Origen (f A. D. 254). He was not the discoverer 
Origeu the of the allegorical interpretation, but the first among 

chief of the al- Qj^ristians '^ to raise it into a canon, and to assign to it 
legoncal inter- ^ , ' ® . 

preters. a place approved by science, beside the grammatico- 

historical method. The contrast between the allegorical and the 
grammatico-historical methods now became apparent, and Origen 
sought to harmonize this contrast.* He taught a threefold sense in 

^ The word aXTirj-yopelv^ from aA/lo and ayopeveiv, is found in Gal. iv, 24 (part): 
" The most hurtful diversion in this direction is the cabalistic interpretation, which, 
in the effort to find every thing in every thing, turns to particular elements and their 
signs." Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik, p. 23. It likewise originated among the Jews 
after the captivity (the book Sohar), and passed over from them to the Christian 
world. Comp. Z. Frankel, JEinJiuss d. Palaest. Exegese auf d. A lezandr. Hermeneutik, 
Leips. 1851, and Hirschfeld, J)ie Halachische Exegese, Berl. 1840 ; Die Hogedische 
Exegese, Berl., 1847. 

* Among the Jews, Philo had previously made a conscious distinction between the 
esoteric and the exoteric sense. 



MIDDLE AGE EXEGESIS. 347 

Scripture (answering to the body, soul, and spirit in man) — the 

literal, the moral, and the spiritual. Whatever cannot ^ . 

' ' ^ Ongens three- 

be justified by the letter, as derogatory to the honor fold sense of 

of God and the Bible, is to be explained allegorically. ^^^''^Pt'^^e. 

The anagogical and the tropological are related to the allegorical 

(with reference to which further particulars are given in connection 

with the history of herraeneutics). This Origenistic- Alexandrian 

hermeneutics was opposed in the fifth century, however, r^j^^ school of 

by the more sober school of Antioch, whose representa- Antioch. 

lives, as opposed to the fanatical Cyril, were Diodorus of Tarsus, 

Theodore of Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom, Ephraem Syrus, and 

Theodoret. 

From this time the historico-theological method, which had 

been employed at an earlier date, however, was cultivated side 

by side with the allegorical. Amon^ Latin teach- ^^ 

•^ .... The exegesis 

ers Jerome and Ambrose were distinguished in exege- of the Latin 

sis ; while Augustine owed his fame less to exegetical ^ ^^^' 
learning and precision than to the originality and depth of intel- 
lect with which he dominated his age. He, too, was partial to al- 
legorizing, and held to a fourfold sense in Scripture. Gregory the 
Great (f 604), the Bishop of Kome, was allied to Augustine. In- 
dependent research now gradually began to give way before the 
cmthority of the Church, and in proportion as people became accus- 
tomed to believe the Gospel through the Church, the traditional 
and churchly method of interpretation became general, and must 
be considered another stage in the development. Nearly all the 
expositors during the Middle Ages held to this method. Middle Age ex- 
Collections of what good things and less good things egesis. 
had been said by the Church teachers about the Scriptures (oelgai, 
catenae patrum) ^ constituted the generally accepted authorities ; 
and, besides these, the mystics especially practised a fanciful alle- 
gorizing. 

The neglect of the study of the Bible and ignorance of the orig- 
inal languages deprived scholastic theology of an assured Scrip- 
tural basis. Importance attaches, however, to the Jewish Old Testa- 
ment exjoositors in the Middle Ages, especially after the eleventh 
century, e. g., the rabbins Jarchi, Aben Ezra, David and Moses Kim- 
chi, Maimonides (R. Mose Ben Maimon, abbreviated Rambam), 
and others. Christian exegesis likewise began to appear after the 
study of Hebrew had been renewed among Christians through the 
influence of Nicholas Lyra (f 1340), Laurentius Yalla (f 1457), and 
Reuchlin (f 1522), and after the spread of Greek literature conse- 
^ On these exegetical collections see Herzog, Encykl., iv, p. 282, sqq. 



248 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 

quent upon the capture of Constantinople (1453). The stability of 
a traditional and Church interpretation, and the arbitrariness of a 
fanciful allegorical method, were again threatened by a sober, taste- 
ful, and philologically grounded exegesis as developed by Erasmus, 
which was adopted by the more intelligent minds of the century; 

but a still broader rans^e was ffiven to exep:esis by the 
Effect of the . tit t • 

Reformation Reformation. Luther directed attention to the deeper 

on exegesis. elements of the Scriptures, and prepared the way for 
the spiritualizing (pneumatic) mode of interpretation. His posi- 
tion as a translator of the Bible for the people is unique (Comp. 
note 9, infra. — Drs. M. Lutheri exegetica opera latina, curaverunt 
J. M. Irmischer et Hy. Schmidt, vol. xxii, Francof., 1860); but it 
should be remembered that he was aided by the more exact lin- 
guistic learning of Melanchthon and others. Zwingle, whose clas- 
sical training was of great value to him, proceeded with a more 
measured pace; but Calvin (see Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part 2) 
was distinguished above all others for exegetical keenness and pre- 
cision. His pupil, Theodore Beza, proved a not unworthy associate 
in this work. 

The study of the Holy Scriptures was prosecuted, upon the 

whole, more generally in the Reformed Church than 
Reformed ' & j 

and Lutheran in the Lutheran, the latter giving larger attention 
exegesis. ^^ systematic theology; and Lutheran exegesis, more- 

over, again became dependent on the confessional teaching of the 
Church, thereby contradicting the principles of Protestantism; "for 
it is a fundamental proposition in the writings of the reformers 
that the interpretation of the Scriptures is independent of the dic- 
tum of the Church and of all human authority whatsoever." (Clau- 
sen, IlermeneutiJc, p. 230.) The orthodoxy of the Reformed 
Churches likewise was exposed to the danger of establishing a 
The Remon- ^^^^^^^^ exegesis ; but the Remonstrants (Arminians) 
strants — Gro- who had come out of the Reformed Church, and among 
them especially Grotius, advocated the grammatico- 
historical principle, though often with a regard for facts that was 
but one sided. In opposition to that principle Cocceius defended 
the doctrine that a pregnant meaning lies everywhere in the Scrip- 
tures, which was applied with special fulness in the search for Mes- 
sianic features in the Old Testament. Sam. Werenfels, on the 
other hand, developed very sound hermeneutical principles in his 
Ernesti there- ^'^^^ ^^ scopo interpretis^ printed in the Opuscula. 
storer of sound Ernesti (f 1781 ) is regarded in the German Lutheran 
exegesis. Church as the restorer of a grammatical and historical 

method of interpretatwa, independent of dogmatics. The adher- 



DE WETTE, GESENIUS, AND WINER. 249 

ents of this method continually increased in numbers; it recom- 
mended itself to the spirit of the times, which yearned for emanci- 
pation from the yoke of orthodoxy. That spirit itself, however, 
succeeded only too speedily in enlisting the services of exegesis in 
its own behalf, and proceeded to vaunt its expositions Riseof neoioo-- 
as timely in proportion to their shallowness. Neology icai exegesis. 
— whether because it retained a remnant of respect for the author- 
ity of Holy Scripture, or because of fraudulent intentions — had 
long accustomed itself to find its system taught in the Bible. 
Miracles and mysteries, a number of which had been unnecessarily 
explained into the Bible by a former age, were now explained out 
of it and interpreted away by every conceivable art, often in oppo- 
sition to the most explicit language. The rationalists were not 
alone liable to this charge, however, for the supernaturalists, acting 
in the interests of apologetics, understood how to fit much of the 
Bible to their views, and in point of fact taught the rationalists this 
lesson (false and impracticable attempts at constructing harmonies). 
Kant endeavoured to restrain such indecorous behav- Kant's separa- 
iour by severing scientific (theological) from practical IcTroiB^etwcai 
(ethical) interpretation. The Church, however, could exegesis. 
not long support this unnatural separation, which, as has already 
been observed, even depends upon an immoral principle. The age 
strove to effect a reconciliation between science and life. The 
rationalistic school was purged by the influence of thorough exe- 
getical studies, and the loose methods of procedure in vogue were 
ended by a thorough philological discipline, such as Rise of the 
De Wette and Gesenius introduced in the Old Testa- ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^l 
ment field, and Winer in the New. The conflict of senius. 
parties was relegated to the domain of dogmatics and the philoso- 
phy of religion, and the territory occupied by exegesis became 
neutral ground. The neutrality could not, however, be observed 
with entire strictness, for reasons developed above. The orthodox 
party again directed attention to the underlying sense of Scripture, 
which was not, however, to be ascertained by the setting aside of 
grammatical and historical facts, but by ascending to a loftier and 
more far reaching point of view. A glance over the exegetical 
literature of the most recent decades will, in fact, reveal a gratify- 
ing progress in this regard, even though there has been no lack of 
errors and deplorable lapses into the devious courses of former 
times. ^ 

' See articles on Interpretation in Kitto's Cyclopaedia, and the Biblical and Theo- 
logical Cyclopaedia of M'Clintock and Strong; also title "Interpretation," in Index 
of the Bibliotheca Sacra, p. 116. 



250 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

COMMENTAKIES. 

ON THE ENTIRE BIBLE. 

* Ch. K. Josias Bunsen, Vollstandiges Bibelwerk fiir die Gemeinde (Part L The Bible, 

translation and exposition ; Part 2. Bible records ; Part 3. History of the Bible). 
9 vols. Lpz., 1858-70. (Oomp. Bahring, Bunsen's Bibelwerk nach seiner Be- 
deutung fiir die Gegenwart beleuchtet, Lpz,, 1861). 2d ed. Lpz., 18*70. 

a. ON THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

* Kurzgefasztes exeget. Handb. zum A. T. Lpz., 1841 ff. (No. 1. the Minor Proph- 

ets, by Hitzig. 2d ed., 1852. 3d ed., 1863. 2. Job, by Hirzel. 2d ed., by Olshausen, 
1852. 3d ed., by Dillmann, 1869. 3. Jeremiah, by Hitzig, 1841. 2d ed., 1866. 
4. Samuel, by Thenius, 1842. 2d ed., 1864. 5. The Prophet Isaiah, by Knobel, 
3d ed., 1861. 4th ed., by L. Diestel, 1872. 6. Judges and Ruth, by Bertheau, 
1845. 7. Proverbs, by Bertheau, and Ecclesiastes, by Hitzig, 1847. 8. Ezekiel, 
by Hitzig, 1847. 9. Kings, by Thenius, 1849. 2d ed., 1873. 10. Daniel, by Hit- 
zig, 1850. 11. Genesis, by Knobel, 2d ed., 1860. 3d ed., by Dillmann. 1875. 
12. Exodus and Leviticus, by Knobel, 1857. 13. Numbers, Deuteronomy, and 
Joshua, by Knobel, 1861. 14. Psalms, by Olshausen, 1853. 15. Chronicles, by 
Bertheau, 1854, 2 Aufl., 1873. 16. Solomon's Song, by Hitzig, and Lamentations, 
by Thenius, 1855. 17. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, by Bertheau, 1862.) 
C. F. Keil and Fz. Delitzsch, Biblischer Commentar iiber das A. T.. I, II, 3 ; III, 1,4; 
IV, 1, 2. Lpz., 1863-1873. 

/?. ON THE NEAV TESTAMENT. 

J. Ch. Wolf, Curae philologicae et criticae. Hamb., 1741. 5 voll. 4. (Hamb. 1725- 
41.) Basel, 1741. 5 vols. 

* J. A. Bengel, Gnomon N. T. Tub., 1742-49, 1773. 4. 3d ed., by Steudel. Tiib., 

1855. Stuttg., 1860. 2 Bde. 
J. G. Rosenmueller, Scholia in N. T. Norimb., Ed. 1-4, 1777-94; ed. 5, 1801-7, 

5 voll; ed. 6, 1815-31. 
J. J. Stoltz, Erlauterungen zum N. T. fiir geiibte und gebildete Leser. Hannov. Nos. 

1-4. 1st and 2d eds., 1796-1800. 3d ed., 1806-9. Nos. 5, 6. (1799-1801.) 1802. 
J. B. Koppe, N. T. graece, perpetua ahnotatione illustratum. Gott., 1810-32, 1809-28. 

Various editions, 10 vols. The whole unfinished, confused in arrangement, and by 

diiferent authors : Heinrichs, Ammon, Pott, Tychsen. 
H. Olshausen, biblischer Commentar -iiber sammtliche Schriften des N. T. Fortges., 

von Ebrard und Wiesinger. Konigsb., 1830-62. I, II, 1-3 ; III, IV, V, 1, 2 ; VI, 

1-4 ; and VII. 

* Kurzgef asztes exegetisches Handb, zum N. T. von W. M. L. de Wette. Lpz., 1836- 

48. 3 Bde. in 1 1 parts. 

* H. A. W. Meyer, Das N. T. griechisch, nach den besten Hiilfsmitteln krit. revidirt, 

mit einer neuen deutschen Uebersetzung u. einem krit. u. exeget. Commentar. 

Gott., 1832. ff. 
C. G. G. Theile, Commentarius in N. T. (vol. xviii: Epist. Jacobi; vol. xiii: [auct. 

Holemann] Epist. ad Phillipp.) Lips., 1833, 1839. 
J. Ch. K. V. Hofmann, Die h. Schrift des N. T. zusammenhangend untersucht. Nord- 

lingen, 1862 ff. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 351 

y. COMMENTARIES ON PARTICULAR BOOKS (selected). 

1. Old Testament. 

1) Historical Books. 

Pentateuch: Vater (1802-5. 3 Bde.). Ranke (1834-40. 2 Bde.). Herheimer (1853- 
54. 3d ed., 1865). Baumgavten (1843, 2 vols.). Stahelm (1843). Hengstenberg, 
die Authentic des Pent. (2 vols., 1836, 1839). Graf, die Geschichtl, Biichei- des 
A. T. (1866). De Lagarde, Materiahen zur Krit. u. Geschichte d. Pent. (186*7). 
Noldeke, Untersuchung zur Krit. des A. T. (1869). Kayser, das vorrexil. Buch der 
Urgeschichte Israels (1874). Wellhausen, die Composition des Hexateuchs, (Jahr- 
biich. fiir deutsche Theol., 1876). A. Kuenen, (in the hoU. theol. Tijdsehr., 18'7'7). 
Ryssel (1878). Konig (1879). 

Genesis: Schumann (1829). v. Bohlen (1835). Theile (1836). Critical: Hengstenberg, 
(die Echtheit des Pent., 1836-39). Bleek, v. Bohlen, (in the Commentary). Ber- 
theau, (die 7 Gruppenmos. Gesetze, Gott., 1840). Stahelin (1830, 1843). Hupfeld 
(1853). Bohmer (1860-62). Schrader, Studien zur Krit. u. erkl. derbibl. Urgesch. 
(1863). Ewald (in the Einl. zur Gesch. des Volks Israel). Lengerke (in Kenaan). 
Calvin (ed. Hengstenberg, 1838). * Tuch (1838, 2d ed., by Arnold and Merx, 1871). 
Kurtz (1846). Sorensen (1851). * Knobel (1852; 2d ed., 1860). * Delitzsch 
(1851; 2d ed., 1853; 4th ed., 1872). Hupfeld (1853); in Lange's Bibelwerk (1864). 

Deuteronomy : Schultz (1859). Kleinert (1872). Riehm, die Gesetzg. Mosis im Lande, 
Moab (1854). Joshua: Maurer (1834). Keil (1847). Critical: Hauff (1843). 
Judges: Studer (1835). Bertheau (1845). Bachmann (1868). Ruth; Maurer, 
Bertheau (1845). 1st and 2d Samuel; Maurer and * Thenius (1842). Kings: 
Thenius (1849). 

Chronicles. Critical: Gramberg (1823). f Movers (1834). Bertheau (1854). De 
Wette, Beitr. zur Einl., 1., 1806; Keil, 1833; Movers, 1834. 

On the remaining historical books comp. Winer, Handbuch der Lit., p. 202, und Pelt, 
p. 196. 

Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther : Neteler (1877). Esther: Cassel (1878). 

2) Poetical Books. 

Luther's Psalmenauslegung. A Commentary on the poetical books of the 0. T., by 
Eberle. Stuttg., 1874-79. 3 vols. 

* Ewald, Die poetischen Biicher des A. T. 4 Bde. (Part 1 : General matter ; new 
ed., 1866. Part 2 : Psalms ; 3d ed., 1866. Part 3 : Job; 2d ed., 1867. Part 4: 
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and additions). Gott., 1839. (New ed. entitled "DieDich- 
ter des alten Bundes." Gott., 1854. 2d ed., 1866-67). 

Psalmen: Lutheri scholiae ineditae ed. Seidemann (1876). De Wette (4th ed., 1836, 
with translation; 5th ed., by G. Baur, 1856). Hitzig (1835; Psalmen iibersetzt 
und ausgelegt ; 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1863-65). Koster (1837). Tholuck (1843 ; 2d ed., 
1873). Vaihinger (1845; 2. Aufl., 1856). Lengerke (1847). Aigner (1805). 
Hengstenberg (2. Aufl., 1850-52, 4 Bde.). Ewald (see above). Olshausen (1853). 
Hupfeld (4 Bde., 1855-62 ; 2d ed., 1867-71, von Riehm). De Mestral (Tom. I, 
French, 1856). f Reinke (1857 ; 1. Die messianischen Psalmen; 2. 1858). De- 
litzsch (1859-60, 2 Bde. ; new ed., 1867). Bohl (12 messianische Psalmen, 1862). 

Job: Schultens (1737, 1748). Umbreit (2d ed., 1832). Hitzig (1874). Zschokke 
(1875). Ewald (see above). Practical : Tholuck (1 843). * Hirzel (1839 ; 2d ed., by 
Olshausen, 1852). Vaihinger (1842; 2d ed., 1856). Stickel (1842). Hosse (1859). 
*Schlottmann (1851). Magnus (1852). Hahn(1851). Metrical version, by Spiess 



252 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJSDIA. 

(1852). Hengstenberg (1856; a discourse). Elster (1858). Rohling (ISTQ). 

Ebrard (1858). Berkholz (1859). *Merx (1871). Zschokke (1875). Hansen 

(1877). Kemmler (1877). Rogge, (1877). Critical: Budde (1876). 
Proverbs: Kleuker (Salom. Schriften., 1777-85 ; 3 Bde.). Umbreit (1826). Schultens 

(1748). Gramberg (1828). L5wenstein(1838). Stier (1849-50). Bertheau (1847). 

Delitzsch (1873). 
Eeclesiastes : Umbreit (1818). Kleinert (1864). Bloch (1872> Veith (Koh. u. 

Hohes Lied, 1877). Kaiser (1823). Knobel (1836). Ewald (see above). Hitzig 

(1847). Elster (1855). Wangemann (1857; practical). Hengstenberg (1859). 

Hahn (1860). 
Canticles: Hengstenberg (1853). Meyer (1854). Friedrich (1855). Hitzig (1855). 

Holemann ("Die Krone des hohen Liedes," 1859). * Translation, by Th. Hirzel 

(1840-50). E.Renan (Par., 1860). Friedlander (1867). Altscliul(i874). Sachse 

(1875). Schafer (1876). Kampf (1877). 

3) Prophetical Books. 
Translations and introduction by Eichhorn (1816-19, 3. Bde.) by Fr. Riickert (1831, 1. 

Bd.). * Ewald, Die Propheten des A. T. (1840-41, 2. Bde. 2d ed., 3 vols., 1867). 

* Hitzig, Die Prophetischen Biicher des A. T. (Translation.) Lpz., 1854. 
* Praktischer Commentar iiber die Propheten d. A. T., by Umbreit. (1st vol., lesaiah, 

1842; 2d ed., 1846. 2d vol., Jeremiah, 1842. 3d vol., Ezekiel and the Minor 

Prophets (To Jes., Jer., Ez.), by Le Hir. (Par., 1877.) 
Isaiah: Gesenius (1821 ; trans. 2d ed. 1829). Hitzig (1833). Knobel (2d ed., 1854; 

3d ed., 1861). Hendewerk (1838-43, 2 vol). Drechsler (3 parts, 1844-57 ; Vol. 

n, 2 ; and HI, by Delitzsch and Hahn ; vol. I in 2d ed., 1865). Critical : M5ller 

(1825). Kleinert (1829, against Gesenius). Hengstenberg (Christologie des A. T. 

comp. lit. on § 62). Stahelin (Stud, und Krit., 1831, 3). Havernick (in Introduc- 
tion). Caspari (jesaianische Studien, in the Zeitschr. of Rudelbach and Guericke, 

1843, 2.) fSchegg (1850, 2 Bde.). Meier (1st Part, 1850). Stier (Jes. 44-66, 

kein Pseudo-Jes., 1850-51). Eljakim (Visions d'Esaie, 1854; French metrical 

version, with exposition), f G. Mayer (1860). Delitsch (1866; 2d ed., 1869). 
Jeremiah: Hitzig (1841 ; 2d Aufl., 1866). * Umbreit (Prakt. Commentar, see above). 

Nagelsbach (1850). Neumann (2 Bde., 1856-58). Graf (1862 and 1863). Scholz 

(der masor. Text u. die LXX-Uebersetzg des B. Jer., 1875). 
Lamentations : Hetzel (1854). Thenius (1855). Engelhardt (1867). Gerlach (1868). 
Ezekiel: Havernick (1843). Hitzig (1847). Kliefoth (1864-65). Hengstenberg 

(1867). 
Daniel: Bertholdt (1806-8, 2 Bde.). Havernick (1832). Lengerke (1835). Hitzig 

(1850). Auberlen (1854, having reference to the Apocalypse; 2d ed., 1856). 

Kranichfeld (1868). Fuller (1868). Mayer (1866). Kliefoth (1868). Critical: 

Ziindel (1861). Hilgenfeld (Ezra und Daniel, 1863). Caspari (1869). Rohling 

(1877). Doprez(Dan. and John, 1879). 
The Minor Prophets : * Theiner (1828). f Ackerman (1839). Hitzig (2d ed., 1852; 

3d ed., 1863). f Schegg (1854). Schr5der (Part I, 1829). Schher (2d ed., 1876). 
Hosea: Bockel (1807). Stuck (1828). Krappe (1836). De Wette (Stud, und Krit., 

1832, 4). Simson (1851). Kurtz (iiber Hos. I-HI, 1859). Wiinsche (1867-8). 
Joel: Credner (1831). Meier (1841). Wiinsche (1872). Karle (1877). Merx 

(1879). Amos: Vater (1810). G. Baur (1847). Obadiah: Hendewerk (1836). 

Caspari (1842). Jonah: Krahmer (1839). Jager (1840). Kaulen (1862). 

Micah: Caspari (1852). Reinke (1874). Nahum: Holeraan (1842). Strauss (1853). 

Habakkuk: Baumlein (1840). Delitzsch (1854). f Gumpach (1860). Reinke 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 253 

(1870). Haggai: Scheibel (1822). Kohler (1860). Reinke (1868). Zecbariah : 
Baiimgarten (" Nachtgesichte," 1854-55; new ed., 1858). Neumann (1860). 
Kliefoth (1862). Bradenkamp (18*79). Critical: Ortenberg (1859). Malachi: 
f Reinke (1856). Kohler (1865). 

2. New Testament. 
1 ) Historical Books (Gospels and Acts of the Apostles). 

Ewald, Die drei ersten Evangelien, iibersetzt und erklart. Gott., 1850. New ed. en- 
titled : Die drei ersten Evangelien und die Apostelgeschichte, 2 vols,, 1871-2. 

Baumgarten-Crusius, Exeget. Schriften zum N. T. Part I : Matth., Mark, Luc ; pub- 
lished by Otto, Jena, (1844). 

* Fr. Bleek, Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten Evangelien, publ. by Heinr. Holtz- 
mann, Lpz., 1862, 2 vols. 

Scholten, Das alteste Evangelium. Kritische Untersuchung, etc., der Evangelien nach 
Matthaus und Marcus. Transl. from the Dutch. Elberfeld, 1869. 

K. Wieseler, Beitr. zur richt. Wiirdig der Evv. und der evang. Geschichte. Gotha 
(1869). 

Matthew (comp. above) : f Mayer (1818). f Gratz (1821, 1823). * Baumgarten-Crusi- 
us (publ. by Otto, 1844). Critical; SiefPert (1832). Klenert (1832). Olshausen 
(1835; new ed. by Ebrard, 1853). Nabe (1837). Assmann (1874). B.Weiss 
(Matth. u. Lucasparal, 1876). Wiehelhaus (publ. by Zahn, 1876). Keil(1877). 
Zittel (Matth. u. Marc, 1880). Pract. : Dieffenbach (1876). Sommer (1877), and 
others. Comp. Baur, iiber die samratlichen Evangelien. Tiib., 1847. Wilke, der 
Frevangelist. Lpz., 1838. G. Miiller, die Entst. der 4 Evv. u. der Br. des Ap. 
Paulus. 2d ed., Berlin, 1877. G. Meyer, la question synoptique. Par., 1878. 
Pierre Victor, les evangiles et I'histoire. Paris, 1879. 

Mark : Keil (Mark u. Luc, 1879). Critical : Saunier (1825). Knobel (1831). Wilke 
(1837). Hilgenf eld (1850). Baur (1851). Klostermann (1867). f Schegg(2 Bdc, 
1869-70). Volkmar (1870). Weiss (1872). 

Luke: Bornemann (Scholia, 1830). Critical: Schleiermacher (1817, and in Sammt- 
lichen Werken), and in opposition, H. Planck (1819), f Schegg (3 Bde., 1861-65). 
Godet (French, 1871 ; German, 1862). Critical : Scholten (Het Paulinisch evan- 
gelic Leiden, 1870). 

John : * Liicke (Commentar iiber die Schriften des Johannes ; the Gospels in vols. 1 
and 2; Epistles, vol. 3; 3d ed., 1856; Apokalypse, Introd., vol. 4; 1, new ed., 
1851-52). Tholuck (7th ed., 1857). Baumgarten-Crusius (Theol. Auslegung der 
Johann. Schriften, 1 Bd., Evang. Johann., 1843). f Klee (1829). Herwerden 
(Holland, 1851). Lnthardt (1852 f., 2 parts ; 2d ed., 1875). Hengstenberg (1 861 f., 
2 parts). Ewald (1861 fF., 3 vols.) Baiimlein (1863). Godet (French, 1864 f.. 2 
vols.; 2d ed., 1876 f.; German, 1869; 2d ed., 1876-78). f Haneberg (publ. by 
Schegg, 1878). 

Acts of the Apostles : Heinrichs (N. T. Koppii, vol. III). Hildebrand (1824). Borne- 
mann (1848). Beelen (2 Tom., Lovan, 1850 f.). Stern (1872). Andrea (1876 
f., 2 parts). Schnecke];jburger (1841). Schwanbeck (1847). Baumgarten (1851- 
52, 2Bdc,2ded., 1859). Lekebusch (1854). Zeller (1854). Trip (1866). f Konig 
(1867). Oertel (1868). 

2) Pauline Epistles, and Epistle to the Hebrews. 

J. Calvin, Commentarii in omnes Pauli Ap. epp. atque in ep. ad Hebraeos, ad ed. R. 
Steph., accuratissime exscripti; ed. A. Tholuck. Hal., 1831. 2 voll. 



254 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

J. Calvin, Commentarii in epistolas N. T. catholicas, ad ed. R. Steph., accuratissime 
exscr.; ed. A. Tholuck. Hal, 1832. 

Baumgarten-Crusius, Exeget. Schriften zum N. T., vol. II (Rom., Gal., published by 
Kimmel, 1844 ff.). Vol. II, (Eph., Col, Philippians, Thess. ; published by Kimmel 
and Schauer, 1845-48). 

Epistle to the Romans :^' Tholuck (1824, 1828, 1831 ; 5th ed., 1856 ; with the result- 
ant dispute with Fritzsche). Flatt (Tiib., 1825). f Klee (1830). Benecke (1881). 
Ruekert (1831-39). Reiche (1833-34, 2 Bde.). Glockler (1834). Kollner (1834). 
Nielsen (1841 ; German by Michelsen, 1834). f Stengel (publ by Beck, 1836-46). 
Fritzsche (1836-43, 3 Bde.). Krehl (1845). Philippi (1848; 2d ed., 1856; 3d 
ed., 1866). Steinhofer (publ by Bock, 1851). Bisping (1855). Van Hengel 
(1854, 1859). Umbreit (on the basis of the 0, T., 1856). Th. Schott (1858). 
F. G. Jatho (2 Bde., 1858-59). Critical: Mangold (1866). Hebrew Version, by 
Delitzsch (1870). Diedrich (1873). Manoury (French; Paris, 1878). Godet 
(French, I, Paris, 1879). Rugge Holl, Romer und Cor., 1879). 

Epistle to the Corinthians: Neander (Ed. by Beyschlag, 1859). Burger (2d Epistle 
1859-60). Comp. Bleek, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1830-33, and Goldhorn in Illgeus 
Zeitschrift fiir hist. Theol 1840-42. On the 1st and 2d Epistle: Osiander 
(Stuttg., 1847 u. 1858). Van Hengel (1 Cor. xv; 1851). A. Maier (1857-65.) 
Kloppel (exeg. Krit. Untersuchung, on the 2d Epistle, 1869). 

Epistle to the Galatians : Schott (1834 ; with Thessalonians ; see above). Fritzsche (on 
single passages ; 1833-34). Hermann (do., 1834 ; comp. Schulthess, 1835). Mol- 
ler (1830, Danish), f Windischmann (1844). Hilgenf eld (1851). Muller (1853, 
1861). Jatho (1856). Wieseler (1859). Matthies (1865). Reithmayr (1865). 
Vomel (1866) Brandes (1869 ; New Titelausg., 1871). 

Bphesians: Harless (1834; 2d ed., 1858). Matthias (1834). Riickert (1884). Baum- 
garten-Crusius (1847). Stier (1848). Auszng. (1859). Schenkel (in Lange's Bi- 
belwerk, 1862; 2d ed., 1867) Bleek (publ. by Nitzsch, 1865). Ewald (Sieben 
Sendschreiben des N. B., 1870). Ernst (pract., 1877). Hahn (1878). Holtzmann 
(critical, 1872). Koster (Holl, 1877). Luther's Exegesis, by Eberle ^1878). 

Philippians: Rheinwald (1827). Flatt (Phil, Col, Thess., Philem., 1829). Matthies 
(1835). Van Hengel (1888). Rilliet (Geneve, 1841). Holemann (1839 ; comp. 
above). Baumgarten-Crusius (publ. by Schauer, 1848). Bruckner (1848). Wies- 
inger (Olshausen, v, 1, 1850). Weiss (1859). Schenkel (ubi supra). Jatho 1857), 

Colossians: Junker (1828). Bahr (1883). Bohmer (Theol Auslegung, 1835; 
Isagoge, 1829). Steiger (1835). Huther (1841). Dalmer (1858). Critical : Mey- 
erhoff (1838). Schenkel, ubi supra. Bleek (publ by F. Nitzsch, 1865). Thom- 
asius (Practische Auslegung, 1869). Holtzmann (critical, 1872 ; see above to 
Ephesians). 

Thessalonians: Schott (comp. Galatians). Pelt (1830). Baumgarten-Crusius (see 
Philippians). Koch (1849). Liinemann (see above). Auberlen und Riggenbach 
(see ab(5ve, Lange's Bibelwerk). 

Pastoral Epistles : Heydenreich (1826-28; 2 Bde.). Flatt (1837). Matthies (1840). 
f Mack (1836, 1841). Leo (on 1st and 2d Tim., 1837; 1850). Huther (1850). 
Wiesinger (1850). Ewald (Sieben Sendschreiben des N. B., 1870). Plitt (Prak- 
tische Ausleg., 1872). Bahnsen (2 Tim., 1876). Beck (2 Tim. ; publ. by Linden- 
meyer, 1879). Holtzmann (1880). Critical: Eichhorn (Einleit. ins. N. T.). Schlei- 
ermacher (against the authenticity of 1 Tim., 1807; per conti'a : Planck, 1808, 
und Wegscheider, 1810). Ferd, Baur (1885; denying authenticity in general). 
Defenders : Baumgarten (1837), and Bottger (1838 u. 1840). Baur in reply in the 
Tiib. Zeitschrift. Comp. Liicke in the Stud. u. Krit., 1830 ; 2 S., 422. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 255 

Philemon: Schmid (l^SG). Hagenbach (1829), ad fidem versionum oriental, ed. Peter- 
mann (1844). Demme (1844). Koch (1845). Wiesinger (1850). Kiihne (1852 
ani 1856, 2 vols., Bibelstunden.) Bleek (by F. Nitzsch, 1865). 

Hebrews: Morus (1786). Storr (1789, 1809). Dav. Schulz (1818). Bohme (1825). 
* Bleek (1828-40, 3 Bde., by Windrath, 1868). Kuinol (1831). Paulus (18?.3). 
Tholuck (3d ed., 1850). f Klee (1833). Stein (1838). Critical: f Stanglein 
(1835). Thiersch (1848). f Stengel (publ. by Beck, 1849). Ebrard (Olshausen, 
V, 2; 1850). Bisping (1854; 2d ed., 1864). Liinemann (1856 ; 2d ed., 1861; 3d 
ed., 1867). Delitzsch (1857). Riehm Lehrbegriff, 1858-59). Adalb. Maier (1861). 
Wieseler (Krit. Unters., 1861). Kluge (1863). Reiiss (French, 1862). Andrea 
(practical, 1866). Kurtz (1869). Ewald (Hebraer and Jacobus, 1870). Stier 
(1842 ; 2 vols.). Werner (1876). Biesenthal (1878). 

3) Catholic Epistles and Apocalypse. 

August! (Lemgo, 1801-8, 2 Bde.). f Nickel (1852). Grashof (1830). Jachmann (1838). 

Pott (X. T. Koppii, vol. IX). 

Ewald (Sieben Sendschreiben des Neuen Bundes. Gott., 1870. 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, 
Ephesians. Tim., Titus, Pastoral Epistles). 

f Bisping, Erklarung der sieben katholischen Brief e. 1871. 

Epistles of St. Peter : Steiger (1 Brief Petri, 1832). 1 and 2 Peter and Jude : Huther 
(1852; 2d ed., 1859; 3d ed., 1867). Critical: Mayerhoff (1835). In reply: 
f Windischmann (Vindiciae Petrinae, Ratisb., 1836). On 2d Ep. of Peter: Ull- 
mann (1821). Dietlein (1855). Wiess (1855). Wiesinger (1862; in Olshausen). 
Schott (1 Petri, 1861 ; 2 Petri und Juda, 1863). Steinfass (2 Petri; 1863). 

Epistles of St. John: Liicke (3d ed., 1856, by Bertheau). Paulus (Die 3 Lehrbriefe, 
des Joh., 1829). Rickli (Predigten iiber 1 Joh. ; Luz., 1828). Mayer (1851). 
Wolf (1851). Neander (1851). Sander (1851). Diisterdieck (1852-56). Huther 
(1856; 2d ed., 1861, in Meyer). Erdmann (Primae Joh. ep. argument, nex. et 
consil. 1855). Haupt (Der Erste Brief des Johannes, Colberg, 1869). Stock- 
raeyer (1873). Rothe (publ. by Miihlhauser, 1878). 

Epistles of James to Jude: Herder (Briefe zweener Briider Jesu, 1774), Scharling 
(1841). 

James und 1 Peter : Hottinger (1825). 

James: Schulthess (1825). Gebser (1828). Schneckenburger (1832). Theile (1833). 
Kern (1838). Jacobi (Predigten, Berl., 1835). Wiesinger (1854, in Olshausen). 
Huther (see above). Wold. Schmidt (Lehrgehalt, 1869). Blom (De Brief van Ja- 
cobus, critical, Dort., 1869). Ewald (Hebraer u. Jacobus, 1870). Weiffenbach 
(iiber Jac. ii, 14-26 ; Giessen, 1871). 

Jude: Stier (1850). Huther (see s. v. Epistles of Peter). Arnaud (1851). f Rampf 
(1854). 

Apokalypse: Tinius (1839). De Wette (1848; 2d ed., 1854; 3d ed., 1862). Heng- 
stenberg (1849-51, 2 Bde. ; 2d ed., 1861). Dressel (1850). Holzhauser (1850). 
Stern (1851). Ebrard (1858). Rink (1853). Auberlen (see Daniel). Bohmer (on 
the date of composition, etc., 1855). Graber (Hist. Erklarung, 1857). Stier (Re- 
den des Herrn Jesu, etc., 1859). Diisterdieck (see above). Bleek (publ. by Hoss- 
bach, 1862). Volkmar (1862). Kienlen (Paris, 1870). Fiiller (1874). Kliefoth 
(1874). Harms (2d ed., 1874). Burger (1877). L'Hote (French ; Paris, 1877). 
London, 1879). Kratzenstein (pract., 1879). 



2o6 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

L Cominentaries on the Wliole Bible. 

Bible Commentary, The. Explanatory and Critical. With a Revision of the Trans- 
lation, by Bishops and Clergy of the Anglican Church. Edited by F, C. Cook, 
M.A. lOvols., 8vo. New York, 1872-80. 

Calvin, John, Commentaries. 45 vols. Edinburgh : Calvin Trans. Society. 

Clarke, Adam. The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments. The 
Text carefully printed from the most correct Copies of the present Authorized 
Translation, including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts, with a Com- 
mentary and Critical Notes. 6 vols., 8vo, pp. 884, 829, 902, 865, 920, 1070. New 
York, 1832. 

Jenks, Wm. The Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Bible, containing the 
Text of the Authorized Version ; Scott's Marginal References ; Matthew Henry's 
Commentary, condensed, etc. 6 vols., supplement with Cruden's Concordance. 
Philadelphia, 1848. 

Lange, John Peter. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, Critical, Doctrinal, and 
Homiletical, with special reference to Ministers and Students. Translated from 
the German, and Edited with Additions, Original and Selected, by Philip Schaff, 
in Connection with American Divines of Various Evangelical Denominations. 25 
vols., 8vo. New York, 1865-78. 

Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the "Whole Bible. 3 vols., royal 8vo, pp. 1030, 
1008. New York, 1880. 

Whedon, D. D. A Commentary on the Old and New Testaments. Intended for 
Popular Use. 13 vols., 12mo. New York, 1866. (Old Testament not yet com- 
plete.) 

2. Commentaries on the Old Testament. 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament, and a Commentary on the 
Messianic Predictions. 4 vols., 8vo, pp. 523, 474, 410, 410. Edinburgh, 1854-59. 

Keil, C. F., and Delitzsch, F. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols., 
8vo. Edinburgh, 1864-78. 

3. Commentaries on the New Testament. 

Alford, Henry. New Testament for English Readers ; containing the Authorized 
Version, with a Revised English Text ; Marginal References, and a Critical and 
Explanatory Commentary. New ed., 4 parts, or 2 vols., 8vo, London, 1868. 

Barnes, Albert. Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the New Testament, Designed 
for Sunday-School Teachers and Bible Classes. 25th ed., revised and corrected. 
11 vols., 12mo. New York, 1859. 

Bengel, John Albert. Gnomon of the New Testament. 3d ed., 5 vols., Svo. Edin- 
burgh, 1860. Also 2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1874. 

Doddridge, Philip. The Family Expositor ; or, a Paraphrase and Version of the 
New Testament. 8vo, pp. 1242. London, 1829. New ed., 1862. 

Meyer, Heinrich August Wilhelm. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New 
Testament. From the German, with the sanction of the Author. 12 volumes, 
Svo. Edinburgh. Also, in preparation, an American edition in Svo. New York, 
1883. 

Olshausen, Hermann. Biblical Commentary on the New Testament. First American 
ed., by A. C. Kendrick, to which is prefixed Olshausen's Proof of the Gen- 
uineness of the Writings of the New Testament, translated by D. Fosdick, Jr. 
6 vols., Svo, pp. 621, 624, 615, 586, 624, 624. New York, 1858. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 2r,7 

Schafi, Philip. A Popular Commentary on the New Testament, by English and 
American Scholars of Various Evangelical Denominations. In 4 vols., royal 
8vo. Profusely Illustrated. New York, 1878. 

4. Commentaries on Particular Books. 
I. Old Testament, 
(a) Historical Books. 

Alford, Henry. The Book of Genesis and part of the Book of Exodus ; a Revised 
Version, with Marginal References, and an Explanatory Commentary. 8vo. 
London, 1872. 

Birks, T. R. The Exodus of Israel. Its Difficulties Explained and its Truth Con- 
firmed. 8vo. 1863. 

Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Genesis. Designed 
as a General Help to Biblical Reading and Instruction. 26th ed., 2 vols., 12mo, 
pp. XXXV, 838, 444. New York, 1863. Also on Exodus, Leviticus, Joshua, 
Judges, and Numbers, the whole with Genesis in 8 vols. 

Jacobus, M. W. Notes on the Book of Genesis. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 304, 256. 
New York, 1865. Also on Exodus. 

Murphy, J. G. A Critical Commentary on the Book of Genesis, with a Translation. 
With a Preface by J. P. Thompson, D.D. 8vo, pp. 535. ^ndover, 1866. Also 
on Exodus, pp. 385, and Leviticus, pp. 318, both 8vo. 

(b) The Poetical Books. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, Translated and Explained. 6th ed., 3 
vols., pp. xvi, 436, 349, 316. New York, 1866. 

Augustine. Exposition of the Psalms. Translated, with Notes. 6 vols., 8vo. Ox- 
ford, J. H. Parker, 1848. 

Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Illustrative, and Practical, on the Book of Job. 
With a New Translation and an Introductory Dissertation. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 
cxxvi, 311, 384. New York, 1857. New^ ed., 1881. Also on Psalms, 2 vols., 
12mo. 

Ewald, Heinrich. Commentary on the Book of Job. Translated from the German 
by J. F. Smith. London, 1882. 

Ginsburg, Christian. Coheleth, or Ecclesiastes ; translated with a Commentary. 8vo, 
London, 1857. 

Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentary on the Psalms. 4th ed., 3 vols., 8vo, pp. 539, 
479, 647. Edinburgh, 1860, Also on Ecclesiastes, with Appended Treatises ; 
8vo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1860. 

Hibbard, F. G. The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, with Historical Introduc- 
tions. 8vo. New York, 1856. 

Noyes, G. R. A Translation of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, with Explana- 
tory Notes. 12mo. Boston, 1846. Also a volume on the Psalms. Boston, 
1876. 

Perowne, J. J. Stewart. The Book of Psalms ; a New Translation, with Introduc- 
tion and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. New ed., 2 vols., 8vo. pp. 534, 477. 
Andover, 1876. 

Spurgeon, Chas. H. The Treasury of David : Containing Original Expositions of the 
Book of Psalms. 8vo, 7 vols. New York, 1880. 

Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 12mo, pp. 432. New 
York, 1852. Also on Ecclesiastes. 12mo. Andover, 1864. 
17 



258 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Tholuck, Augustus. A Translation and Commentary of the Book of Psalms, for the 
Use of the Ministry and Laity of the Christian Church. Translated from the 
German by J. Isidor Mombert. 12mo, pp. xv, 49V. Philadelphia, 1858. 

Umbreit, D. F. W. New Version of the Book of Job, with Expository Notes, 2 vols., 
12mo. Edinburgh, 1836-37. 

(c) Prophetical Books. 
Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated and Explained. 

2 vols., 8vo. New York, 1847. Revised ed., pp. 507, 482. 1869. 
Auberlen, Carl A. The Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John. Viewed 

in their Mutual Relation. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856. 
Barnes, Albert. Notes on Isaiah. 2 vols., 12mo. New York, 1881. Also on 

Daniel. 1 vol., 12mo. New York. 
Ewald, Heinrich. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament. Translated 

from the German by J. F. Smith. 5 vols. London, 1875-81. 
Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Books of his Prophecy. An Exposition. 2d 

ed., 8vo, pp. 512. Edinburgh, 1851. 

Jonah: Life, Character, and Mission. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1849. 

Hengstenberg, E. W. The Prophecies of Ezekiel, Elucidated. Translated by A. C, 

and J. G. Murphy. Svo, pp. 545. Edinburgh, 1869. Also on Daniel. 1 vol., 

8vo. Edinburgh, 
Moore, T. V. The Prophets of the Restoration ; or, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 

A new Translation, with Notes. 8vo, pp. vii, 408. 1856. 
Pusey, E. B. Daniel th<» Prophet. Nine Lectures delivered in the Divinity School 

of the University of Oxford. With Copious Notes. 2d ed., 8vo, pp. 755. Ox- 
ford, 1868. Also on the Minor Prophets. 4to. Oxford, 1871. 
Smith, R. Payne. The Authenticity and Messianic Interpretation of the Prophecies 

of Isaiah Vindicated, in Sermons before the University of Oxford. 8vo. London, 

1862. 
Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and his Prophecies. 12mo, pp. Ixxv, 614. Bampton 

Lectures for 1878. London, 1874. 

II. The New Testament. 

(a) Gospels and Acts. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Gospel According to Matthew, Explained. 12mo, 

pp. 460. New York, 1867. Also Mark. 1 vol., 12mo. New York, 1874. 
Baumgarten, M. The Acts of the Apostles ; or, The History of the Church in the 

Apostolic Age. From the German. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. 457, 459, 383. Edinburgh, 

1854. 
Gloag, P. J. A Commentary, Exegetical and Critical, on the Acts of the Apostles. 

Svo, 2 vols., pp. 439, 456. Edinburgh, 1870. 
Godet, F. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, with a Critical Introduction. 

From the French. 3 vols., pp. 462, 413, 366. Edinburgh, 1877. 
Hackett, H. B. A Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles. 

New ed., revised and greatly enlarged. Svo, pp. 480. Boston, 1866. 
Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 480, 

541. Edinburgh, 1865. 
Lisco, F. G. Parables of Jesus Explained and Illustrated. Svo, pp. 414. Edinburgh, 

1874. 
Ifaurice, Frederick Denison. The Gospel of St. John. A Series of Discourses. Svo. 

London, 1867. 



LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 259 

Nast, William. A Commentary on the Gospels of Matthew and Mark ; Critical, 
Doctrinal, and Homiletical, etc. 8vo, pp. 760. Cincinnati, 1864, 

Stier, Rudolph. The Words of the Lord Jesus. Translated from the Second Re- 
vised and Enlarged German Edition. 9 vols,, Svo, pp. -425, 429, 542. 484, 521, 
522, 513, 460, 505. Edinburgh, 1855-58. 

Tholuck, August. Commentary on the Gospel of John. Translated from the Ger- 
man by Charles P. Krauth. 8vo, pp. viii, 440. Philadelphia, 1859. 

Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. Translated from the 4th Revised 

and Enlarged German Edition by R. L. Brown. 8vo, pp. 451. Edinburgh, 1869. 

Tittman, K. C. Sacred Meditations ; or, an Exegetical, Critical, and Doctrinal Com- 
mentary on the Gospel of St. John. 2 vols., crown 8vo, pp. 398, 474. Biblical 
Cabinet. Edinburgh, 1844. 

Trench, Richard Chenevix. The Sermon on the Mount. An Exposition Drawn from 
the Writings of St. Augustine. With an Essay on his Merits as an Interpreter 
of Holy Scripture. 3d ed., enlarged. 8vo. London, 1869. 

Notes on the Parables and Miracles of our Lord. Svo. 2 vols. 1850, 1852. 

Studies in the Gospels. 8vo, pp. vii, 326. New York, 1872. 

Van Oosterzee, J. J. John's Gospel : Apologetical Lectures. Translated with Ad- 
ditions by J. F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. xiv, 256. Edinburgh, 1869. 

Vaughan, Charles J. Lectures on the Acts. Svo, 3 vols. London, 1864. 



(b) The Epistles and the Apocalypse. 

Adam, John. An Exposition of the Epistle of James, with an Appendix of Disser- 
tations. Svo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1867, 1871. 

Adams, Thomas. Commentary on the 2d Epistle of Peter. New ed., revised. Impe- 
rial Svo. London, 1862. 

Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Translated and 
Edited by John Owen. Svo, pp. 592. Edinburgh, 1849. 

Candlish, Robert. The First Epistle of John Expounded. 2 vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 
1870. Also on Ephesians. Ed. 1875. 

Chalmers, Thomas. Lectures on Romans. 4 vols., Svo. 1827. Edinburgh, 4 vols. 
12mo. 1854. 

Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Colos- 
sians. Svo, pp. xlvi, 303. London, 1856. Also on Thessalonians, Philippians, 
and Ephesians. 

Ellicott, C. J. Commentary, Critical and Grammatical, on St. Paul's Epistles to the 
Galatians. Svo, pp. 183. Andover, 1867. Also on Ephesians, Thessalonians, Pas- 
toral Epistles, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. 4 vols., Svo, Andover. 

Elliot, E. B. Horae Apocalypticae ; or, a Commentary on the Apocalypse, Critical 
and Historical, etc. New ed., 4 vols., Svo. London, 1869, 

Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. Greek Text and Expository Notes. 1 2mo, 
pp. ix, 451. 1876. 

Forbes, John. Analytical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, tracing the 
train of thought by Parallelism. Svo. Edinburgh, 1868. 

Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its Relation to the Doc- 
trine of the Gospel and Epistles of John. Translated from the German by J. S. 
Banks. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgh. 

Haldane, Robert. Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans, with Remarks on the 
Commentaries of Macknight, Stuart, and Tholuck. Svo, pp. 752. New York, 
1870. 



260 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Hengstenberg, E, W. The Revelation of St. John, Expounded for those who Search 

the Scriptures. Translated from the Original by Patrick Fairbaim. 2 toIs., 8vo, 

pp. 487, 508. Edinburgh, 1851-52. 
Hodge, Charles. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New ed., revised and 

in great measure rewritten. 8vo, pp. 716. Philadelphia, 1856. Also on Ephe- 

sians, 1st and 2d Corinthians. 3 vols., 12mo. 
Leighton, Robert. A Practical Commentary on the First Epistle General of Peter. 

With a Brief Memoir of the Author. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1864. 
Lightfoot, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. A Revised Text, with Intro- 
duction, Notes, and Dissertations. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 396. Andover, 1870. Also 

on Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. 2 vols., 8vo, New York. 
Lillie, John. Lectures on the Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians. 8vo, pp. 585. 

New York, 1860. Also on 1st and 2d Peter. 8vo, pp. xi, 536. New York, 

1869. 
Liicke, Fried. Commentary on the Epistle of St. John. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1837. 
Luther, Martin. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Svo, pp. 

575. New York, 1845. 
Neander, Augustus. The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. Practically Explained. 

Translated from the German by Mrs. H. C. Conant. 12mo, pp. xvii, 123. New 

York, 1851. Also on James and 1st John. 2 vols., 12mo. 
Pond, Enoch. The Seals Opened; or, The Apocalypse Explained. 12mo, pp. xi, 211. 

Portland, 1871. 
Robertson, Frederick W. Expository Lectures on First and Second Corinthians. 1 2mo. 

London, 1870. Also New York, 1881. 
Shedd, William G. T. A Critical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of 

St. Paul to the Romans. Svo, pp. 439. New York, 1879. 
Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians, with Critical Notes and 

Dissertations. New ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 356, 434. London, 1862. 4th ed., 

1876. 
Steiger, Wilhelm. Exposition of the 1st Epistle of Peter. Translated by Dr. Fair- 
bairn. 2 vols., 18mo. Edinburgh, 1836. 
Steward, George. The Argument of the Epistle to the Hebrews. A Posthumous 

Work. Svo. Edinburgh, 1872. 
Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 

3d ed. Edited and Revised by R. D. C. Robbins. 12mo, pp. 544. Andover, 

1851. New ed., 1876. 
Tholuck, Augustus. Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by 

James Hamilton. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 1842. New ed., 1869. 
Expositions of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans ; with Extracts from the 

Exegetical Works of the Fathers and Reformers. Translated from the Original 

German by Robert Menzies. 2 vols, Svo. Edinburgh, 1848. 
Trench, R. C. Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia. 12mo, 

pp. 312. New York, 1867. 
Vaughan, C. J. Lectures on the Revelation of St. John. 4th ed, 2 vols., Svo. 

London, 1875. 
St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. The Greek Text, with English Notes. 

3 ed., enlarged. Also on Philippians. 1 vol., 16mo. London, 1880. 
Wardlaw, Ralph. Lectures on Romans. 8 vols., Svo. London, 1861. 



SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 261 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 



J. G. Dowling, Introduction to the Study of Ecclesiastical History, London, 1838 ; H. J. Rov- 
aards, Oratio de theologia historica cum sacri codicls exegesi rite conjuncta, UtrecM, 1827 : A. P. 
Stanley, Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History. London, 1857. 

The scriptural material for history and doctrine, which is brought 
to light and restored to its pure state by exegetical theology, be- 
comes the very foundation of historical theology. The latter in- 
cludes both the biblical elements (Sacred History) and their devel- 
opment in the Church (Church History and History of Doctrines). 
It, accordingly, reaches back into exegetical theology, and forms, 
at the same time, the bridge for passing over into systematic 
theology. 

In contrast with modern encylopaedists, we prefer to separate 
exegetical from historical theology. But this is only relative. The 
work of the exegete is historical in the broad sense of searching for 
required sources ; but this is certainly a merely preliminary histor- 
ical task. The exegete may be likened to the miner Relations of 

who descends the shaft in order to bring; into the lig-ht ^^s*o™^\ ^^ 

& » exegetical the- 

of day the gold of pure scriptural truth, while the his- oiogy. 
torian resembles the artificer who melts the masses down, and gives 
them their form and impression. The process of separating the 
gold from the material in which it is held, e. g., the presentation of 
the body of doctrine apart from the ideas of the age in which it 
originated, is also the work of exegesis, although this constitutes the 
line at which exegetical theology transfers its material to historical. 
This, too, is the point at which the researches coincide which have 
generally been prosecuted in distinct and separate fields of inquiry. 
The exposition of the Gospels, for instance, is an exegetical, not a 
historical, task, while a critical representation of the life of Christ, 
upon the basis of the Gospel records, is a historical work, which 
the exegete will regard as the point at which his labours terminate. 
Here, as everywhere else, the one must aid the other. Historical 
theology extends likewise into the pre-Christian, or Old Testament, 
element. 



262 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Biblical archaeology is an important aid to exegesis, and, at the 
Biblical archae- same time, an historical science. The exegete needs 
oiogy related it in Order to understand the Bible, for which reason 
sis and churcii some acquaintance with this branch is to be required 
history. ^^^^ presupposed when he enters on his work. But in- 

asmuch as it is the task of history to represent the life and spirit 
of the Israelitish people, historical theology is also entitled to lay 
claim to the service of archaeology as a product of exegesis. Dis- 
putes of this sort about boundaries may, however, be reconciled 
very peaceably, and serve merely to prove the elastic nature of the 
organism of science.^ And while biblical archaeology, separately 
considered, has been treated in a former section as an exegetical 
aid, it will, on the other hand, be proper for us to class the biblical 
history as a whole — which, of course, involves the archaeology as 
well — with the general organism of historical theology. 

SECTION L 
SACKED HISTORY, 

Sacred history, like the Bible itself, is divided into Old and New 
The place of Testament, and constitutes the point of transition from 
sacred history, exegetical into historical theology. Hence, what has 
been said with regard to the Bible in general has its particular ap- 
plication to this subject. 

This is the place for historical criticism, involving not merely 
the question whether the book which claims to be a source is de- 
rived from the author in whose name it appears, but also the further 
inquiry whether the author, known or unknown, has aimed to write 
actual history, and in what way he has executed his plan. The 
propriety of historical criticism, when applied to the books of the 
Bible, is, doubtless, open to graver doubts from the standpoint of 
supernaturalism than criticism of the text. But the necessity for 
it will be seen in the fact, that we must guard against its abuse by 
recognizing the spirit and object of the Bible history, its super- 
human and divine plan, and its development under the conditions 
of time. He who derives his standard of measurement directly 
from the history of revelation itself, will naturally decide otherwise 
than will he who applies the foreign standard of ancient or modern 
wisdom. 

^ This, too, with reference to the reminders by Pelt (review of the 2d ed.), in 
Bruns and Hafner's Repertorium, xiv, 3, p. 268. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 263 

SECTION II. 
HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 

W. Hoffman, Die gottliche Stuf enordnuug im A. Test. Berl., 1854 ; tGfrorer, Urgeschichte des 
menschl. Geschlechts, SchafEhausen, 1855 ; Pressel In Herzog Encykl., xvii, p. 245, sqq., Art. Volk 
Gottes ; J. H. Kurtz, History of the Old Covenant, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1859 ; S. Sharpe, History 
of the Hebrew Nation and its Literature, London, 1872 ; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History 
of the Jewish Church, 3 vols., New York, 1866-77 ; H. H. Milman, History of the Jews, 3 vols.. 
New York, 1882. 

The history of the nation from which the Founder of Christianity 
came forth to be the Saviour of the world, is of equal value for the 
Christian theologian with the general study of the Old periods of He- 
Testament. The following are the periods of principal brew history, 
religious importance subsequently to the primitive period — from 
Adam to Abraham. 

1. The Patriarchal Age, being the period of the earliest revela- 
tion from God — from Abraham to Moses. 

2. The period of founding the theocracy and subduing the land 
by the theocratic leaders — from Moses to Samuel. 

3. The further development of this theocracy under the law, and 
the theocratical institutions of the priesthood, the sovereignty, and 
the prophetic order, considered both in their positive and their 
negative features — from Samuel to Solomon, and thence to the 
Captivity. 

4. The periods of disintegration under the influence of foreign 
rulers and foreign customs, and of transition to a new period dur- 
ing and after the Captivity. 

The history of Israel, in the strict sense, begins with the head of 
the race, and his emigration to Canaan. But the records of pre- 
Abrahamic times are included, as preliminary history, within the 
circle of Old Testament historical studies. The difficulties touched 
upon in exegetical theology, with reference to the age of the his- 
torical documents that have been preserved to our time, and their 
trustworthiness, are also felt in the historical treatment. The prin- 
cipal difficulties attach to the earliest periods. We have not hesi- 
tated to designate them as the time of the earliest ^.^ ,^ 

>=> , ^ Difficulty con- 

revelations, because we share, with Hauff,^ the convic- nected with 

tion, that a belief in revelation does not only admit of, ^^^ ^ ^^"° ' 
but absolutely requires, criticism of the historical books of the 
Bible. If the divine and the human, wonderfully interpenetrating 
each other, impress us anywhere, it is when we are meditating 
upon these oldest of all histories, for whose examination we need, 

^ Comp. his work, cited above, and the Introd., by K. A. Menzel, to his Staats u. 
Religionsgesch. der Konigreiche Israel u. Juda, Breslau, 1853, pp. 8f. 



264 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

in harmony with this thought, minds open to childlike conceptions, 
and religiously and poetically inclined, and a judgment and under- 
standing prepared for an unprejudiced investigation, and sometimes 
accessible, among other things, to historical discussion.^ Where 
either of these exists alone, where we apply only the belief in- 
stilled by the lessons of childhood, and seek to retain this in its 
naive directness at the cost of historic truth, or where, perverted at 

, the outset by the so-called modern enlightenment, we 

Necessity of -^ . . * . 

freedom from approach the sacred narratives in order to exercise our 
prejudice. pedantic skill upon them, the result will be that our 
judgment will be speedily formed, since we will either literally ac- 
cept every thing without examination, or reject every thing with- 
out understanding it. In no age has there been so much talk of 
myths as in our own. Every people, like every individual, has its 
childhood history, and we can no more expect to find purely histor- 
ical reminiscences without the golden thread of poesy, in the prim- 
itive history of nations in general, than we can suppose that the 
recollections of an individual can reach back with entire accuracy 
into the twilight in which poetry and fact are intermingled with 
each other.^ The important thing in this connection, is, that the 
ideas of legend and myth be clearly fixed. There is no need of be- 
ing frightened at a word. What does fiv'&og signify ? It is applied 
Meaning of *^ narrative and legend as well as to fable and poem, 
myth. g^t the ancients, already, distinguished between logo- 

graphs and mythographs,^ and modern science has in like manner 
distinguished between historical and philosophical myths (myths 
proper), so as to make the former actually historical legends (Xoyoi), 
even though conceived and developed in a poetic spirit, while the 
latter contain simply doctrines or views clothed in historic garb, or 
presented in the guise of history. It is a well-known fact that a 

^ Comp. Bunsen, Gott in der Gesch. (Part ii, Bibel, Leben, u. Weltgeschichte), p. 
101 : "I assert, that by its internal unity, and the truth of its monotheistic conscious- 
ness, this book (the Bible and its history) has controlled the consciousness of the 
world, including its noblest tribes, during many centuries ; it has realized the noblest 
hopes of mankind and authenticated its holiest anticipations, such as in moments of 
serious consciousness you feel arising in yourself." Also Pressel, supra: "If the 
gods of heathen nations are simply the reflection of the national spirit, Israel, on the 
other hand, is, in its character as the covenant people, an organ for the erection of the 
kingdom of God, a product of the grace of God." 

^ " Go back," says Herder, " in connexion with historical writings, to the infancy 
of the world, to the poverty and needs of the writers. In this poor hovel God dwells ; 
to this childhood the Father speaks." Theophron, Werke x, p. 317. 

2 See Creuzer, Hist. Kunst d. Griechen, (Lpz., 1803), pp. 40 and 1*73, where the 
ancients are quoted. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 265 

controversy exists as to whether historic facts or philosophical 
doctrines in natural history underlie heathen mythology itself. But 
the same question has been raised with reference to the Bible, and 
we are not at liberty to set it aside without investigation. The 
distinction between legend and myth is important even for the Old 
Testament history. The former is more nearly related to actual 
history than the latter ; for the legend, even when poetically col- 
ored, contains a historical kernel, while the kernel enclosed within 
the myth is always a dogma instead of history, a religious concep- 
tion in historic garb. The task of the historian will, accordingly, 
differ as he deals with myths or with legends. In the case of the 
myth, it is needful, from the outset, to ignore the historical germ, 

in the usual acceptation of the word, and to seize upon ^.„ 

^ , . ^ , Difference be- 

the dogmatic germ, which, indeed, presumes a recogni- tween myth 
tion of the historic state of things. In dealing with the ^^ ^^^^ ' 
legend, however, the attempt must be made to strip off the cover- 
ing which was gradually formed about the historic germ, and to 
extract that germ, so far as possible, from the enveloping shell. 
Some critics have gone to the length of including all the older his- 
tory of Israel among myths, so as to leave but little of the historical 
element beyond the theocratic idea that the Israelitish Israelites the 
nation was the people of God, and was described as people of God. 
such in a series of symbolical images.^ But even this extreme ap- 
plication of the myth idea is decidedly different from the ruthless 
transforming of the sacred histories into nature myths, which over- 
looks every religious feature, and by which we are asked, with 
Kork,^ to find astronomical emblems ; or, with Daumer and Ghil- 
lany,^ even the worship of fire and Moloch, in the purely human 
narratives of the Bible. 

Such unnatural mythologizing of history into nature, however, 
rectifies itself. The healthy historic spirit rejects it. But so much 
the more meritorious is the effort, made in the way above indicated, 
to distinguish between myth and legend by means of a thorough 
examination." If the results of such inquiries are not always at 

^ Thus de Wette, in his Beitragre. 

^ Vergleichende Mythologie, etc., Lpz., 1836, and several other works by this writer. 

^Comp. Rheinwald, Repertorium, 1844. Daumer has since done penance, however, 
and has " returned " into the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church. 

* George, Mythus u. Sage ; Vers, einer wiss. Entwicklung dieser Begriffe u. ihres 
Verhaltnisses zum christl. Glauben, Berlin, 1837. "Legend and myth diverge in 
different directions ; the former gives the appearance, and from this we argue back 
to the idea; in the latter, on the contrary, the idea is given, and the appearance is 
deduced therefrom." P. 11. On the distinction in certain cases, which is none the 
less relative only, and on the difficulty of always determining the character of a nar- 



2G6 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

once apparent, they yet lead into the right way, and toward the 
ultimate goal. It is not necessary that we should at once think of 
Poetry not ne- ^^'^^^ ^^^ deceit when poetry, especially of a religious 
cessariiy fraud sort, is mentioned. This is possible only to a worldly- 
wise, petrified understanding, which is incapable of 
suspecting the existence of any higher form of truth in poetry, 
while it is the special work of the latter to represent, if not bare 
and tangible realities, yet the highest form of truth.^ How^ever, the 
greatest prudence is necessary, on the other hand, and it is a question 
whether the word " myth," which always has a reference to the point 
of view occupied by heathenism, ought to have been transferred at 
all to the territory of the Bible.^ The theological standpoint is that 
which regards the Bible narratives as sacred history, as compared 
with profane. Every thing contained therein, whether it be poetry, 
tradition, or actual history, relates to a single grand idea, which 
creatively controls the whole, but which does not remain merely an 
Nature of bib- abstract theory, but moves through this history and be- 
Ucai narrative, comes concrete in it, celebrating its consummation at 
the end in the Revelations of the ISTew Covenant. The student who 
overlooks this feature misconceives the fundamental character of 
the history, whose peculiarity lies in the fact that this is not his- 
tory, whose limitations are fixed by its own nature, but, as one writer 
beautifully observes,^ it is " the history of God from a human point 

rative, comp. ibid., pp. 13, 14, With reference to the New Test., see 0. Bagge, Prin- 
cip. des Mythus im Dienst d. christl. Position, Lpz., 1865 ; comp. also Immer, in/ray 
p. 24 : " Myth and legend, often passing over into each other, have this in common, 
that both have sprung from the unintentionally poetizing spirit of the people, and 
contain, in confused mixture, both idea and history. If the two are to be distin- 
guished from each other, the myth will designate an idea that has become embodied 
history in the mouth of the people, and legend a history which has become involved 
with ideal elements in the fancy and traditions of the people." 

^ " The idea of the unconscious (naive) must necessarily be retained, unless it is de- 
sired to wholly abandon the ground of myths and legends." It is by this feature that 
that field is distinguished from that of "intentional deception and fiction." George, 
supra, P- 15 ; comp. also Hauff in the work referred to above, passim. It is, how- 
ever, apparent that the highest, i. e., the essentially religious, ideas, are represented 
precisely by myths (in case the designation be adopted), while the purely historical 
can claim to be religiously significant only in a secondary way. Comp. Genesis with 
the Books of Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Which is the more distinct- 
ively religious ? 

^ Comp. Schenkel, Dogm., i, p. 307, sq. (referring to Ewald). A similar idea holds 
true of the word oracle as applied to the prophets. The phrase " scriptural myth " 
has also been suggested, in order to avoid the analogy of the heathen myth. 

^ J. G. Mueller, Theophil, p. 246. August!, too, was accustomed to describe Israel- 
itish history as an aira^ leyofievov in the history of the world. Hegel entertained dif- 
ferent views of Jewish history at different times, as may be seen in Rosenkranz, 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 267 

of view, and the history of man from the divine point of view." It 
accords, upon the whole, with the laws of human development, that 
the earlier history of a people should bear a partly legendary and 
partly mythical, or epical, character, to a greater extent than the 
later, which falls within the province of historical writings proper. 
The old economical and pedagogical idea, according to which God 
condescended to the level of human ideas, and entered orow-th in sa- 
into the childish apprehensions of men, in order to at- cred history. 
tract them to himself, needs only to be rendered scientifically intel- 
ligible, from a genuinely theistic point of view, in order to approve 
itself as the only tenable one in the practical field. This by no 
means excludes a true pragmatism, which takes the human element 
into account, and treats it with due historical recognition of its im- 
portance, but simply provides for it a proper basis and the neces- 
sary higher aims. 

LITERATURE. 

I. EARLY HISTORY. 

The sources for Israelitish history are the historical books of the 
Bible, including the historical Apocrypha. For the post-exilian 
period the First Book of Maccabees is especially important. In 
addition, we have Josephus (comp. Archaeology), who is a valuable 
authority for the period extending from the close of that covered by 
biblical sources down to his own time. Philo's Life of Moses has 
little historical value, because of its allegorical tendency. Among 
non-Jewish writers, the Grecian authors Llerodotus, Strabo, and 
Diodorus Siculus, and the Romans Justin and Tacitus,^ deserve 
mention; also the Egyptian Manetho (B. C. 280?), whom Josephus 
cites and controverts, and upon whose existence and trustworthiness 
opinions are still divided. Eusebius, among the Christian fathers, 
treated Israelitish history, in the first books of his Ecclesiastical 
History and the Praep. Evangelica, and others followed in his foot- 
steps. A critical treatment was inconceivable in connection with 
the theory of an exact and minute verbal inspiration, and was first 
introduced by Spinoza (Tractatus theologico-politicus), Richard 
Simon, Clericus, and others. There are other works, more or less 
critical and pragmatical, by Buddaeus (1726), Humphrey Prideaux 
(1715, 1718), Shuckford (1728-38), Ilolberg (1747), and Lange 
(1775), being supplemented in later times by the following : 

Leben Hegels, p. 49, where it will also appear how " it violently repelled him. and 
again engrossed him, and gave him life-long trouble as a dark riddle " ( ! ). 

^ Comp. J. G. Mueller in Stud. u. Krit., 1843, and F. C. Meier, Judaica seu veterum 
scriptorum profanorum de rebus judaicis fragmenta, Jena, 1832. 



268 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

J. J. Hess, Gesch. der Israel, vor d. Zeiten Jesu. Ziir., lllQ-88. 12 vols. 

G. L. Bauer, Handb. der Gesch, der hebr. Nation, von ihrer Entstehung bis zur Zer- 

storung ihres Staates. Niirnb., 1800-4. 2 vols. 
De Wette, Kritik der Israel. Gesch. ("Beitriige zur Einl. in das A. T." 2 parts.) 

Halle, 1807. 
J. M. Jost, Geschichte der Israeliten seit der Zeit der Maccabaer bis auf unsere Tage. 

Berl., 1820-47. 10 vols. 

Gesch. des Judenth. u. seiner Secten. Lpz., 1857-59. 3 vols. 

H. Leo, Vorlesungen liber die Geschichte des jiid. Staates. Berl., 1828. 
"^E. Bertheau, zur Gesch. der Israeliten. Zwei Abhandl. Gott., 1842. 

C. V. Lengerke, Kenaan. Volks- u. Religionsgesch. Israels. Part I. (bis zum Tode des 

Josua.) Konigsb., 1844. 
Ch. Th. Engelstoft, hist, populi Judaici biblica usque ad occupat. Palaestinae ad re- 

lationes peregrinas examin. et digesta. Havn., 1832. 
*J. H. Kurtz, Gesch. des alten Bundes. 1 vol. Berl., 1848. 3d ed., 1864; vol. 2. 

2d ed., 1858. Engl. ed. : History of the Old Covenant, 3 vols. Translated by 

Edersheim and Martin. Edinb., 1859. 
L. Herzfeld (Rabbiner), Gesch. des Volkes Israel von der Zerstorung des ersten Tem- 

pels bis zur Einsetzung des Makkab. Schimon. Braunschw., 1847-57. 3 vols. 

(Auszug daraus, Lpz., 1870). 
Sal. Friedlander, Geschichte des israelit. Volkes von der altesten bis auf die neueste 

Zeit. Lpz., 1848. 
*K. A. Menzel, Staats- u. Religionsgeschichte der Konigreiche Israel u. Juda. Bres- 

lau, 1853. 
Gust. Baur, 6 Tabellen iiber die Gesch. des israelit. Volkes. Giessen, 1848. Fol. 
Eisenlohr, das Volk Israel unter der Herrschaft der Konige. 1 part. Lpz., 1855 f. 
J. R. Tiele, Chronologic des A. T. Bremen, 1839. 
G. F. Jatho, die Grundziige der alttest. Chronologic in Uebereinstimmung mit den Zeit- 

bestimmungen der Classiker. Hildesheim, 1856. 
J. K. H. Schmeidler, der Untergang des Reiches Juda. Bresl., 1831. 
J. Salvador, Geschichte der Romerherrschaft in Judaa und der Zerstorung Jerusa- 

lems ; German of Eichler. Bremen, 1847. 2 vols. 
H. Gratz, Gesch. der Juden von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart. Lpz., 

1854-75. 11 vols. 
Js. da Costa, Israel und die Volker. From the Dutch. Frankf. a. M., 1855. 
Bost, I'epoque des Machabees. Strassb., 1862. 
Jastrovv, (Rabbiner), vier Jahrhund. aus der Gesch. der Juden, von Zerstorung des 

ersten Tempels bis zur makkab. Tempelweihe. Heidelb., 1865. 
* Weber u. Holtzmann, Geschichte des Volkes Israel und die Entstehung des Chris- 

tenthums. Lpz., 1867. 2 vols. 

D. Ehrmann, Gesch. der Israel, etc. bis auf die Gegenw. 2 parts. Briinn, 1869. 
*F. Hitzig, Gesch. des Volkes Israel. Lpz., 1869. 2 parts. 

Weiss, zur Gesch. der jiid. Tradition. Part I. Wien, 1871. 

E. W. Hengstenberg, Gesch, des Reiches Gottes unter dem A. B. Berl., 1870, f. 
2 pai'ts. 

A. Kdhler, Lehrb. der bibl. Gesch. A. T.'s. Erl., 1875, ff. 

F. de Saulcy, Sept siecles de I'histoire judaique (after 588). Paris, 1874 
*J. Wellhausen, Gesch. Israels. I. Berl., 1878. 

Apologetical : 
*H. von der Goltz, Gottes Oifenbarung durch heilige Geschichte, nach ihrem Wesen 
beleuchtet. Basel, 1868. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 269 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

Duncan Shaw, The History and Philosophy of Judaism; or, A Critical and Philo- 
sophical Analysis of the Jewish Religion. Edinburgh, 178*7. 

Frederick Strauss, The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem : a Picture of Judaism in the Cen- 
tury which preceded the Advent of our Saviour. 2 vols. Boston, 1825. 

Isaac Disraeli, Genius of Judaism. Lond., 1833. 

Alexander M'Caul, The Old Paths : a Comparison of the Principles and Doctrines of 
Modern Judaism with the Religion of Moses and the Prophets. Lond., 1837. 

M. Mendelssohn, Jerusalem ; a Treatise on Ecclesiastical Authority and Judaism. 
Translated by M. Samuels. 2 vols. Lond., 1838. 

E. H. Lindo, The History of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, from the Earliest Times 
to their final Expulsion. Lond., 1848. 

George Smith, The Hebrew People ; or, The History and Religion of the Israelites, 
from the Origin of the Nation to the Time of Christ. 2 vols. Lond., 1850. 

Abraham Mills, The Ancient Hebrews; with an Introductory Essay concerning the 
World before the Flood. New York, 1856. 

J. W. Etheridge, Jerusalem and Tiberias ; Sora and Cordova ; A Survey of the Relig- 
ious and Scholastic Learning of the Jews ; designed as an Introduction to the 
Study of Hebrew Literature, Lond., 1856. 

Baden Powell, Christianity without Judaism. Lond., 1857. 

Morris J. Raphall. Post-Biblical History of the Jews, from the Close of the Old 
Testament till the Destruction of the Second Temple. 2 Vols. New York, 
1866. 

H. Ewald, History of Israel. 4 vols. Lond., 1868-71. 

J. Hannah, Hollowness, Narrowness, and Fear; Warnings from the Jewish Church. 
Oxford, 1869. 

W. H. Rule, History of the Kairite Jews. 8vo. Lond., 1870. 

I. Mayer, Source of Salvation, A Catechism of the Jewish Religion ; with the Con- 
firmation Service, New York, 1874. 

Frederic Huidekoper, Judaism at Rome. B. C. 76 to A.D. 140. New York, 1876. 

E. M. Meyers, The Jews: their Customs and Ceremonies. New York, 1878. 
Abraham Geiger, Judaism and its History. Translated from the German by Maurice 

Mayer; with an Appendix, " Renan and Strauss." Lond., n. d. 

II. LATER HISTORY. 

Derenbourg, Essai sur I'histoire et la geographic de la Palestine, d'apres les Thalmuds 
et les autres sources rabbiniques. P. I. Histoire de la Palestine depuis Cyrus 
jusqu'a Adrien. Paris, 1867. 

* M. Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen iiber neutestam. Zeitgeschichte, herausg. von Loh- 

lein mit Vorw. v. Hundeshagen. Frankf., 1862. 

* A. Hausrath, Neutestam. Zeitgeschichte. Heidelb., 1868, fg. 2ded., 1873-77. 4 parts. 

(Part L in 3d ed. Munch., 1879). 
*E. Schiirer, Lehrb. der neutest, Zeitgesch, Lpz., 1874. 

F, Delitzsch, Handwerkesleben zur Zeit Jesu (Lpz, 1868 u. 6.) ; ein Tag in Capernaum. 

(Lpz. 1871). Amer. ed., translated by Morris. Phila., 1873. 
J. Wellhausen, die Pharisaer u. die Sadducaer. Greifsw. 1874. 
E. Ledraiu, Hi-toire d'Israel. L (until B. C. 887). Paris, 1879. 



370 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

r 

III. BIBLICAL CHARACTERS. 
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

■William Cave, Antiquitates Apostolicse ; or, The Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the 
Holy Apostles of our Saviour. 2 vols. Lond., 1836. 

Philip Stauhope Dodd, A View of the Evidence afforded by the Life and Ministry 
of St. Peter to the Truth of the Christian Revelation. Lond,, 183 7. 

Henry Blunt, Lectures upon the History of St. Paul, delivered during Lent, at the 
Church of the Holy Trinity, Upper Chelsea. Phila., 1839. 

Henry Hunter, Sacred Biography ; or, The History of the Patriarchs. 8vo. New- 
York, 1844. 

J. H. Counter, An Inquiry into the History and Character of Rahab. Lond., 1850. 

George Gilfillan, The Bards of the Bible. New York, 1851. 

S. Chandler, A Critical History of the Life of David. Oxford, 1853. 

William C. Duncan, The Life, Character, and Acts of John the Baptist ; and the Re- 
lation of his Ministry to the Christian Dispensation. Based upon the Johannes 
der Taufer of L. von Rohden. New York, 1853. 

Alfred Lee, The Life of the Apostle John, in a Series of Practical Discourses. New 
York, 1857. 

Adolph Monod, Saint Paul : Five Discourses, translated from the French by Rev. J. H. 
Meyers. Andover, 1860. 

"William G. Blackie, David, King of Israel : the Divine Plan and Lessons of his Life. 
Lond., 1860. 

C. M. Butler, St. Paul in Rome ; Lectures delivered in the Legation of the United 
States of America in Rome. Phila., 1865. 

James Floy, Literary Remains. Old Testament Characters Delineated and Illustrated. 

New York, 1866. 
F. W. Krummacher, Elijah the Tishbite. Lond. and New York, 1852. 

Elisha, translated by Jackson. London, 1838. 

David, King of Israel, translated by Marston. London, 1867. 

Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. New York, 1869. 
"W. R. Fremantle, Fi'om Athens to Rome. Six Lectures on St. Paul's Visit to the 

Chief Cities of the Roman Empire. 8vo. Lond., 1869, 
A. P. Stanley, Scripture Portraits and Other Miscellanies. 12mo. Lond., 1870, 
Luke H. Wiseman, Men of Faith ; or. Sketches from the Book of Judges. Lond., 

1870. 
F. D. Maurice, The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament. 3d ed. London, 

1871. 

D. M'Causland, The Builders of Babel. Lond., 1871, 

A. Oxenden, Portraits from the Bible. Vol. 1— Old Testament Series; Vol 2 — New 
Testament Series. Lond., 1871 

S. B. Gould, Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets, and other Old Testament Char- 
acters. Lond., 1872. 

J. R. Macduff, The Healing Waters ; or. The Story of Naaman. An Old Testament 
Chapter on Providence and Grace, Lond,, 1 873, 

T. Lewin, The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols., 4to. Lond., 1875. 

William M. Taylor, David, King of Israel : his Life and its Lessons. New York, 
1875. 

Elijah the Prophet. New York, 1876. 

Moses the Lawgiver. New York, 1879. 



HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 271 

William M. Taylor, Paul the Missionary, New York, 1 880. 

James M. Macdonald, The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited, with an Introduc- 
tion, by J. S. Howson. New York, 1877. 

On the relations of the Israelites to Egypt, comp. Hengstenberg, Egypt and the 
Books of Moses. Translated by Robbins, (And., 1843). G. Ebers, Aeg. u. die 
Bb. Mose's. 1 Bd. (Lpz., 1868) ; H. Brugsch, I'Exode et les monuments egyptiens 
(Lpz,, 1875). On the relations to Assyria and Babylon: E. Schrader, die Keil- 
inschriften u. das A. T. (Giessen, 1872) ; and Keilinschriften u. Geschichtsfor- 
schung (Giessen, 1878); comp. die Darst. der Israel. Gesch. in M. Duncker's 
Gesch. des Alterthums (4th ed., Lpz., 1874 ff.), and in Maspero's Gesch. der mor- 
genl. Volker im Alterth. (French, Paris, 1875, German translation by Peitschmann, 
Lpz., 1877) ; also, George Smith, Chaldean Account of Genesis, 2d ed., New York, 
1880, and Assyrian Discoveries, New York, 1875. 

SECTION m. 

THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 

J. Ch. Doederlein, De hist. J. tenendae traden^que necessitate ac modo, Progrr. i-iv, Jena, 
1783-86 ; (also in the Opusc. theoL, Jena, 1789). On the different tendencies, in harmony with 
which, and for which, the biographer of Jesus may labor, comp. Bertholdt's Krit. Journal, 
vol. y, (1816), No. 4, pp. 225-245. Comp. infra, the American Literature on the Life of Jesus. 

The life of Christ, as the Son of God, is to be regarded as the 

central o^lory of Scripture history, in which all the rays 

... . Christ's life the 

of former historical manifestations of God are concen- centre of his- 

trated, and from which they again radiate, to extend tory. 

over the whole history of the Church. 

Should the life of Christ be regarded as a special branch in the 

course of theological science? Should it not, rather, shine forth 

from all the other branches? It results from the exegesis of the 

Gospels, stands at the head of Church History, and is the very soul 

of apologetics, dogmatics, ethics, and practical theology.^ But for 

this very reason, it is essential that we gain as satisfactory a view 

of this life as possible. This involves grave difficulties, of course; 

for the Gospels do not furnish, as is conceded by the most evangel- 

* " The life of Jesus is the central point of a newly rising light for the history of 
Christianity." Ammon, Fortbildung d. Christenthums zur Weltreligion, I, p. 133. " The 
life of Jesus reconciles all the interests of speculation, the religious feeling and his- 
tory. It presents to our notice a personality, for the possession of which heaven and 
earth are in dispute, but which may not be exclusively assigned to either ; which con- 
sists of fragments and elements which are transmitted to us by tradition and docu- 
mentary records, and which, nevertheless, cannot be made to fit into our moulds; 
which is conceived as the type of every human being, and yet appears under circum- 
stances and in situations such as ours are not now and never can be." Ihid.^ iv, 
p. 277 sq. " The life of Jesus is a biography which flows out, as does no other, into 
a large and extended history of nations and even of the world. It describes an in/ii- 
vidual life, but the life of a character who is, antecedently, in the exaltation of his self- 
consciousness and in his spiritual might, a symptom of the world's history, and truly a 
new stage in the development of the human spirit, and who, in the next place, be- 



273 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

ical scholars/ a minute and complete biography, but only memor- 
abilia (dnofivrjiiovevaara), which, moreover, while partially coinci- 
dent, yet diverge from each other in their relations and points of 
view. John, the most confidential friend of Jesus, said at last : 
"There are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if 
they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world it- 
self could not contain the books that should be written." Hence it 
becomes necessary to subject the Gospel narratives to criticism, as a 
preliminary measure. Here, again, exegetical and philological crit- 
icism turns over its work to the investigations of historical criticism. 
The former deals only with the authenticity of the Gospel records, 
as belongings to the canon, and with their relation to each other, 
while the latter inquires into the credibility of the sacred writers 

... themselves. There is no ground for alarm at such 
Negative cnti- .... 

cism no ground criticism, since, by the judgment of strictly orthodox 
theologians, both these writings and their contents fall 
within the range of the same historical criticism to which all his- 
torical monuments are subject.^ It may even be admitted that dis- 
crepancies occur in the Gospels, but that does not necessitate the 
conclusion that the Gospel, as a whole, contradicts itself. It would 
therefore be, not piety, but frivolous opposition to God's order, to 

came, by the labors of a brief career, the creator of a new and higher cosmos, whose 
world days are to be reckoned by thousands of years, and are to be measured by the 
circumference of the earth." Keim, Gesch, Jesu v. Nazara, I, p. 1, and the passage 
from Origen, De princ, 4, 5, quoted there. 

^ By Hess, for instance, in the Leben Jesu. 

- Ebrard, Kritik d, evang. Geschichte, i, p. 2 : " It follows, from the nature of the 
case, that a photographic picture of the Saviour could not be given at all ; for a per- 
feet representation of the Saviour in a single picture was impossible, in view of his 
universal character and the unavoidable narrowness with which he would be appre- 
hended by the consciousness of a single observer, and, consequently, in the representa- 
tion of a single writer. The entire Christ could only be presented to view by a number 
of descriptive pictures, the whole combined so as to oblige the observer to view them 
as a unit. God would not deprive us of this combined view. That is to say, he would 
not take from us the personal, scientific reconstruction of his image, upon the basis 
of a historical investigation of the several representations of Christ which are con- 
tained in the New Testament. The application of historical criticism to the Bible is 
certainly an infinitely complicated and wearisome task, and one that can ever be only 
approximately completed. But much has been gained when the task has been defi- 
nitely devolved upon, and honestly recognized by, theology, in the spirit of renouncing 
all unbelieving fear." Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 308 sg. Comp. also Immer, Die Ge- 
schichts-quellen des Lebens Jesu (Lecture at Berne) in the Prot. Vortrage, V, T, Ber- 
lin, ISYS, p. 28 : "All research into the sources of the life of Christ can have no other 
end than to free the pure and concrete image of Jesus from the scattered traits in 
which it is enveloped, without which work the influence emanating from him, and the 
results originating with him, are inconceivable." 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 273 

refuse to see this fact, and to seek to avoid such critical labor under 

the questionable plea that damage to the Christian faith criticism nec- 

must result from such an undertakingf. The only essen- ^^^^y^^ }f> ""- 

^ ... derstand the 

tial consideration at this point is, that criticism should Gospels. 
occupy the proper point of view. In recent times it has been urged 
that an entire absence of predispositio/1 is necessary. This is im- 
possible in any absolute sense, for even they who make this de- 
mand have prepossessions ; for example, as to the possibility or im- 
possibility of miracles. But a developed doctrine of Christ (Chris- 
tology) is not to furnish the rule of procedure, any more than dog- 
matics may be allowed to govern exegesis. 

The life of Jesus is matter for history only in so far as it is defi- 
nitely human. The unprejudiced study of that life must, and will 
of itself, lead to the recognition of its divine element, but it must 
not be postulated d priori in dogmatic formulae, or imposed upon 
the history.^ The student who makes the life of Jesus an object of 
scientific investigation will, nevertheless, enter upon it with a cer- 
tain amount of preconceptions. He knows what life it is which is to 
be studied. But the sacred awe ^ with which he enters on his task 
can in no way harm historical impartiality; on the contrary, a 
spiritual and vivid treatment of any life, as well as that of the 
Saviour, is impossible without it.'^ It is as impossible to comprehend 

^ Comp. Hase, Leben Jesu, § 14. 

"^ Comp. the confessions of Lavater and Anna Maria v. Schurmann, in the preface 
to Neander's Life of Jesus. "The life of the Christian," remarks the latter, "is 
the best biography of Jesus." 

3 " The enumeration of outward fortunes in a career is unintelligible and dead with- 
out an apprehension or idea of the individual life itself, from which, as the innermost 
point in the life, all externalities may be explained." Hase, Life of Jesus (Bost. ed.), 
p. 21. " The self consciousness of Jesus of Nazareth must be clearly before the eyes 
of the Christian, as an actual historical fact which is to explain a true philosophy," 
Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. xliii. " The personality of Jesus stands before us as the con- 
necting link between two worlds. It stands between the two developments of the old 
and the new worlds, not as an eif ect of the old world, but as its consummation ; not as 
a mere harbinger of the new, but as its enduring type, and as a fountain of life to 
mankind through the Spirit." lUd., Gott in der Gesch., p. 60; comp. p. 100. "He 
was man. He was neither Jew nor Greek, prince nor priest, rich nor mighty, but, 
in contrast with them all, a man. He lived and died for mankind. But for this very 
reason he is called, and is the image of, the Son of God, as none other before or 
after him. His mortal, finite being had truly become a likeness of God, a divine nature." 
" The real centre in the life of Jesus lies in his consciousness. It is, however, by no 
means merely the idea of the unity of the divine and human natures that constitutes the 
peculiarity of his consciousness, for such an idea was present in a hazy form in both 
Plato and Aristotle. It is rather the consciousness of a real union of the Divine and 
human natures in his person in absolute energy, so that in this consciousness are united 
not only the fulness of the Deity with the fulness of his own inner life, but also the 
18 



274 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

the life of the Saviour by refusing to measure it by its own rule, and 
to trace each one of its expressions back to our own need of salva- 
tion, as it is to understand the life of a mother who sacrifices herself 
for her children, where the only conception of greatness is that be- 
longing to conquerors or artists. Something that is immeasurable 
will still remain in this unique personality. Besides, while the dis- 
tinction between a historical and a real Christ is wholly inadmissible 
on the plan of absolutely separating between them, and connecting 
them only in outward form, as though by accident, it is yet certain 
that when we resolve the life of Jesus into its separate elements, 
and follow it step by step, or trace it feature by feature, we often 
find ourselves required to supplement, from the idea, matters for 
which no definite historical data can be found. However, this 
must not be an arbitrary idea, constructed and introduced into 
the subject by ourselves, but it is rather one to be gained as 
the sum of historical inquiry. As Scripture explains Scripture, 

^^ ,., ^ ^ so does the life of Jesus as a whole explain the 
The life of Je- . . 

susitsownex- separate features in that life. The life of Jesus con- 
p ana ion. tains its own measure — the absolute measure of the 

Deity glorifying itself in human nature. The attributes which 
constitute the peculiar character of Christ are not, therefore, to be 
at once excluded from the range of historical inquiry as transcend- 
ing the bounds of human conditions, and impossible, but must be 
taken into account in the development of his humanity. Unless 
this be done, the picture will crumble in our hands, and we shall 
obtain only an inadequate and Ebionitic fragment, instead of a 
thoroughly human and really historical portrait. We cannot, and 
should not, remove the picture of Christ from the golden canvas 
upon which it has been painted, not by the fancy of men, but by 
the finger of God, even though we attempt to follow the lines of 
the drawing by historical methods, and seek to arrange them, so 
Spiritual sym- far as may be possible, by the application of critical 

pathy necessa- processes. In this work the critical effort to combine 
ry for correct i^ 

criticism. must be aided by the insight which belongs to the con- 

genial spirit of a religious disposition. 

entire dealing of God with the entire history of his being, yea, the Deity with human- 
ity." J. P. Lange, Gesch. d. Kirche, i, p. 349. Comp. Kliefoth, Einl. in d. Dogmen- 
gesch., p. 39. Karl Ritter has also expressed himself well in opposition to an un- 
spiritual and atomistic treatment of the life of Jesus : " His entire life lies open and 
clear before us like a charming landscape, with no cloud to interrupt the rays of light, 
which, without the tedious explanations of an uninvited guide, we comprehend with 
sacred joy at every step, upon which we stroll in pleasure, and the heart bounds with 
exalted premonitions. This place soon becomes our home, and upon it we could desire 
to live in joy and sadness until we die." Lebensbild von Kramer, vol. i, p. 232 sq. 



THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 275 

The portrait of Christ as outlined in the New Testament writings 
was compared, even before a mythical interpretation was thought 
of, to a torso, upon which the imagination of successive centuries 
has wrought its improvements.^ The comparison is unjust, inas- 
much as the torso lacks the essential feature, the countenance ; and 
it is precisely the countenance that shines forth in the Gospels, 
with genuinely human lineaments, from the surrounding glory of 
the Deity, while the complete outlining of the members of the 
body, as with paintings of the old German school, is either want- 
ing, or at least leaves much to be desired in the drawing. But the 
case is here as it is with every other human and historical counte- 
nance, which differs greatly in accordance with the different points 
of view from which we regard it, or with the light in which differ- 
ent painters apprehend it. Christ seemed different to Diflereutviews 
the world of the Middle Ages from what he does to the ^f Christ. 
world of our time. Zinzendorf, Herder, Schleiermacher, and others, 
each, in his own way, arrived at a different conception of him. 
This, however, need by no means frighten us from attempting to 
solve the problem, nor force us to accept the alternative of " either 
investing the Jewish Messiah with all the attributes which the the- 
ology of the Jews ascribes to him, or of furnishing a natural history 
of the Prophet of Nazareth, such as Venturini wrote." ^ For both 
are caricatures, the original for which is yet, even approximately, 
to be discovered. Still less are we authorized to dispense with any 
historical Christ, and to search for the Redeemer of the .^ ,., ' , 

. Absurdity of 

world solely in the region of myths, on the ground that the mythical 

some things cannot be explained and fitted with cer- ^°^^' 

tainty into the framework of history. This would be to render 

the inexplicable yet more inexplicable, since Christianity without a 

historical Christ would remain an incomprehensible riddle, and the 

Church of Christ a historical monstrosity. The proper course is', 

while making use of historical criticism, with other agencies, "to 

have confidence in God and in the truth, which is much nearer to 

us than we think, and cheerfully expect that assured and certain 

results will, in the end, be realized through such investigations."^ 

^ Kahler, Supranaturalismus und Rationalismus, p. 117. 

2 See Rohr's Krit. Predigerbibl., vol. 18, No. 1, p. 13. Comp. Brief e liber den Ra- 
tionalismus, p. 26 sqq. 
^ Ammon, supra^ i, p. 135. 



2^6 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION IV. 
HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 

Biographical effort began in the early centuries with an external 
collocation of sources, ^ and this method continued to be employed 
down to Bengel. The productions of the Middle Ages were " with- 
out criticism, fantastic, and legendary, and consisted chiefly in works 
for entertainment and devotion." ^ The old Saxon harmony of the 
Gospels, entitled "Heliand," is, however, of great importance for 
the history of civilization and literature,^ and Avith this should be 
compared that of the Weissenburg monk, Otfried, of the ninth 
century.* In other regards, " the life of Christ was represented in 
the 'passion-plays' in the most literal sense, through the aid of 
sculpture, painting, and the dramatic art."^ The dogmatic ele- 
ment still predominated after the Reformation. It was not until 
after the Thirty Years' War that " the manifestation of Christ was 
intensely studied for its own sake." The theology of Herrnhut 
forms the leading agency in this " worship of Jesus," which now 
began to be manifested in hymns and prayers. People became ac- 
customed to regard Jesus as the concrete God, sometimes irrespect- 
ively of his relation to the Trinity, and his history was a history 
of God, in which character it yielded Klopstock the material for 
epical treatment. Rational reflection, which felt itself called to 
consider the human element in a human point of view, asserted its 
claim in opposition to this undeniably monophysite tendency. 

The attack by the Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, in 1777 and the fol- 
lowing years, forced apologetics into this human method of appre- 
hending the psychology of Jesus and of estimating the moral bear- 
ings of his plan. The critical and pragmatical treatment of the 
life of Christ dates, accordingly, from this time ; that is, from the 
time modern ideas became established. This method has resulted 
in making of the life of Jesus a subordinate branch of 
separate his- theological study, so that what is now understood by 
toricai study. ^^^^ phrase is certainly a " modern idea." ' Foremost in 
this period were the apologetic and somewhat rational representa- 

^ Monotessaron, Harmonia, Synopsis. Comp. Hase, Life of Jesus, p. 20. ^ Ibid. 

3 Editions of Hayne (2d ed.), Paderborn, 1873, and Sievers, Halle, 1878. Trans- 
lated by Simrock, 2d ed., Elberfeld, 1866; and by Grein, Cassel, 1869. 

4 The "Christ," edited by Kelle, Ratisbon, 1856-59, 2 vols. Translated by the 
same, Prague, 1870. 

^ Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels, p. 50. 

* Strauss, Leben Jesu fiirs Volk, 1864, p. 1. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 277 

tions of Reinhard and Hess.^ The divine was separated from the 
human, so far as was possible, and attention was called to the dif- 
ference between the Johannean view and that of the synoptics. 
Herder, for instance, viewed the life of the "Son of God" and of 
the " Son of Man " in accordance with these two distinct points of 
view. There was no lack of coarse reactions, however, in connexion 
with the humanizing process, and rude hands tore away the tender 
screen which had preserved the picture of the Lord from being 
profaned. "Natural histories of the Prophet of Nazareth" were 
published by Bahrdt, Venturini, and, later, by Langs- 
dorf, and it became a "favorite employment to draw tween Christ 
parallels between Socrates and Christ, often to the dis- 
advantage of the latter. This, certainly, grew out of an utter mis- 
understanding of the personality of either. Others, like Paulus 
and Greiling, acting from good intentions, sought to eliminate the 
miraculous from the life of Jesus, in order to recommend him as a 
wise and humane teacher to a conceited age that was inclined to 
make a mock of him. The later theology, beginning with Schleier- 
macher, again took up the ideal element in Christ, and sought to 
prove it in his historical manifestation. Schleiermacher himself, in 
this spirit, but with independent criticism, in 1819, and again in 
1832, delivered lectures on the life of Christ. These lectures were 
not published until their author had been dead thirty years, but 
they were nevertheless timely, though no longer adequate to com- 
plete the argument in all its details. Hase proceeded in a method 
similar to that of Schleiermacher, in prosecuting the task of show- 
ing " how by divine appointment, through the free act of his spirit 
and the interference of his age, Jesus of Nazareth became the 
Redeemer of the world." 

These various attempts were at once neutralized by Strauss, who 
cut the knot with the sword, not, indeed, by denying strauss' m e of 
that a Jesus had lived, but by reducing his historical Jesus, 
existence almost to a historical nullity, since he recognized in the 
Gospel records only a mythical expression of ideas, unconsciously 
and innocently invented by the infant community of Christians, as 
influenced by the extant prophecies of the Old Covenant. This 
work was designed to preserve the poetically speculative truth of 
the ideal Christ, but its tendency was to dissolve him into air, like 
an unsubstantial image in the clouds. The hypothesis of Strauss 

* See the titles of the works below, and comp. Hase, supra, and Ammon, Fortbild- 
ung d. Christenthums zur Weltreligion, vol. iv, p. 156 sqq. It is remarkable that 
Hess received the impulse to treat the life of Jesus from Middleton's Biography of 
Cicero. 



278 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

was modified by Weisse, * who sought to discover the mystery of 
the life of Jesus, in part, by introducing the higher biology of mag- 
netism, and other factors, but rejected, on the mythical hypoth- 
esis, what could not be forced into this magic circle. Bruno Bauer, 
finally, passed beyond Strauss, claiming to find not harmless poetry, 
but designed inventions, in the descriptions of the evangelists. 
The Jew, Salvador, regarded the life of Jesus from the standpoint 
of modern Jewish enlightenment, but retained the historical per- 
sonality of Jesus, reducing it, of course, to that of a simple Jewish 
reformer and demagogue. 

All of these negative efforts resulted simply in a more thorough 
investigation of the subject under discussion. Not only were num- 
berless works issued in reply to Strauss, but the life of Jesus Itself 
was studied with a universal breadth of inquiry that could only be 
productive of gain to science, even though inquirers occupied very 
diverse points of view, and were influenced by very various pre- 
possessions.^ We refer also to the Dutch works of Meijboom, Van 
Oosterzee, and others. Bunsen announced, prospectively, a new 
*' Life of Jesus," but it never appeared.^ Ewald's History of Israel, 
on the other hand, entered on the life of Jesus with the fifth volume, 
the author expressly designating it the " Life of Christ,'''' and treat- 
ing it as such, making use of independent criticism upon details, 
but preserving the sacred contents as a whole. This has influenced 
the character of his representations also, in which Strauss was un- 
able to find more than a " deafening volume of words and phrases." 
Riggenbach's lectures present the portrait of the " Lord Jesus " in 
a simple manner, their tendency being apologetic and harmonizing, 
combined, however, with the steady aim to do justice to the ques- 
tions raised by science by a thorough examination of details. 
A period of cessation and quietude now seemed to open, which 
Renan. was suddenly disturbed by the publication of the Life 
of Jesus by Renan, in France, through which an agitation was pro- 
duced that equaled the one caused by Strauss thirty years before. 
Numerous editions and translations have placed it upon the same 
level with the most recent productions of the lighter literature of 
France for the great world of readers, which it is designed to 
reach. The science of Germany could not rest satisfied with the 

■* " The numerous lives of Jesus of the better class represent a new dedication of the 
theological temple, which, it is to be hoped, will not speedily be brought to a close. . . . 
But it will be necessary to remain patient if the variegated merchandise of ordered 
or fabricated works connects itself with the dedication." J. P. Lange, Pref. to Leben 
Jesu, pp. iii, iv. 

' Preface to Hippolytus, p. xlix. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 279 

work, though in it the learning of the Orientalist vied with the cap- 
tivating rhetoric of the fine writer, to warp the judgment, of senti- 
mental amateurs. Schenkel, who had expressed the opinion that 
the great theme could only be adequately treated upon German soil, 
now came to the front with his Character of Jesus Portrayed, 
which had been in preparation during an extended period. Simul- 
taneously with this work, Strauss published, not a new edition of 
his former work, but a new revision, adapted for the people. In 
this, as in the other work, the criticism of sources comes into play, 
combined with the appropriation of the negative results obtained 
by other laborers in this field. An enormous number of replies 
and treatises in opposition to the works of Strauss, Schenkel, and 
Renan were written by scholars in both the Roman Catholic and 
Protestant communions; so that we again stand in the midst of a 
crisis, which was introduced by those works. How far we are from 
having reached the end may be seen from the fact, that the opin- 
ions of the latest writers are entirely diverse upon the question of 
the early character of sources (the original Matthew and Mark); 
but it may be said, in the meantime, " In magnis voluisse sat est." 
Time must show to what extent the work by Keim, w^hich is now 
concluded, will have contributed to the advancement of the inquiry. 
It has, at any rate, taken an important step toward the goal for 
which the efforts of science were directed from the vantage ground 
secured by its former progress. But when shall the time come 
that the Church, no longer being in conflict with the results ob- 
tained by science, but rather delivered from prejudice thereby, 
shall see the face of the Lord in its purity and its greatness, in the 
combined historical dignity and divine glory, which are not be- 
stowed on him by us, but which are his from the beginning and are 
secured to him for all eternity? 

LITERATURE. 

* J. G. Herder, vom Erloser der Menschen nach unsern drei ersten Evangelien. Riga, 
1796. 

* von Gottes Sohn, der Welt Heiland, nach Johannes Evang. Riga, 1797. 

* J. J. Hess, Lebensgeschichte Jesu. 8th ed. Zurich, 1822 f. 3 vols. (1st ed. and 
special title: Gesch. der drei letzten Lebensjahre Jesu. Lpz., 1768. 2 vols.) 

J. A. G. Meyer, Yersuch e. Vertheid. u. Erlaut. der Gesch. Jesu und der Apostel al- 

lein aus griech. und rom. Profanscribenten. Hann., 1805. 
F. B. Reinhard, Versuch iiber den Plan, welchen der Stifter der christl. Religion zum 

Besten der Menschheit entwarf. Wittenb., 1781 ; 5th ed., with additions by A. L. 

Heubner. Wittenb., 1880. 
J. B. R. Hacker, Jesus, der Weise von Nazareth, ein Ideal aller denkbaren Grosse. 

Lpz., 1800-3. 2 vols. 
J. C. Greiling, das Leben Jesu von Nazareth. Halle, 1813. 



280 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

f A. Bodent, die erste u. heiligste Gesch. der Menscbh,, Jesus von Naz. ; historkrit. 

isch, mit stetem Riickblick auf griech., rom. u. jiid. Religionsgeschichte. Geraiind 

1818-22. 4 parts. 
H. E. G. Paulas, das Leben Jesu, als Grundlage einer reinen Geschichte des Ur- 

christenthums. Heidelb., 1828. 2 vols. 
*K. Hase, das Leben Jesu. Ein Lehrb. zunachst fiir akad. Vorlesungen. Lpz., 

1829. Amer. ed., transl. by J. F. Clarke. Bost., 1860. 

Gesch. Jesu. Nach akad. Vorles. Lpz., 1875. 

*Dav. Fr. Strauss, das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet. Tiib., 1835 f. 2 vols. 4th ed. 

1840. Comp. Hase's Reviews and Replies, in Life of Jesus, (pp. 30-40,) Clarke's 

ed. Boston, I860.' 
Streitschriften zur Vertheid. meiner Schrift lib. das L. J. Tiib., 183'7. 3 parts. 

* A. Neander, das Leben Jesu Christi in seinem geschichtl. Zusammenh. und seiner 

geschichtlichen Entwickelung dargestellt. Hamb., 183*7; 1th. ed. Goth., 1873. 

Amer. ed., translated by M'Clintock and Blumenthal. N. Y., 1852. 
K. G. W. Theile, zur Biographie Jesu. Lpz., 1837. 
f J. Kuhn, das Leben Jesu, wissenschaftlich bearbeitet. Mainz, 1838. 
*C. H. Weisse, die evang. Gesch. kritisch u, philos. bearb. Lpz., 1838. 2 vols. 
0. Krabbe, Vorlesungen iiber das Leben Jesu. Hamb., 1839. 
J. Salvador, Jesus-Christ et sa doctrine. Histoire de la naissance de I'eglise, de son 

organisation et de ses progres pendant le premier siecle. Paris, 1838. 2 vols. 

Translated by J. Jacobson. Dresden, 1841. 
Jul. Hartmann, das Leben Jesu nach den Ev. geschichtl. dargest. fiir gebildete Leser. 

Stuttg., 1837-39. 2 vols. 
C. F. V. Ammon, die Geschichte des Lebens Jesu mit steter Riicksicht auf die vor- 

handenen Quellen. Lpz., 1842-47. 3 vols, 
f A. Riegler, das Leben Jesu Chr., krit, histor. u. prakt. erklart. Bamb., 1843 f. o vols, 
f J. N. Sepp, das Leben Christi (with Preface by Gorres). Regensb,, 1843 ff. 4 vols. 

2d ed., 6 vols., 1853-62. Neue (Titel-) Ausg., 1862-65. 
J. P. Lange, das Leben Jesu nach den Evang, Heidelb., 1844-47. 3 vols. Eng. ed., 

translated by Dods. 4 vols. Edinb., 1872. 
■ J. A. H. Ebrard, wissenschaftl. Kritik der evang. Geschichte. Frankf., 1842. 2 vols. 

3d ed., 1868. 
W. J. Lichtenstein, Lebensgesch. des Herrn Jesu Christi in chronologischer Ueber- 

sicht. Erl., 1856. 
H. Ewald, Geschichte Christus und seiner Zeit (vol. 5 der Geschichte des Volkes 

Israel). Gott., 1855. 3d ed., 1867. 

* Ch. J. Riggenbach, Vorlesungen iiber das Leben des Herrn Jesu. Basel, 1858. 

M. Baumgarten, die Geschichte Jesu fiir das Verstandniss der Gegenwart in offentl. 
Vortragen dargestellt. Bransch., 1859. 

* E. Renan, vie de Jesus. Par. 1863. Eng. ed., passim. 

E. Weizsacker, Untersuchungen iiber die evang. Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den 
Gang ihrer Entwicklung. Gotha, 1864. 

* D. Schenkel, das Charakterbild Jesu. Wiesb., 1864. 4th ed., 1873. Translated 

by Furness. Phila., 1866. 

'Called forth: W. Hoffmann (Stuttgart, 1836). Hengstenberg (evang. Kirchenztg., 1836). 
Schweizer (Dlgnitat des Religionsstifters, Stud. u. Kritik., 1837. Heft 2). Tholuck (Glaub- 
wiirdigkelt der evang. Gesch., Hamb., 1837 u. o.). Ullmann (historisch od. mythisch? Hamb., 

1838). E. Luthardt, die modernen Darstellungen des Lebens Jesu, eine Besprechung der 

Schriften von Strauss, Renan, Schenkel, 1864. Riggenbach, Vortrag auf der evang. Alliance in 
Amsterdam, 1867. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 281 

D. Schenkel, das Christusbild der Apostel u. der nachapost. Zeit. Lpz., 1819. 

* D. F. Strauss, das Leben Jesu fiir das deutsche Volk bearbeitet. Lpz., 1864. 

3d ed., 1814. 

E. de Pressense, Jesus-Christ. Son temps, sa vie, son oeuvre. Paris, 1865. Amer. 
ed., N. Y. 

* Fr. Schleierraacher, das Leben Jesu, Vorlesungen an der Univ. zu Berlin im Jahre 

1832; pub. by K. A. Rutenik. Berlin, 1864. (Sammtl. Werke VL Literar. 
Naehlass, zur Theol. I.) 

D. F. Strauss, der Christus des Glaubens und der Jesus der Geschiehte. (Criticism on 
Schleiermacher's "Leben Jesu.") Berlin, 1865. 

■)■ J. Langen, die letzten Lebenstage Jesu. Freiburg, 1864. 
C. C. J. Bunsen, Bibelwerk. Vol. 9. Lpz., 1865. 

* Th. Keim, Geschiehte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Yerkettung mit dem Gesammtleben 
seines Yolkes frei untersucht und ausfiihrlich erzahlt. 3 vols. Zurich, 1867-72. 

* Th. Keim, Geschiehte Jesu nach den Ergebnissen heutiger Wissenschaft fiir weitere 

Kreise iibersichtlich erzahlt. Ziir., 1872. 2d ed. 1875. 
Gaspari, chronologisch-geograph. Einl. in das Leben Jesu Christi. Hamb., 1869. 
Znmpt, das Geburtsjahr Christi. Lpz., 1869. 
Kriiger-Yelthusen, das Leben Jesu. 1872. 
J. Haberlin, das Leben J. im Lichte uns. Zeit. Frauenf., 1874. 

F. Clemens, Jes. der Nazarener. 5th ed. Berl., 1874. 2 vols. 

L. D. Brocker, Untersuchungen iib. d. Evv. u. das L. J. Hamb., 1874. 

f P. Schegg, 6 Bb. des Lebens Jesu. Freib., 1874 ff. 

f Panth. Naumann, das Leben uns. Herrn u. Heil. Jesu Christi, pub. by Th. Rovack. 

Prag., 1875. 3 vols. 
J. Lindenmeyer, Gesch. Jesu nach d. hi. Schr. Basel, 1875 f. 
Wittichen, das Leben Jesu in urkundl. Darst. Jena, 1876. 
L. Noack, die Gesch. Jesu auf Grund freier gesh. Untersuchungen. 2d ed. Mannh., 1876. 

E. G. Laino, das Leben Jesu auf Grundlage des vornehmsten Gebots. 2d ed. Stuttg, 
1876 f. 3 parts. 

A. Wiinsche, der lebenfreudige Christus der synopt. Evv. im Gegensatz zum leidenden 

Messias der Kirche. Lpz., 1876. 
J. Grimm, Gesch. der offentl. Thatigk. Jesu. Regensb., 1878. 
E. Marius, die Personlichk. Jesu Chr. mit bes. Riicksicht auf die Mythologien u. Mys- 

terien der alten Yolker. Lpz., 1879. 
L. Richou, le Messie dans les livres histor. de la Bible et Jesus Chr. dans le Evan- 

giles. 2 voll. Paris, 1879. 

APOLOGETICAL. 

Wizenmann, die Geschiehte Jesu nach Matthaus, pub. by Auberlen. 1864. 
H. Weiss, sechs Yortrage iiber die Person Jesu Christi. Ingolstadt, 1864. 
*F. L. Steinmeyer, Apologet. Beitrage. L Die Wunderthaten des Herrn. Berl., 

1866. IL Die Leidensgesch. des Herrn. 1868. IIL Die Auferstehungsgesch. 1871. 

lY. Die Gesch. der Geburt des Herrn und s. ersten Schritte im Leben. 1873. 

E. W. Kolthoff, vita Jesu Chr. a Paulo apostolo adumbrata. Havn., 1852. 

R. Hofmann, das Leben Jesu nach den Apokryphen ; im Zusammenh. aus den Quel- 
len erzahlt und wissenschaftlich untersucht. Lpz., 1851. 

F. E. Schorch, das Leben Jesu in seiner Angemessenheit zu den religiosen Bediirf- 
nissen des Menschengeschlechts. Lpz., 1841. 

Th. Keim, die menschliche Entwicklung Jesu Christi. Zur., 1860; der geschichtl. 
Christus. 3 Reden. Zur., 1865 u. 6. ; die geshichtliche Wiirde Jesu. Zur., 1864. 



282 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 

J. G. L. Kraft, Chronologie u. Harmonie der 4 Evangelien, pub. by Burger. Erlan. 

gen, 1848. 
W. Strout, New Greek Harmony of the four Gospels. Lond., 1853. 
G.Volkmar, die kanon. Synoptiker in Uebersicht, etc. u. das geschichtliche vom Leben 

Jesu. Zur., 1876. 
F. Piper, de externa vitae J. Chr. chronol. recte constituenda. Getting., 1835. 
H. Sevin, Chronologie des Lebens Jesu. 2d ed. Tiib., 1874. 
S. die Synopsen § 52 a. E. und die Lit. zu den Evv. § 56, b. y. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

LIFE OF CHRIST. 

Lyman Abbott, Jesus of Nazareth : His Life and Teachings. New York, 1869. New 

ed., 1882. 
Samuel J. Andrews, The Life of our Lord upon Earth. New York, 1871. 
H. W. Beecher, Life of Jesus the Christ. Vol. i. N. Y. 1868. 
K. W. Clark, Life Scenes of the Messiah. New York, 1855, 
Howard Crosby, Jesus: His Life and Work. New York, 1870. 
Charles F. Deems, Jesus. New York, 1872. 
C. J. EUicott, Hist. Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ. Lond., 1861. 

F. W. Farrar, The Life of Christ. New York, 1876. 
J. Fleetwood, Life of Christ, passim. (Antiquated.) 

C. Geikie, The Life and Words of Christ. New York, 1877. 

W. Hanna, Our Lord's Life upon Earth. 6 vols. New York, 1870. 

Mrs. A. M. Jameson, History of our Lord as Exemplified in Works of Art. 2 vols. 

Lond., 1865. 
J. Parker, Ecce Deus. London, 1855. 
J. R. Seeley, Ecce Homo : a Survey of the Life and Work of Jesus Christ. Boston, 

1866. 
J. P. Thompson, Jesus of Nazareth. Boston, 1876. 

HARMONIES. 

G. W. Clark, A New Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to the Com- 
mon Version. With an Introduction by T. J. Conant. N. Y., 1870. 

Frederick Gardiner, A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the Text 
of Tischendorf ; with a Collation of the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts of 
Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Edinb., 1871. 

Same, in English. Edinb., 1871. 

Edward Greswell, Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Harmony 
of the Gospels. 2d ed. 4 vols. Oxf., 1837. 

James Macknight, Harmony of the Gospels, with Paraphrase and Notes. 5th ed. 
2 vols. Lond., 1819. 

Robert Mimpriss, The Gospel Treasury and Treasury Harmony of the Four Evan- 
gelists. N. Y, 1869. 

Edward Robinson, A Harmony of the Four Gospels, in Greek, according to the Text 
of Hahn. Revised ed. Boston, 1868. 

Same, in English. 8th ed. Boston, 1859. 

George Smith, The Harmony of the Divine Inspirations. N. Y, 1858. 

James Strong, Harmony of the Gospels, in Greek, of the received Text, for the use of 
Students. N. Y., 1854. 



HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 283 

James Strong, A New Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels, consisting of a Par- 
allel and Combined Arrangement, on a New Plan, of the Four Evangelists, accord- 
ing to the Authorized Translation. N. Y., 1852. 

^ Compendium of the Gospels, according to the Arrangement of the Author's 

Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels. N. Y., 1853. 

William Stroud, A New Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, comprising a Synopsis 
and a Diatessaron. Lond., 1853. 

SECTION V. 

THE APOSTLES. 

Life of the Apostles and the Founding of the Church, Article " Apostolisches Zeltalter," in 
Pelt, Herzog's Encyclypaedle, vol. 1. 

The life of the persons by whom the doctrine of the kingdom of 
God in the world was introduced, is connected with the life of 
Jesus. Here, there is less interest in the Twelve, several of whom 
are known to us only by name, than in the men and their coadjutors 
who were most successful in this work of founding the Christian 
community. Among these Paul is preeminent by reason of his 
character, teaching, and deeds. 

Concerning the wider and more limited meanings of the word 
cLTToaroAog, see the New Testament. A comparison of the history 
of the apostles by Luke with the list of the apostles in the Gospels 
(Matt. X, 1-4) will reveal to most inquirers the fact, that the sacred 
narrative leaves us in the dark with regard to the history of a 
majority of the Twelve. Of these, Peter, James, and John are 
prominent, even in the Gospel records, and we have relatively more 
information respecting them than others, although the last days 
of both Peter and John lie beyond the limits of the canon, and 
fall within the realm of tradition. This applies still more fully to 
the work of other apostles. A new period of development evident- 
ly begins with Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, who, Paul, 
supported by Timothy, Silvanus, and Titus, not only extended 
Christianity to the furthest outward limits, but, together with John, 
also developed its profound internal character, and furnished the 
greatest and most important contribution toward the doctrinal 
canon of the New Testament. He became the founder of a body of 
doctrine, not theoretically, but out of his inmost experience, and 
through the revelation which, according to his own testimony, was 
imparted to him.^ He was the firstfruits of those in whom the 
grace of God in Christ was glorified, and in whom the Gospel was 
demonstrated to be the power of God. The exposition of the book 

^ Comp. *H. Paret, Paulus u. Jesus, Observations on the Relation of Paul and his 
Teaching to the Person, the Life, and the Teaching of the Christ of History, in Jahrb. 
fiir Deutsche Theologie. 



284 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

of Acts and the Pauline epistles is, of course, the work of exegetical 
theology. But this is merely a work preliminary to the history, 
while, to combine the work of the apostles into a single picture, be- 
longs strictly to the department of historical science. At this point 
we stand on the boundary line between sacred and Church history. 
Though the latter cannot exclude the history of the apostolic age, 
yet it needs a broader foundation than it there finds. For this 
The apostoUc reason the apostolic age, like the life of Jesus, has re- 
se^arate treat? ^^^^^^^ ^ separate treatment in theological literature, 
ment. Peculiar difficulties attach to this treatment, however, 

because recent criticism has endeavored to shake many points in 
the primitive history of Christianity, as found in the apostolic his- 
tory by Luke, and in the apostolic epistles, and has sought to ex- 
plain, by later events, the history of the older heresies, and what 
has been regarded as belonging to primitive times. Much that the 
Church regarded as belonging to the "apostolic age" was in this 
way classed under the "post-apostolic." The destructive efforts 
upon the apostolic history emanating from the Tubingen school, like 
the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, gave rise to apologetic attempts at 
reconstruction, some of which ascribed an importance to the old 
ecclesiastical traditions that was scarcely to be looked for after all 
the preliminary critical work accomplished in former decades. The 
controversy still goes on, and much remains for more thorough 
investigation, in which research historical inquiry is to take a part 
equal to that of exegesis. 

LITERATURE OF APOSTOLIC HISTORY. 

J. J. Hess, Geschichte und Schriften der Apostel Jesu. Zurich, 1*788. 4tli ed., 1820- 

22. 3 vols. 
Ch. F. Liicke, comm. de ecelesia ehristianor. apostolica. Gott., 1813. 
G. J. Planck, Geschichte des Christenthums in der Periode seiner ersten Einfiihrung 

in die Welt. Gott., 1818. 2 vols. 
* A. Neander, Geschichte der Pflanzung und Zeitung der christl. Eirche durch die 

Apostel. Hamb., 1832. Lond. ed., transl. by Ryland, 1851. 
R. Rothe, die Anfange der christl. Kirche u. ihrer Verfassung. Vol. 1. Wittenb., 1837. 
A. F. Gfrorer, Geschichte des TJrchristenthums. Stuttg., 1838. 3 vols. 
F. C. A. Schwegler, das nachapostol Zeitalter. Tiib., 1845, f. 2 vols. (Includes the 

apostolic age, but by this author considered, of course, in the post-apostolic.) 
J. B. Trautmann, die apostolische Kirche. Lpz., 1848 ; new ed., 1857. 
K. Wieseler, Chronologic des apost. Zeitalters bis zum Tode der App. Paulus und 

Petrus. Gott., 1848. 
M. Baumgarten, die Apostelgeschichte oder der Entwickelungsgang der Kirche von 

Jerusalem bis Rom. Braunschw., 1852. 2 vols. 2d ed., 1859. 
H. W. J. Thiersch, die Kirche im apostol. Zeitalter und die Entstehung der neutestam. 

Schriften. Frankf., 1852. 3d ed. Augsb., 18*79. 



THE APOSTLES. 285 

*E. Reuss, Histoire de la theologie chretienne au siecle apostolique. Paris, 1852. 
2 vols. 2. ed. 1860. Lond. ed., transl. by Annie Harwood, 1872. 

H. Ewald, Geschichte des apostol. Zeitalters bis zur Zerstorung Jerusalems. (Vol. vi., 
Hist, of the People of Israel.) 3d ed. Gott., 1868. 

E. Kenan, les apotres. Par., 1866. The Same, les evangiles et la seconde gener- 
ation chretienne. Par., 18'7'7. 

E. Ferriere, les apotres, etc. Par., 18*79. 

Comp. the works in Church History, cited below, of Lange, Lechler, Schaff, Ritschl, 
and the commentaries, in the Exegetical Literature, on the Acts of the Apostles. 

Popular : Isaak da Costa, die Apostel-Geschichte fiir Geistliche u. d. Gemeine ausge- 
legt. Translated from the Dutch by A. Reifert. Brem., 1860. 2 vols. 

LIFE OF THE APOSTLE PAUL. 

* K. Schrader, der Apostel Paulus. Lpz., 1830-36. 5 parts. 

J. T. Hemsen, der Apostel Paulus ; sein Leben, Wirken und seme Schriften. Pub. 

by F. Liicke. Gott., 1830. 
H. A. Schott, Erorterung einiger wichtigen chronologischen Punkte in der Lebensge- 

schichte des Apostels Paulus. Jena, 1832. 

* F. C. Baur, Paulus der Apostel Jesu Christi. Stuttg., 1845. 2d ed., by E. Zeller. 

Lpz., 1866 f. 
Comp. the Replies by Dietlein (Halle, 1845), and Thiersch (Frankf., 1852). 
A. Fleury, St. Paul et Seneque. Par., 1853. 2 vols. 

* A. Hausrath, der Apostel Paulus. Heidelb., 1865. 2d ed. 1872. 

F. Bungener, S. Paul. Sa vie, son oeuvre, ses epitres. Par., 1867. 

* Ch. F. Trip, Paulus nach der Apostelgeschichte. Leyd., 1866. 
E. Renan, Paulus. (Par., 1869.) Eng. and Amer. eds., passim. 
M. Krenkel, Paulus, der Apostel der Heiden. Lpz., 1869. 

Popular : H. Lang, das Leben des Ap. Paulus. Winterth., 1866. Schwalb, der Ap. 

Paulus. 6 Yortrage. Zur., 1876. 0. Funke, St. Paulus zu Wasser und zu Lande. 

Brem., 1877. 
Comp. the article Paulus, der Apostel, u. seine Schriften, by J. P. Lange, in Herzog's 

Real-Encyclop. 
On John: M. Krenkel (Berl., 1871). J. H. Scholten, der Ap. Joh. in Kleinasien. 

From the Dutch, by Spiegel. Berl,, 1872. Also the exhaustive article on Paul, 

accompanied by maps. of his tours, in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. vii. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

On the Apostles in general, see Mant, Biography of the Apostles. Lond., 1840 ; Rich- 
ard Whateley, Lectures on the Character of our Lord's Apostles, and especially 
their Conduct at the Time of his Apprehension and Trial. (Lond., Parkers, 
1853); under each name in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia ; and the special 
treatment in the Histories of the Ancient Period, cited on pp. 120-124 of this 
work. 

PAUL AND JOHN. 

Henry Blunt, Lectures upon the History of St. Paul, delivered during Lent, at the 

Church of the Holy Trinity, Fpper Chelsea. Phila., 1839. 
C. M. Butler, St. Paul in Rome ; Lectures delivered in the Legation of the United 

States of America, in Rome, Phila., 1865. 



286 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

William Cave, Antiquitates Apostolicae ; or, the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the 

Holy Apostles of our Saviour. To which are added, Lives of the two Evangelists, 

St. Mark and St. Luke. With an Introductory Essay by Henry Stebbing. 2 vols. 

Lond., 1836. 
W. J. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, comprising a 

complete Biography of the Apostle, and a Paraphrastic Translation of his Epistles. 

2 vols. Lond., 1853, et passim. 
Philip Stanhope Dodd, A View of the Evidence Afforded by the Life and Ministry of 

St. Peter to the Truth of the Christian Revelation. Lond., 1837. 
r. W. Farrar (Canon), The Life and Work of St. Paul. N. Y., 1880. 
W. R. Freemantle, From Athens to Rome. Six Lectures on St. Paul's Visit to the 

Chief Cities of the Roman Empire. Lond., 1869. 
John S. Howson, The Character of St. Paul. (Hulsean Lectures.) N. Y., 18*73. 
The Metaphors of St. Paul and Companions of St. Paul, with an Introduction by 

H. B. Hackett, D.D. N. Y, 1872. 
Scenes in the Life of St. Paul. Lond., 1866. 



Thomas Lewin, The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. Lond., 1878. 

Alfred Lee, The Life of the Apostle John, in a Series of Practical Discourses. N". Y., 
1852. 

James M. Macdonald, The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited with an Introduc- 
tion, by J. S. Howson. N. Y, 1877. 

J. R. Macduff, St. Paul at Rome ; or, the Teaching, Fellowship, and Dying Testimony 
ot the Great Apostle in the City of the Caesars. Lond., 1871. 

The Footsteps of St. Paul. N. Y., 1856. 

Footsteps of St. Peter. N. Y. 

F. A. Malleson, The Acts and Epistles of St. Paul. Lond., 1881. 

William Paley, Horse Paulinae ; or, the Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul 
Evinced. N. Y., 1851, et passim. 

Charles Shakespeare, St. Paul at Athens ; Spiritual Christianity in Relation to some 
Aspects of Modern Thought. N. Y., 1879. 

James Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, with Dissertations on the Life 
and Writings of St. Luke, and the Ships and Navigation of the Ancients. 4th ed., 
Revised and Corrected by Walter E. Smith, with a Preface by the Bishop of Car- 
lisle, and Memoir. Lond., 1880. 

James Tate, The Horge Paulinse of William Paley, Carried out and Illustrated in a 
Continuous History of the Apostolic Labors and Writings of St. Paul, on the Basis 
of the Acts. Lond., 1840. 

SECTION VL 

THE HISTORICAL FOEM AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE 

BIBLE. 

BIBLICAL DOGMATICS AND THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 

J. P. Gabler, De juste discrlmine theologiae Mblicae et dogmaticae regundisque recte utri- 
usque flnibus, Alt., 1787, reprinted in Kleine theolg. Schriften, Ulm, 1831 ; A. G. F. Schirraer, 
Bibl. Dogmatik in ihrer Stellung u. ihrem VerhSltnisse zum Ganzen d. Theologie, Breslau, 1820; 
K. W. Stein, Begriff u. Behandlungsart d. Bibl. Theologie, in Keil u. Tzschirner's Analekten, 
vol. iii, No. 1 ; D. Schenkel, Aufgabe d. Bibl. Theol. i.d. gegenwartigen Entwicklungsstadien d. 
theol. Wissenschaft, Stud. u. Krit., 1852, i, pp. 40-66; Ch. F. Schmid, Interesse u. Stund d. Bibl. 
Theologie des N. T. in unserer Zeit, in Tubing. Zeitschr. fur Theol., 1838, 4 ; Nitzsch, in Herzog's 
Encykl. ii, p. 219 sqq. ; Al. v. Oettingen, Gesch. Charakter d. Bibl. Theologie Neuen Test., etc., 
in Dorpat, Zeitschr., 1870, pp. 1-54 ; T. D. Bernard, The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testa- 



HISTORICAL FORM OF THE BIBLE. 287 

ment (Bampton Lect. for 1864), Lond., 1864 ; James Donaldson, A Critical History Of Christian 
Literature and Doctrine, from the death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council. 3 vols., Lond., 
1864-66 ; Robert Rainy, Delivery and Development of Christian Doctrine (Cunningham Lect- 
ures), Edinb., 1874. 

Bible doctrine, like sacred history, results from exegesis, and, 
like sacred history, furnishes the basis for its further historical de- 
velopment. Inasmuch, however, as the contents of this study are 
systematic and didactic in their nature, it is found that the bound- 
aries of exegetical, historical, and systematic theology cross each 
other upon its soil, but in such a way as to make the historical ele- 
ment its chief foundation.* 

Biblical dogmatics^ is the intellectual bond which unites exeget- 
ical, historical, and dogmatical studies, the focus where the various 
rays are collected. On this account it forms, in many respects, a 
luminous point in theological study. The point from which it is 
regarded is of importance. If, without reference to gj^^^^j ^^ 
systematic development, it be considered simply as a matics a theo- 
collocation of proof texts in behalf of dogmatics, it be- °^^*^^ ^^^ ^^' 
comes the immediate fruit of exegesis; and, in point of fact, only 
an accomplished exegete is fitted to work in the field of biblical 
dogmatics. But if it be regarded as combined into a system, as 
governed by any leading idea, it will approach the positive science 
of dogmatics itself. Between these two operations, however, is a 
third, namely, the task of comprehending the revelation of the 
Bible itself as a historical fact in connexion with the spiritual de- 
velopment of mankind in other directions. In this way we come 
to occupy the ground of history. Biblical dogmatics is thus simply 
the internal side of sacred history. The representation of the life 
of Jesus requires a representation of his doctrine, or, better, of 
his divine and human consciousness, and his relation to the world 
and the history of mankind as conditioned by that consciousness, 
just as a proper conception of the idea that moved and deter- 

^ Schleiermacher, Danz, and Rosenkranz regard it as a historical science. Comp 
Gabler, p. 183 sqq. 

^ The name "Biblical Theology" which is preferred by some (Baumgarten-Crusius, 
Havernick, and, more recently, H. Schultz), is evidently either too broad, if the term 
theology be taken in the modern sense of a collection of the theological sciences, or 
too narrow, if it be taken to mean merely the doctrine concerning God. Comp. de 
Wette, Bibl. Dogm., and Danz, p. 301, note 1. The term Dogmatics may also be 
found to be too limited in its meaning; as Havernick says, "the fundamental ideas 
of ethics must also be included." Beck's expression, " The biblical science of doc- 
trine," would, accordingly, be the most appropriate. But so long as the ethical ideas 
alone are involved, and are not developed into a system of biblical ethics, the phrase 
Biblical Dogmatics may appropriately be retained. On the inadequacy of the term 
dogmatics in general, see later, on Systematic Theology. 



288 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

mined his entire life is the npCjrov klvovv of Christian dogmatics in 
generaL^ 

Life and doctrine dissolve into each other with Jesus as with none 
Relation of life of our mortal race. The life of an apostle, too, cannot 
and doctrine, j^g given in any other way than by placing before our 
eyes his inner life, as it was determined by intercourse with Jesus 
or by 'familiarity with his teaching.^ The history of doctrines 
issues from Church History, and becomes a separate branch of it. 
In the same way the material for the history of doctrines which is 
contained m the Bible can be utilized for the purposes of historical 
examination. Thus we acquire a juxtaposition of biblical doctrine 
as a point of departure for the history of Christian doctrines ; with 
the diiference, however, that it is not yet wrought out in scientific 
form, and is not a complete body of dogmatic ideas. These doc- 
trines are rather pliable substances, possessing the capacity for life, 
and include the germs of ethical as well as of dogmatical develop- 
ment, in accordance with which the systems of faith and morality 
in the Bible are chiefly given in combination. 

A largely systematizing treatment, or a purely historical and 
genetic procedure, may prevail in this regard, however, according 
as the contents of biblical doctrine are apprehended as a whole, 
thus constituting the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments ; or 
are divided, to correspond with diiferent times and persons, in thus 
forming the doctrine of Hebraism, of the later Judaism, of Jesus 
and the apostles ; or, with a still closer reference to persons, form- 
ing the teaching of Paul, of John, and others. Each of these is 
given, so far as possible, in its genetic development, which holds 
good especially of the Pauline system of doctrines.^ The more 
flexible the treatment of biblical dogmatics becomes in 
ment of bibii- this regard, and the more the material which has crys- 
cai dogmatics, ^^u^^ed into ideas is brought into its original flowing 
condition, the more closely will it approximate the history of doc- 
trines, and the more decidedly will it fall within the historical field. 
Bat if the leading object be to represent, in its internal connexion, 
and as the foundation of ecclesiastical doctrine, the substance of 

* On the peculiar difficulties of this task, see Schirmer, pp. 51-55. Should the first 
Gospels, or St. John, furnish the type ? 

"^ How St. Paul attained to his theology, and what is the relation of his teaching 
and that of the other apostles to the teaching of Jesus, are important inquiries in this 
connexion. See the treatise by Paret, referred to above, 

^ An analogous arrangement is possible in connexion with the Old Testament also, 
e. g., the religion of Abraham, Mosaism, the religion of David, Solomon, Isaiah, etc. 
The individual element is less prominent in the Old Testament, however, being lost in 
the theocratic, Comp. Schirmer, p, 50. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 289 

Bible teaching as developed through exegetical ' and historical in- 
quiry, biblical dogmatics will partake more largely of the nature 
of systematic theology. It will be distinguished from dogmatics 
proper, however, by confining itself entirely to the beginning, i. e., 
to the primitive Bible times, without in any way intruding upon 
ecclesiastical development. 

A certain view exists which designedly ignores such develop- 
ment, so that the history of doctrines becomes an article of luxury, 
and chooses to know no other than biblical dogmatics. This opinion 
will be examined hereafter, in connexion with the history of doc- 
trines. We may observe here, however, that, in assigning this posi- 
tion to biblical dogmatics, the aim is not to degrade it to a mere 
historical science, which could only be said with propriety if history 
were understood to designate what is antiquated. It is, on the 
other hand, our intention to lift it out from the rigid trammels of 
the letter into the living organism which forms the subject of his- 
torical inquiry. We do not, however, accept the view which holds 
that what was original is inferior and imperfect, and needs to be 
purified and elevated into the character of a higher wisdom.'^ The 
biblical doctrine, on the contrary, although by no means finished 
and complete in itself, and certainly needing to be explained in 
harmony with its historical development, continues to retain its 
normal dignity. The task of biblical dogmatics will be to so pre- 
sent this doctrine in its original vitality and its universal bearings 
upon the well-being of mankind, that the eternal and ever appli- 
cable idea of the God-given truth shall clearly and powerfully shine 
through the temporal veil of conceptions.^ 

SECTION VII. 

HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 

This science really began with the Reformation," for it was the 
Reformation that delivered the whole of the science of dogmatics 
from its scholastic fetters, and established it on the Bible. But 

* In exegesis the leading object is to recognize the tendency of the subjectivity and 
individuality in the original form ; in dogmatics we seek to discover the identity and 
truth of the matter. The unity of both tendencies, accompanied with a steady con- 
sciousness of their diversity, must therefore be the governing idea in biblical dog- 
hiatics. Usteri, Entwickl. d. Paulin. Lehrbegr., 4th ed., Pref., p. vii. 

^ Comp. Strauss, Glaubenslehre, i, p. lYY, and Schelling, Methode des akad. Studi- 
ums, p. 197 sqq. 

^ Very much that is valuable on the idea and method of this science may be found 
in Havernick, Bibl. Dogmatik, p. 1 sqq. 

"* This does not deny that biblical theology, in the wide sense, has its origin in 
common with that of theology in general ; for " the fathers of Alexandrian Christianity 
19 



290 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

biblical dogmatics was yet united with ecclesiastical by the Re- 
formers Melanchthon and Calvin ; and when, in the seventeenth 
century, scholasticism again intruded itself into dogmatics, it was 
found necessary to remain contented with mere observations, as in 
Vitringa, or, so far as biblical dogmatics as distinguished from 
ecclesiastical was concerned, with expositions of Scripture texts, as 
in Seb. Schmidius, Collegium Biblicum, Argent., 1671-76 ; Hulse- 
mann, Vindiciae S. S. per loca classica systematis theol., Lips., 1679; 
Majus, Theologia prophetica, Francof., 1710; and Baier, Analysis et 
Vindicatio illustrium S. S. dictorum, Altorf, 1719. Spener's pietism, 
Pietism. at the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the 
eighteenth centuries, again aroused a feeling for the restoration of 
the simple teaching of the Scriptures, but particularly with refer- 
ence to its practical rather than its scientific aspects. 

Theologia Biblica was understood to signify a popular, pre- 
sentation of the system of belief. It is remarkable that rationalism 
became the agency for turning back the current into the proper 
channel, its tendency in opposition to ecclesiastical orthodoxy caus- 
ing it to labor for the separation of the Bible doctrine from that of 
the Church, and to endeavor to present it in its purity. In this 
effort it took away, however, the brightest of the peculiar orna- 
ments of doctrine, so that the thinning out process of rationalizing 
abstraction left only the caput mortuum of a supposed rational doc- 
trine. J. G. Semler published his historical and critical collections 
on the "so-called proof passages of dogmatics" (Halle, 1764-68) 
in this spirit, and Gabler wrote the work mentioned above with a 
like aim. The supernaturalists of that century saw themselves 
compelled, in the interests of a positive belief in the Bible teaching, 
to recognize the distinction between biblical and ecclesiastical doc- 
Eider Tubing- trine. The elder Tubingen school (Storr, Flatt, Bengel, 
en school. Steudel) took the lead in this direction. The Biblical 
Theology of G. T. Zachariae (five parts, the last by Yollborth, Gott., 
1771-86), for instance, was written from the orthodox point of 
view; while Hufnagel's work (Erl., 1785-89) was composed in the 
interest of rationalism. Ammon, L. Bauer, and Bretschneider were 
likewise more or less in sympathy with the latter tendency. Con- 
cerning Kaiser, de Wette, Baumgarten-Crusius, von Colin, Vatke, 
and Bruno Bauer, and also with regard to the more recent develop- 
ment of this science in general, comp. Havernick, Bibl. Dogm., 2d 
ed., p. 8 sqq., and Nitzsch, supra. 

were essentially biblical theologians ; " comp. N"itzsch, p. 220, where attention is also 
called to the services of Erasmus, in whose works " the most valuable outlines of a 
Theologia Biblica are contained." 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. S91 

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 

I. IN GENERAL. 

C. F. Ammon, Biblische Theologie. Erl, 1792. 2d ed., 1801-2. 3 vols. 

G. L. Bauer, Theologie des A. T. Lpz., 1796. Des N. T., ebend., 1800-2. 4 vols. 

Bibl. Moral des A. T., ebend., 1803-5. 2 vols. Des N. T., ebend., 1804-5. 2 vols. 
K. G. Bretsehneider, System. Darsteilung der Dogmatik und Moral der apokryphischen 

Schriften des A. T. Lpz., 1805. 
L. D. Cramer, Versuch einer system. Darsteilung der Moral der Apok. des A. T. 

Lpz., 1815. 
H. H. Chedius, Uransichten des Christenthums. Altona, 1808. 
G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, die bibl. Theologie, oder Judaismus und Christianismus. Erlang., 

1813-21. 2 vols. 

* W. M. L. de Wette, bibl. Dogmatik A. und N. T. oder krit. Darsteilung der Relig- 

ionslehre des Ilebraismus, des Judenthums und des Urchristenthums (1st part of 
the Lehrb. der christl. Dogmatik). Berlin, 1^13. 3d ed., 1831. 
L. F. 0. Baumgarten.Crusius, Grundziige der bibl. Theol, Jena, 1828. 

D. von Colin, bibl. Theologie: herausg. von D. Schulz. Lpz. 1836. 2 vols, 
W. Vatke, die Religion des A. T. Berl., 1835. 

B. Bauer, die Religion des A. T. 2 vols. Berl, 1838 f. 

J. G. Knapp, bibl. Glaubenslehre. Halle, 1840. Amer. ed., transl. by Woods. N. Y., 
1848. 

* J. T. Beck, die christl. Lehrwissenschaft nach den biblischen Urkunden. Stutt- 

gart, 1841. 2d ed., 1875. 
J. Ch. F. Steudel, Vorlesungen tiber die Theologie des A. T. Edited by Oehler. 
Berl., 1840. 

* G. F. Oehler, Prolegomena zur Theologie des A. T. Stuttg., 1845. 

* H. A. C. Havernick, Vorlesungen, iiber die Theol. des A. T. ; edited by Ilahn, pref. 

by Dorner. Erlang., 1848. 2d ed., with notes by Herm. Schultz. Frankf. a. M., 
1863. 

* J. L. S. Lutz, bibl. Dogmatik, des N. T. ; edited by R. Riietschi, pref. by Schnecken- 

burger. Pforzheim, 1847. 2d ed., 1861. 

* Chr. F. Schraid, bibl. Theologie des. N. T. ; herausg. von C. Weizsacker. Stuttg., 1853. 

2 vols. 3d ed., 1864. 
L. Roack, die bibl. Theol. Einleit. ins A. und N. T. Halle, 1853. 
G. L. Hahn, die Theologie des N. T. 1st vol. Lpz., 1854. 
Chr. F. Baur, Vorlesungen iiber neutestamentl. Theologie. Hamb., 1864. 

* Herm. Schultz, alttestamentliche Theologie. Die Offenbarungsreligion auf ihrer vor- 

christl. Entwickelungsstufe. 2 vols. Frankf. a. M., 1869. 2d ed., 1878.' 
J. J. van Oosterzee, die Theologie des Neuen Testaments. Barmen, 1869. Lond. ed. 

(transl.), 1870. 
*B. Weiss, Lehrbuch der bibl. Theol. des N. Test. Berl., 1868. 3d ed., 1880. 
H. Ewald, die Lehre der Bibel von Gott od. Theologie des alten und neuen Bundes. 

4 parts. Lpz., 1871-76. 
G. F. Oehler, Theologie des A. Test. 2 vols. Tiib., 1873-74. 
A. Immer, neutest. Theologie. Bern, 1878. 

^ In the category of Biblical Dogmatics we may name J. Cli. K. v. Hofmann's Schrifthemers, 
Norkinger, 18.52-55, 2 parts. 2d ed., 1857-60. It Is more systematic than historical. It contains 
the exegetical basis of dogmatics in general from the author's peculiar point of view. 



293 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

II. SINGLE SECTIONS. DOCTRINES OP INDIVIDUAL BIBLICAL CHARACTERS AND WRITERS. 

1. Old Testament. 

A. Knobel, der Prophetismus der Hebraer. 2 parts. Breslau, 183Y. 

E. W. Hengstenberg, Christologie des A. T. und Commentar iiber die messianischen 
Weissagungen, der propheten. Berl., 1829-32. 2 vols. Eng. ed. 4 vols. Edinb., 
1854-59. 

f J. Bade, Christologie des A. T. Miinst., 1852. 2d ed., 1858. 2 vols. 
J. Engelbert, das negative Verdienst des A. T. urn die Unsterblichkeitslehre. Berl., 
1857. 

F. W. C. Umbreit, die Siinde. Beitr. zur Theologie des. A. T. Gotha, 1853. 
J. H. Kurtz, zur Theologie der Psalmen. Dorpat, 1865. 

A. Kahle, bibUsche Eschatologie. Eschatologie des Alten Testaments. Gotha, 

1870. 
J. C. R. von Hofmann, Weissagung und Erfiillung. Nordl., 1841-44. 2 parts. 

G. Baur, Gesch. der alttest. Weissagung. Giessen, 1861. 
Kiiper, das Prophetenthum des A. Bundes. Lpz., 1869. 

A. Kuenen, de Godsdienst van Israel tot den ondergang van den Joodsehen Staat. 
Haarlem, 1869. 

de Profeten en de Profetie onder Israel. Leiden, 1875. 

B. Duhm, Theologie der Propheten als Grundlage fiir die innere Entwicklungsgeseh. 
der Israel. Religion. Bonn, 1875. Compare on the other hand, R. Smend, Moses 
apud prophetas. Halle, 1876. 

t H. Zschocke, Theol. der Propheten des A. T. Freib., 1877. 
James Drummond, The Jewish Messiah. Lond., 1877. 

E. Stapfer, les idees religieuses en Palestine a I'epoque de Jesus Christ. 2. ed. 
Paris, 1878. 

2, N'ew Testament. 

a. Doctrine of Jesus (Biblical Christology) : 

Ch. F. Bohme, die Religion Jesu Christi, aus ihren Urkunden dargestellt. Halle, 1825. 

2d ed., 1827. The same : die Religion der Apostel Jesu Christi, etc. Halle, 

1829. 
A. Schumann, Christus oder die Lehre des A. und N. T. von der Person des Erlosers, 

bibl. dogmatisch entwickelt, Hamb., 1852. 2 vols, 
G. Volkmar, die Religion Jesu und ihre erste Entwicklung nach dem gegenwartigen 

Stande der Wissenschaft. Lpz., 1857. 
W. Beyschlag, die Christologie des N. T. Berl, 1866. 

C. Wittichen, die idee Gottes als des Vaters. Ein Beitrag zur bibl. Theol. haupt- 
sachlich der synoptischen Reden Jesu. Gott., 1865; die Idee des Menschen. 
2. Beitrag zur bibl. Theol., etc. Gott., 1868 ; die Idee des Reiches Gottes. 3. Bei- 
trag zur bibl. Theol., etc. Gott., 1872. 

W. Weiffenbach, der Wiederkunftsgedanke Jesu. Nach den Synoptikern kritisch 
untersucht und dargestellt. Lpz., 1873. 

b. Doctrines of the Apostles. 

•f J. A. B. Lutterbeck, die neutestam. LehrbegrifPe. Mainz, 1852. 2 vols. 

H, Messner, die Lehre der Apostel und neutestamentl. Schriftsteller. Lpz., 1856. 

c. Doctrinal Views of Individual Apostles and New Testament Writers. 
J. F. Kleuker, Johannes, Petrus, und Paulus als Christologen. Riga, 1875. 
C. Chr. E. Schmidt, de theologia Joannis Apost. II. progrr. Jenae, 1801. 



HISTORY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 293 

K. R. Kostlin, der Lehrbegriff des Evang. u. der Brief e Johaiinis, Berl., 1843. 

(i. C. L. Froramann, der Johanueische Lehrbegriff, etc. Lpz., 1839. 

A. Ililgenfeld, das Evaugelium und die Briefe Johannis nach ihrem Lehrbegriff dar- 

gestellt. Halle, 1849. 
* L. L^steri, Entwickelung des Paulinischen LelirbegrifFs in seinem Verhaltnisse zur 

bibl. Dogniatik des N. T. Zurich, 1824. 6th ed., 1851. 

A. F. Dahne, Eatwickelung des paulinischen Lehrbegriffs. Halle, 1835. 

J. F. Raebiger, de christologia Paulina contra Bauriuni comraentatio. Vratisl., 1852. 
R. A. Lipsius, die Paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre. Mit Vorwort von Liebner. 
Lpz., 1858. 

B. Weiss, die petrinische Lehrbegriff, etc. Berl., 1855. 

der johanueische Lehrbegriff in seiuen Grundziigen untersucht. Berl., 1862. 

K. Holsten, zum Evang. des Paulus u. Petrus. Altes u. Neues. Rostock, 1868. 
K. A. Riehm, der Lehrbegriff des Hebriierbriefes. Ludwigsb., 1858. 2d ed., 1866.^ 
f Simar die Theologie des heiligen Paulus. Freiburg, 1864. 
A. Sabatier, I'apotre Paul. Esquisse d'une histoire de sa pensee. Strassb., 1870. 
Ernesti, die Ethik des Apostels Paulus. Braunschw., 1868. 2d ed. Lpz., 1875. 
R. Schmidt, die Paulinische Christologie in ihrem Zusammenhang mit der Heilslehre 

des Apostels dargestellt. Gott., 1870. 
H. Liideraann, die Anthropologic des Apostels Paulus und ihre Stellung innerhalb 

seiner Heilslehre. Kiel, 1872. 
0. Pfleiderer, der Paulinismus. Ein Beitr. zur Gesch. der Urchristl. Theol. Lpz., 

1873 
H. Opitz, das System des Paulus nach seinen Briefen. Gotha, 1 873. 
Irons, Christianity as taught by St. Paul. London, 1876. 
Wold. Schmidt, der Lehrgehalt des Jacobus Briefes. Lpz., 1869. 
H. Gebhardt, der Lehrbegr. der Apocalypse. Gotha, 1 873. 

Biblical Psychology must be named as a branch of Biblical Dogmatics, and has re- 
cently met with its special representatives : 

J. T. Beck, Umriss der biblischen Seelenlehre. Stuttg., 1843. 2d ed. Tiib., 1862. 
Fz. Delitzsch, System der biblischen Psychologic. Lpz,, 1856. 2d ed., Lpz., 1861. 

1 Earlier: G. W. Meyer, Entwickelung des paul. Lehrbegriffs. Altona, 1801. G. L. Bauer (?), 
reine Auffassung des Urchristenthums In den paul. Briefen. Lpz., 1805. Cb. F. Bohme, Ideen 
iiber das System des Ap. Paulus (in Henke's Museum fiir Religionswissenschaft III, 540 fl.). 
t J. B. Gerhauser, Charakter und Theologie des Ap. Paulus. Landsh., 1816. 



294 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION YIIL 

CHUECH HISTORY. 

J, Jortin, The Use and Importance of Ecclesiastical History. Pp. 405-454 of vol. vii of Works, 
Lend., 1772 ; Herder's Adrastea, Werke zur Philosopbie u. Gesch., x, p, 17C ; J. G. Mueller, Ideen 
ub. Stud. d. Kirchengesctilchte, in his Reliquen alter Zeiten (Lpz., 1803-6, 4 vols.) ii, p. 1 sqq. ; 
A. H. Niemeyer, Die hohe Wichtigheit u, d. zweckmiissigste Methode eines fortgesetzten Stadi- 
ums der Religions- und Kirchengeschichte fiir praktiscbe Religionslehrer, in the preface to 
Fuhrman's Handvvorterbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Halle, 1826; F. F. Rosegarten, Studium 
Plan u. Darstellung der Kirchengeschichte, Reval, 1824 ; K. Ullmann, Stellung des Klrchenhis- 
torikers in uns. Zeit, in Stud. u. Krit., 1829, No. 3, p. 667 ; J. A. H. Tittmann, Behandlung d. 
Kirchengeschichte, etc., in Illgen's Zeitschr. f . hist. Theologie, i, 2, (per contra Gieseler in Stud. 
u. Krit., 1833, No. 4, p. 1139) ; Schleiermacher, § 149-194; Daub, Zeitschr. f. spec. Theologie, 1836, 
vol. i. No. 1 ; C. W. Niedner, Zeichnung des Umfangs f . d. nothwendigen Inhalt allgera. Gesch. 
d. Christl. Religion, in Stud. u. Krit., 1853, No. 4, pp. 787-905 ; Hagenbach in Herzog's Encykl. 
s. V. Kirchengeschichte, vol. vii, p. 622 sqq. 

Philip Schafl, What is Church History? A Vindication of the Idea of Historical Development, 
Phila., 1846 ; W. G. T. Shedd, Lectures upon the Philosophy of History, Andover, 1856 ; Na- 
ture and Influence of the Historic Spirit in Theology, Essays, pp. 53-120, N. Y„ 1877; E. C. 
Smyth, Value of the Study of Church History in Ministerial Education, Andover. 1874; A. P. 
Stanley (Dean), Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History, Oxf., 1857. 

The central point of historical theology is Church History. It is 
the history of the outwardly visible community within whose limits 
the kingdom of God, which Christ founded, is manifested, and at- 
tains to its ultimate development. 

Church history is certainly dependent upon our conception of the 
real nature of the Church.^ But a completed doctrine of the Church 

* On the meaning of suKlrjGLa (pHp T]1V) comp. Gieseler, Ch. Hist., 8 1 ; Bret- 

T 'r T •• 

Schneider, Systemat. Entwicklung aller in d. Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (4th 
ed., 1841), p. 749; Jacobson, Individualitat des Wortes u. Begriffes Kirdhe (in ibid., 
Kirchenrechtl. Versuchen, I, 58-125). The word "church" (Germ, kirehe) has been 
derived from to KvpiaKov rj KvpiaKr]^ curia, from the Celtic cyrch or cylch (central-point, 
place of assembl)'), and from the Teutonic kieren, koren, or kiesen (to choose), sup- 
posed to have been connected with the Latin circus or with keliku (a tower), etc. 
Comp. Wackernagel, Alt d. Worterbuch, and Gravell, Die Kirehe : Ursprung u. Be- 
deutung des deutschen Wortes (Gorlitz, 1856) ; for the derivation of KvpLog comp. 
Grimm, deutsches W. B., v, p. 790 ff. 

" There can," says Trench, *' be no reasonable doubt that ' church ' is originally from 
the Greek, and signifies * that which pertains to the Lord,' or ' the house which is the 
Lord's.' But here a difficulty meets us. How explain the presence of a Greek word 
in the vocabulary of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers ? for that we derive the word medi- 
ately from them, and intermediately from the Greek, is certain. What contact, direct 
or indirect, was there between the languages to account f or^ this ? The explanation is 
curious. While the Anglo-Saxons and other tribes of the Teutonic stock were almost 
universally converted by their contact with the Latin Church in the western provinces 
of the Roman Empire, or by its missionai'ies, yet it came to pass that before this 
some of the Goths on the lower Danube had been brought to the knowledge of Christ 
by Greek missionaries from Constantinople ; and this word KvpiaKT], or church, did, 
with certain others, pass over from the Greek to the Gothic tongue ; and these Goths, 
the first converted to the Christian faith, the first, therefore, that had a Christian 
vocabulary, lent the word in their turn to the other German tribes, among others to 



CHURCH HISTORY. 295 

is no more to precede Churcli history than a doctrine of the person 
of Christ should form the introduction to a life of Je- History to pre- 
sus. It is, indeed, impossible to ascertain the nature of cede doctrine. 
the Church in any other way than through its history. Ko great 
progress can be made by the adoption of the abstract notion of a 
religious association, whose origin is, perhaps, conceived after the 
analogy of Rousseau's Social Contract.* It will, accordingly, be nec- 
essary to start out, with Gieseler, with the statement that " the 
Church is a particular and historically given conception," which 
must not be generalized into that of a religious society. To speak 
of the Church relations of the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindus is 
inexact, and the expression, " the Christian Church," ^^^ ^^^ 
is, properly taken, a tautology, or derives its signifi- not merely a 
cation from the contrast to the more specific concep- ^"^^^^ ^' 
tions of Catholic and Protestant, or of Romish, Spanish, and Ger- 
man Churches. 

Some writers, such as Stolberg, have extended the idea backward 
into the Old Testament. But it would be equally proper to include 
Old Testament Christology in the life of Jesus. Nor does the life 
of Jesus belong within the range of Church history, which has its 
beginnings at the point where the circle of the earliest disciples 
begins to extend beyond the limits of a private association, and 
where a congregational organization is introduced. Hence Church 
history commences, strictly, as early as the apostolic period, but 
not until after the departure of Jesus from the earth. For this 
reason a maiority of scholars reo^ard the day of Pente- „ , , ,^ 

. "^ . P . . Pentecost the 

cost following ascension as the birthday of the Christian beginning of 
Church. The apostolic period, at the same time, can *^® c^^'^c . 
only be considered the substructure upon which the edifice of the 
visible Church is reared, or the root from which the mighty tree 

our Anglo-Saxon forefathers; thus it has come round by the Goths from Constanti- 
nople to us. The passage most illustrative of the parentage of the word is from 
Walafrid Strabo (about 840), who writes thus: 'Ab ipsis autem Graecis Kyrch a Ky- 
rios — et alia multa accepimus. Sicut domus Dei Basilica, i. e. Regia a Rege, sic etiam 
Kyrica, i. e. Dominica a Domino nuncupatur. Si autem quassitur, qua occasione ad 
nos vestigiatige : graecitatis advenerint, dicendum praecipue a Gothis, qui et Getse, cum 
extempore, quo ad fidem Christi perducti sunt, in Gragcorum provinciis commorante, 
nostrum, i. e. theotiscum sermonem Labuerint.' " Study of Words, pp. 79-81, N. Y., 
1854. 

^ Comp. Locke: "A church I take to be a voluntary society of men, joining them- 
selves together of their own accord, in order to the public worshipping of God, in such 
a manner as they judge acceptable to him and effectual to the saving of their souls." 
Works, vol. ii, p. 145, Lond., 1*751. For the insufficient and unhistorical nature of 
this view, comp. C. H. Weisse, Reden tiber die Zukunft der evaugelischen Kirche, 
Lpz., 1849, p. 29 sgg. 



296 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

grows, with branches interlacing like an involved network. li 
the Church be regarded as a complex organization of communities, 
and if for that very reason it be again distinguished from those 
communities, it will be apparent that Church history, in the strict 
sense, begins where the external union of such communities has 
already been consolidated.^ But the idea of the Church must be 
defined with respect to its nature, as well as its range through 
time and space, and, at this point, care is needed to guard against 
both a false idealism and a superficial empiricism. The correct 
view, by which the external and internal, visible and invisible, are 
apprehended in their proper connexion and correlation, but are 
likewise distinguished from each other, and according to which 
Church history has to do with the actualization of the kingdom of 
God in time and under determinate relations of time and place, 
r^^ r.^ T- . Stands midway between the purely social and abstract 

The Church is . ♦' . . . 

notaione social notion and the strictly theocratic view. For, according 
or theocratic. ^^ ^^^^ social view, the Church is merely an association 
of accidental origin, analogous to an insurance company, while the 
theocratic conception represents the Church as absolutely Divine 
even in its outward manifestation. The social form, which takes 
its shape under the influence of apparently accidental occurrences, 
constitutes the body of the Church, while the idea which is devel- 
oped in harmony with the laws of spiritual freedom, and there- 
fore by an inward necessity, is its soul.'^ Church history is re 
quired to estimate both according to their true value, because 
they would otherwise represent a life that is neither a corpse nor a 
ghost. ^ 

SECTION IX, 

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHURCH. 

The Church, like every other phenomenon endowed with life, has 
an external or bodily, and an internal or spiritual, side to its nature. 

mi, /.v, T, These cannot be sundered from each other, thoup^h they 

The Church , 7 i=) j 

both external may be separated to a certain extent, and severally 
and internal, ^^eated with particular attention. In this way the dif- 
ferent, but constantly interacting, departments of church life come 
into being, which determine the arrangement of the material of 
Church history, both with regard to the logical rubrics under 

^ Rothe fixes the beginning of Church history as late as the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem ; see his Anf ange der christl. Kirche. 

** Schleiermacher, § 51. 

^Concerning the relation of the ideal to the historical Church, see Schweizer, 
Glaubenslehre, p. 183 sq. 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 297 

which it is to be placed and the more independent artistic com- 
bination and connexion of the matter itself. 

Christianity entered the world, and was compelled to assume re- 
lations toward it. So, too, was the world required to enter into 
relations with Christianity. Christ himself had compared the king- 
dom of God to leaven which leavens the whole lump, and to a 
mustard seed which should develop into a wide-spreading tree. 
The expansive element is contained in the nature and the destina- 
tion of Christianity — the Church must grow. In the first stages of 
the life of an individual the outward growth is more noticeable, 
and calculated to excite remark ; and Church history has, similarly 
and most naturally, to deal, in its earliest periods, with the exten- 
sion of Christianity. By the side of the expansion. Expansion and 
however, we must trace the history of the limitation of Limitation. 
Christianity — the persecutions — even as the shadow moves along 
with the person. For our Lord had even foretold that his Church 
would be obliged to suffer persecution. 

The two elements cannot be torn asunder, since the extension of 
the Church often gave rise to persecution, while the latter, being 
overruled by God, aided in the extension. The blood of the martyrs 
was the seed of the Church. Christianity struck its roots into the 
world, however, in proportion as its outward extent increased, and 
its growth involved, as well, the strengthening of the body of the 
Church. This must be regarded as the necessary condition of the 
life of the Church, although it seems to be connected with the dan- 
ger of unduly emphasizing the body, and reducing the Church to 
the level of the world. To trace this incorporating process, and with 
it the course of partial secularization which it involves, is the task 
of the history of the constitution of the Church. But, constitution oi 
in connexion with this, we must give attention to the t^e Church, 
relations of the Church to the State, especially when, under Con- 
stantine, the latter became Christian; and to the internal social 
conditions of the Church itself, such as the separation of the clergy 
from the laity, gradations of rank among the clergy, the develop- 
ment of the hierarchy, morbid excrescences, divisions or schisms in 
the Church, and such special phenomena in connexion with its life 
as monasticism, the vita canonica. But within this body, composed 
as it is of numerous members, for whose study an acute eye is cer- 
tainly necessary, the soul of the life of Christianity unfolded itself, 
being partly carried forward and partly hindered by the Thesoui-iifeof 
body. So, Church History, as a branch of theological the church. 
study, is first of a-11 to fix its attention upon the souL The soul-life 
of the Church, moreover, as manifested in worship, doctrine, and 



398 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

custoras, is not only bound organically to the bodily element by 
numerous ties — for the history of the constitution of the Church 
holds an unmistakable relation of interaction to the history of wor- 
ship and of doctrine — but it surrounds itself with a separate body. 
Worship seeks expression in various forms of art, and doctrine 
assumes the form of dogma, more or less fully developed, while 
both are determined by the spirit of special times and peoples, and 
b}^ the degree of culture which has been attained by any particular 
age. It is, of course, true that Christian teachings and customs 
have superseded the old and replaced it by the new ; 
ditions super- but they have also been determined and modilied from 
^^ ® ■ that very direction. The history of worship, doctrine, 

and customs, is, therefore, connected with the general history of 
civilization, in like manner as the history of the constitution stands 
related to ordinary political history. 

No one side of the life of the Church can be thoroughly compre- 
hended apart from the other. It would, therefore, be improper to 
treat Church history in the form of rubrics constructed on a merely 
external and logical plan, like the drawers in a sideboard. On the 
contrary, the richer the manifestation of that life is at certain points 
where it pulsates, the more impossible is it to enforce such a divis- 
ion. This is illustrated by the Reformation, which forces its way 
through all such limitations, with their superscriptions, by includ- 
ing in its scope at once the constitution, worship, doctrine, and life. 
Advantao-e of ^^ arrangement of the material in the form of extended 
Rroupings. groupings, by which means, at times, one feature of the 
life of the Church may be brought into prominence, and at other 
times another, admits of great diversity in the shadings of the rep- 
resentation, and is, for this reason, certainly preferable, in an artistic 
point of view, to the abstract mode of treatment by topics.^ 

It should not be forgotten, however, in the interests of metho- 
dology, that the storing away of the material in the memory is 
facilitated by the arrangement in tabular rubrics, and that the 
artistic treatment can be profitably employed only where a knowl- 
edge of the facts of history already exists.^ It will be sufficient if, 
in connexion with the rubrical arrangement, we continually observe 

the dependence of the several departments upon each 
A necessary ^ ^ . ^ ^ , 

change of ru- Other, and direct attention to the links of the organic 
bncs. chain. The rubrics, moreover, will be required 'to 

change their titles and relation to each other with the change of 

^ Comp. the works of Henke, Spittler, Hase, Schleiermacher, etc. 
^ Warnings have, with propriety, been raised against too much cutting up of the 
material ; comp. Fricke, Lehrb. der Kirchengesch., Part I, Pref., p. ix, and § 9. 



DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 299 

times. It would, for example, be highly improper to assign the lead- 
ing place in connexion with later times to the extension of Christian- 
ity, whose place has, in the course of progress, been removed from 
the centre to the circumference, while the foreground is occupied by 
the Church itself, whose outward form was, in the Middle Ages, 
conditioned by the papacy with its hierarchy. At the time of the 
Reformation, teaching, or dogma, again comes into the foreground. 
Such changes of scenery are positively necessary in order to avoid 
that fatal monotony of style which prevents the presentation from 
producing the proper impression. However, material cannot be ar- 
ranged under such categories alone. Sometimes individual churches, 
in which the Christian spirit has taken on a peculiar stamp, such as 
the Church of Africa, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Germany, or 
Slavonia, demand a separate treatment. Sometimes great and ex- 
citing events, that shake the entire Church, and the world itself, 
break through the framework of established rubrics, and claim a 
special treatment. This applies, for example, to the history of the 
Crusades and the Reformation. A mode of arrangement that 
regulates itself according to the nature of the material will, conse- 
quently, become necessary, and in such plan the division with re- 
gard to time, or into periods, demands special attention. 

SECTION X. 
DIVISION IXTO PERIODS. 

The categories according to which the rich material of Church 
history is distributed, whatever may be their character, will be 
crossed by the lines of chronological division. The measure of 
these lines is found in those epochal events which have an import- 
ant bearing upon the whole of the history, but not in the external 
symmetry of plan, or in occurrences of subordinate importance for 
the Church. 

The division by centuries has, since Mosheim, been almost uni- 
versally given up. The principle of outward symme- The centuriai 
try, which certainly cannot be justified on scientific division wrong, 
grounds, lay at its basis. But it cannot be denied, on the other 
hand, that the beginning of a new century, for example, the eigh- 
teenth, occasionally introduces an epoch.^ The special point at 

^ To divide a historical representation by centuries is connected with inconvenient 
consequences. Events are not brought sharply to a close with any of them ; the life 
and actions of mankind reach over from one to another. But all the reasons which 
govern any method of arrangement are based simply on some preponderating feature. 
Certain influences appear prominently in a certain century, without suggesting a de- 
sire to mistake the preparation for them, or to deny the future consequences they 
may have produced. — Goethe, Farbeul, ii, p. 169. 



300 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

which the epoch that introduces a new period is to be assumed can 
hardly be definitely fixed, an approximation being the most that 
can ordinarily be secured. While Schleiermacher remarks that " the 
epochal points of chief importance are always such as not only j)os- 
sess equal value for the functions of Christianity, but are also im- 
portant to historical development outside the Church,"* and the 
principle is correct in the main, attention may yet be called to the 
idea that distinct stages of development may be apparent in one 
field sooner than in the other, and that, therefore, the epochs of 
Church history can scarcely be identical with those of the history 
of the world. 

The dependence upon theology, to which the latter was subjected 
in former days, may account for the custom of regarding certain 
great phenomena in the religious sphere, particularly the introduc- 
tion of Christianity and the Reformation, in the light of epochs in 
the history of the world as well. Indeed, they certainly are such 
to the profounder researches of history mto the past, though not to 
the immediate historical perception.^ The influence of Christianity 

, upon the history of the world did not become apparent 

Influences of ^ -^ . ^ ^ 

Christianity not until much later, at the time of the overthrow of the 
immediate. Roman Empire in the West. This event, therefore, is 
better suited to be made an epoch in secular history than the 
immediate appearance of Christianity in the world, although the 
latter constitutes the most natural beginning of Church history. 

A similar idea will apply to the Reformation. The political 
transformation of Europe, which was doubtless directly promoted 
by the religious revolution, delayed its appearance in the world of 
phenomena until the Peace of Westphalia. The latter, accordingly, 
possesses greater significance for political history than does the 
Reformation, while, in importance to Church history, it is inferior 
to the Reformation. In like manner, other and even religious 
events, for example, the appearance of Mohammed, occur, and form 
epochs in the sphere of secular history, which yet have but a sub- 
ordinate importance for Church history as such, however grave may 
have been the consequences that reacted upon the fortunes of the 
Church. An agreement of opinions will always be most readily 
secured with reference to epochs in connexion with which the fac- 
tor that moulds a period ^ is most prominently displayed. These, 
therefore, are epochs in the full breadth of the word. 

'§ 165. 

2 Christianity is, no doubt, the hinge between the Old and the New "World, but the 
hinge itself has a breadth — of centuries ! 

^ The distinction between epoch and period is assumed to be from secular history. 



DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 301 

In this sense tlie adoption of Christianity by Constantine, and the 
connected introduction of that faith to be the state relig- -what consti- 
ion, unquestionably constitutes an epoch, although it may ^"^^^ ^^ epoch. 
be dithcult to decide what year should begin the new period — A. D. 
306, 312, or 325. With equal certainty Gregory YII. forms a strik- 
ingly noticeable feature in the history of the development of the 
papacy, and hence of the institution with which the character of the 
Church of the Middle Ages is involved. Nor will it escape the eye 
of the observer that the period from Gregory VII. to the Reforma- 
tion embraces three stages — the progress of the papacy to the time 
of Innocent III.; its hold upon the elevation attained, to Boniface 
YIIL; and its subsequent decline, which may also be dated from 
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon at a somewhat later day, 
down to the period of the Reformation.* 

Finally, none will deny that the division of the Church in the 
sixteenth century forms an epoch in the treatment of ^^^ Reformar 
Church history from both a Roman Catholic and a Prot- tion a univer- 
estant point of view, although the Council of Trent, 
rather than the Reformation, will be the turning point in the for- 
mer case.^ It will prove more difficult to find, on the other hand, 
one or more resting places — excepting Gregory the Great and Char- 
lemagne, who are commonly assumed — between Constantine and 
Gregory VII. that would be equally acceptable to all persons. It 
is likewise difficult to fix an epoch between the Reformation and 
our own time, though all are compelled to acknowledge that a crisis 
intervened after the Thirty Years' War, and again during the first 
decades of the eighteenth century. It is difficult, however, to con- 
nect these with some single event of marked prominence, in- 
asmuch as a multitude of factors co-operated to bring about 
the revolution in the character of that time. It follows that the 
settling of definite epochs will remain subject to a certain amount 
of fluctuations, which, however, involves no loss to science when 
the points upon which the whole must turn are clearly appre- 
hended. 

^ To overlook the wholly diverse nature of these two courses of development, and 
the epochal effect of the removal of the chair to Avignon, is to misunderstand the 
principal features in which the life of the Church pulsates. — Rettberg, Pref. to vol. 
vii. of Schmid's Kirchengesch, p. vii. It is not easy to say why Gregory VII, should 
not himself present a suitable beginning for a new period. — Fricke, i., p. 12. 

^ It is apparent how very different the periodizing of the history of the Reforma- 
tion must be when regard is had to the Reformation in Germany alone from what it 
would become when that of other lands is also treated. It is usual to conclude the 
history of the Reformation with the religious Peace of Augsburg (1555), but this 
fifrjxfs, a real conclusion only for the German branch of ecclesiastical history. 



303 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XI. 
PEOPER TREATMENT OP CHURCH HISTORY, 

The requirements for a thorough and profitable treatment of 
Church history, are: 

1. An impartial i-ecognition of the facts secured by the inves- 
tigation of extant sources and documents. This is historical crit- 
icism. 

2. Unbiassed estimation of the historical material in harmony 
with the law of the lower and higher causality. This we may call 
historical pragmatism. 

3. A living interest in Christianity, and a disposition to value its 
manifestations according to the Christian standard. This is relig- 
ious fervour or enthusiasm. 

1. It is evident that what has been indicated above can be re- 
quired only of this study in its finished state. This holds good es- 
pecially of the study of sources,^ which can be required of the 
beginner only in limited measure, and in connexion with which the 
labours of others must in any case prepare his way. Every theo- 
logian should, nevertheless, engage in the study of sources in some 
directions, even though not intending to make a specialty of Church 
history, with a view to quicken the historical faculty, and become 
able to estimate the labours of others in this field. 

The criticism to be employed on sources is twofold. In one re- 
Twofoid criti- spect it coincides in function with exegetical criticism, 
cism of sources, ^g [^ deals with the authenticity and integrity of the 
historical monuments which it designs to use. It is governed by 
the same laws. To this philological criticism, however, is added 
that of real history. The question arises, whether the authority to 
whom we appeal could, in view of all his personal traits, his char- 
acter, culture, and outward circumstances, have stated the truth, 
and whether he intended to state it ? The examination must be 
impartially conducted, and the worth or wortlilessness of the 
source as a whole, together with the truthworthiness of each state- 
ment in particular, be determined accordingly. Care must be 
taken, however, not to make the goal in this inquiry absolute truth, 
but relative, and not to apply the measure of our requirements to 
the earlier ages. A report based on the clear statements of a 
Difference in trustworthy witness is termed reliable, while one that 
reports. lacks such complete confirmation is doubtful, unsup- 

ported, and possibly even suspicious. A correct historical judg- 
ment will guard against both a hypercritical or skeptical tendency, 
^ Oomp. Schleiennacher, §§ 156, 157, 184, 190. 



TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 303 

and such an uncritical direction as amounts to a blind belief in 
authorities and legends. 

2. By the side of criticism stands pragmatism. To simply fur- 
nish approved narratives of facts, without any elaboration or add- 
ino- of personal opinions, is the work of merely a good chronicler.' 
The mission of the historian is of a higher character, for history is 
a living, connected whole. The past is mirrored in the present, 
and contains within itself the germs of the most distant future. 
Every particular thing is the product of its age, which is itself 
determined by the co-operation of many individual elements. Nor 
can it be denied that national characteristics and constitutions, cli- 
mate, and various other things, exert an influence over the subjec- 
tive life, and that these, in turn, have a reflex influence upon the 
objective life. 

It follows that an endless chain of causes and effects runs 
through the whole of history, that is, through the de- Reciprocal in- 
velopment of the moral world in time as through that Silences. 
of the physical world in space. To follow this chain, to ascertain 
and comprehend both tlie forces of attraction and of repulsion, ac- 
cording to the laws of social polarity, is the task of historical ])hilos- 
ophy, or historical pragmatism. We postulate a twofold Twofold law of 
law of causality, however, a lower and a higher, a mediate causality. 
and an immediate. Every concrete fact appears to us, in part, as the 
product of outwardly traceable, mechanical causes. But it must be 
remembered that the causal element is itself the effect of other causes, 
and that the new product contains within itself that causative power 
which will produce still farther effects. But underneath all the vari- 
ous causes, mutually sustaining and supporting as they are, must lie 
a primal force, in which they find their absolute and positively ulti- 
mate base. In a true study of history each of these features will 
receive due recognition. The tendency to an atomistic mode of 
treatment must be limited and complemented by the dynamic, in 
order that no feature be in any way exaggerated. To lead back 
every thing to known, accepted, and historical causes, and deduce 
the most exalted matters from inferior antecedents, or explain the 
original by what has been made or has come into being, what is 
spiritually necessary and free by what is accidental and arbitrary — I 
in one word, to explain life by death, is belittling, and devoid at 
once of taste and spirit. 

This would become apparent if the attempt were made to explain 

'On the distinction between chronicle and history, see Schleiermacher, §§ 152, 
154. Upon the whole subject, compare Gervinus, Grundziige der Historik, Leip., 
J837, 



304 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

the spread of Christianity in the first three centuries simply on the 
ground of the political and financial condition of the Roman State, 
the pecuniary difficulties of certain emperors, the excellent charac- 
ter of the Roman roads throughout the realm, and other lesser 
factors, or the Reformation as resulting merely from an insig- 
nificant quarrel between Augustinian and Dominican monks, or 
Congregationalism from a personal grievance of Brown, or Meth- 
odism from John Wesley's individual disapprobation of Oxford 
formality. For it is true, in appearance only, tliat what is greatest 
not rarely springs from what is least, since what is mathematically 
small is yet dynamically great. The oak comes only from the 
True value of acorn. External and apparently accidental causes 
obscure causes, should not be overlooked and neglected, however, any 
more than they should be overrated. To endeavour to trace 
back every thing to a single, mysterious, primal cause, to the disre- 
gard of intermediate links, is to transform history into an exhausted 
garden, a magic lantern, out of which only disconnected, puzzling 
shapes arise, just to vanish again by a mere turn of the hand. " A 
shallow mind," says Herder, " finds and connects nothing in history 
but facts; a perverted mind seeks for miracles in it." The truth 
lies here, also, in the golden middle.^ 

The moral estimate to be formed of persons and their actions, is 
likewise dependent on a correct pragmatism in the mode of treat- 
ment. Here, again, two extremes must be avoided. An atomistic 
Extremes to be pragmatism is usually ready to apply the measure of 
avoided. moral perception belonging to its own time to every his- 

torical phenomenon, and in this way to be dictatorial over history. 
It scents fraud and base and dishonourable intentions everywhere, or 
it rejects, as being silly and fanatical, everything that does not corre- 
spond with its ideal of good reason. On this method the mediaeval 
manifestations of the papacy and monasticism, especially, receive 
rough treatment, and doctrinal controversies assume the character 
of simply hateful quarrels. This method has no apprehension of 
the existence of the profounder impulses of the human spirit which 
are displayed under these fanciful forms. It lacks the elevation of 
soul that is needed to lift it out of its personal prejudices, and to 

' There was a time — it can scarcely be termed fully past — when people found pleas- 
ure in explaining history, even in its most important points of change, out of mere 
blind, accidental occurrences. This was termed the philosophical method. In our 
days many have fallen upon a directly contrary method ; and this, too, is denominated 
the philosophical method. — Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal, p. 54. Comp. Ger- 
vinus, supra, p. 69 sq. In more recent times Gfrorer has come to occupy this ground 
in part. 



TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 305 

enlarge the individual consciousness until it becomes commensurate 
with that of the human species/ 

The contrast to this narrow habit of observation is formed by 
that sublime objectivity which, in entire abnegation of self, abstains 
from expressing any moral judgment, and looks down from its 
speculative watch-tower upon the evolutions of the world-spirit as 
upon a divine drama. History thus becomes a merely natural 
process, without the superadding of any moral element. Between 
these two extremes, the one of which is involved in the nature of 
deism and the other in that of pantheism, is the ground upon which 
proceeds the truly theistic method of historical research, xhe tbeistic 
whose principle is that history moves in the sphere of ^^ethod. 
freedom, though guided by a Providence which binds and controls 
all the threads of progress. This real history, therefore, also lies 
in the sphere of a higher necessity — a necessity which cannot, of 
course, be established by us on a priori principles, but may yet be 
apprehended by that keen sensibility which improves under the 
process of quiet observation. 

It is said that "history is the tribunal of the world." But we 
should probably find that the necessary documents for any real 
and practical apjilication of the idea are wanting to us. God has 
reserved the judgment for himself; and for this reason our judgment 
should be exercised sparingly. The rule by which, in Church his- 
tory, we are to estimate the different phenomena connected with 
the Church, can only be the word of God. This is the ^ ,, ^ ,^ 

' , *' _ God s word the 

canon by which we are to judge of every further stage standard of 
of development in the Christian life. In connexion -"^ ^°^^^ * 
with every new appearance we are to inquire, " How is it related 
to the idea of Christianity, as laid down in the New Testament?" 

This should not be construed to mean, however, that every spe- 
cial form of the Christian life which does not thoroughly resemble 
that of the apostolic Church is to be rejected. Such a view would 

' Hence, Neander, speaking with reference to the Crusades, says: "The lowest place 
is occupied by cold reason, which, more than other judges, denies the native nobility 
of human nature, and looks with aristocratic pity upon such times ; not because it is 
governed by enthusiasm for the truly real, but because only that seems real to its judg- 
ment which is the lowest of all that appears, and because precisely what is most beau- 
tiful in this connexion is regarded by it as only fancy — namely, labour and daring 
expended for things whose only value lies in the bosom of mankind." — Der heil. Bern- 
hard (1st ed.), p. 210. "It is usual to say," observes a Roman Catholic writer, "that 
the chest makes the orator. It may be said, in a higher sense, that the heart makes 
the historian ; truth does not rest on criticism alone, but much more on the determina- 
tion to love it, even when its language is not pleasant." — Hist. pol. Blatter fiir das 
kathol. Deutschland, 1854, No. 8, p. 654. 
20 



30G HISTORICAL THEOLOaY. 

be the death of all history, whose very nature requires develop- 
ment. The developed life is related to the original like the plant 
to the germ. The life of the germ, however, passes over i»to the 
The principle plant ; and the principle of Christianity must similarly 
must^be^^e^ver ^^ traceable in every manifestation, any phase of church 
present. life being morally justifiable only in so far as that prin- 

ciple can be made to appear. Wherever this principle is lacking, 
or has been perverted into its contrary, the existence of a morbid 
state cannot be mistaken, though there are many different degrees 
in the malady. An entire institution in the Church, for instance 
the papacy, may, with all its consequences, appear to deserve re- 
jection from the standpoint of pure apostolical Christianity, as be- 
ing itself morbid and the product of morbid conditions, without 
compelling the conclusion that the history of the popes is, for that 
reason alone, a history of antichrist. On the one hand, it will be 
necessary to consider the papacy itself in its historical relation to 
the Christian world under its Germanic form, as the counterpoise 
to barbaric wilfulness and boorishness ; and, on the other, to esti- 
mate the different popes by the measure of the papal idea, which 
will at all events reveal a wide chasm between a Gregory YII. and 
an Alexander VI. 

It is also possible " for a historian to defend the mediaeval popes, 
and, at the same time, to be a determined opponent of the persons 
who desire the restoration of the papacy of the Middle Ages for 
our own times." ^ The same applies to monasticism, from which 
the Reformation itself came forth, while the historical Reformation 
differs from a mere abstract theory of doctrinal improvement by 
reason of the fact that Luther passed through this very vital expe- 
rience of the mediaeval Church, upon which he was subsequently 
called to exert a reformatory influence. A comforting feature in 

^ . . history lies in the fact that error, even where it is most 
Remedies in '' ^ ^ ' 

even a corrupt obdurate, is yet manifested only as an excrescence upon 
^^®' the truth, and that even a corrupt age contains within 

itself, though unconsciously, the remedies upon which a later time 
will lay hold with a more untrammeled judgment. 

History thus becomes the teacher of the present, but only in the 
entirety of its development, though it may be said, with greater 
accuracy, that the present thus results from history. Hence it 
must be regarded as a gross abuse to make history subservient to 
so-called interests of the times and to personal preferences, in such 

^ Mohler, Kleine Schriften, i, p. 76, A striking example is found in Voigt in his 
treatment of Gregory VII. ; comp. his Antwort an den Bischof von La Rochelle, June 
23, 1829, (in pre! to 2d ed.) 



TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. 307 

way as to compel it to yield either ideals with which to dazzle the 
nninforraed, or caricatures with which to excite their fears/ His- 
tory is thus reduced to the character of an armory to which every 
combatant resorts for the weapon needed in any special emergency; 
and what they term " the spirit of the times," which they thus call 
up, according to their belief is not rarely " the spirit of the gentle- 
men themselves." 

3. Our third requirement, the moral and religious disposition, is 

for this reason closely connected with the preceding^ re- ,, , 

•^ . . Moral and re- 

marks. It was during an extended period considered iigious disposi- 

the highest wisdom of historical pragmatism to insist ^°^' 
that the historian should belong to no religion, and that, therefore, 
the best Church History is that which displays the least affection 
for its object, and, at the same time, evinces no preference for any 
current tendency of thought — hence, which is distinguished by its 
lack of colour and animation. We recall attention, at this point, to 
our remarks on the objective tendency in exegesis. It is doubtless 
true that prejudice in any direction is damaging to free Damage from 
historical vision. The historian should be superior to Prejudice, 
the appeals of party interest. But this does not imply that he 
should neither have convictions nor express them. If such convic- 
tions do not amount merely to a clinging to blind prejudices, but 
are, instead, the fruit of intellectual effort, they may find expres- 
sion, and naturally will, and ought to be, avowed, in proportion as 
they are living convictions. The person who possesses an enthusi- 
asm for art, and has been initiated into the mysteries of its life, will 
surely be more competent to write its history than one Best historians 
who stands far aloof from it. Moreover, as a rule, the ^^^^^ ^Se^ne^ 
best history of a people will be furnished by him who pie. 
has lived and felt with that people, and has been penetrated with a 

^ Schleiermacher, § 155, note: "An excited, egoistic interest, and, consequently, 
every partial tendency, is a most potent influence to pervert the historical vision in 
the scientific sphere, as in common life." Comp. TJllmann, p. 6*77: "In an age that 
is agitated by the spirit of partisanship, nothing is so likely to mislead as the tempta- 
tion to make historical inquiry, among other things, subserve the demands of party 
and the interests of the day, because fame and advantage may be thus secured, for 
the moment at least, if not permanently. But where this is the case, the thorough 
and comprehensive study of sources will possess no great value." " The introduction 
of present interests into historical labours," says Ranke, " generally results in hinder- 
ing the independent performance of such undertakings" (Pref. to Engl. Geschichte, 
p. xi), Ranke, no doubt, follows his objective tendency to an extreme, with reference 
to ecclesiastical contrasts as well as other matters. He writes history "in the placid 
frame of a painter of fancy pictures." See the review in the Augsburg Allgem. 
Zeitung, supplement, 345, 1860. 



308 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

recognition of its most sacred interests — such as Tacitus, Moser, 
J. von Mill lei', Macaulay, Palacky. The objection might be raised, 
indeed, that, for example, on this principle, the history of Islam 
could be best treated by a Mohammedan, and that of Judaism by a 
Jew. We must acknowledge the force of this reply, in so far as 
the Christian inquirer into history who would know and describe 
those religions as they are in their inmost being, will be required to 
enter personally into the life of Mohammedanism or Judaism, so as 
to reproduce them from within himself. It only remains to inquire 
whether such reproduction be possible ; and at this point frequent 
errors have, unquestionably, taken place. Often, too, has the nar- 
row spirit of Christian ecclesiastical historians prevented them from 
forming a correct estimate of the conditions of heathendom. For 
Christianity not this, however, Christianity must not be blamed. Where 
narrow ^Church ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ attained to its highest development, it 
history. can be said with propriety that the Christian "proves 

all things." For the most independent and unprejudiced repre- 
sentation of a lower condition is always executed from a higher 
The lower best ^^^^^- Indeed, the really moving principle of the lower 
understood by State can be thoroughly apprehended and understood 
® ^^ ®^* by him only who occupies the higher level. ^ The man- 
ner in which the Christian may apprehend and elaborate Judaism 
and Mohammedanism differs greatly from the treatment which the 
Jew or Mohammedan is able to accord to Christianity, or even to 
his own religion, to which he stands related as a dreamer. The 
"veil of Moses" is on their faces. The real character of such in- 
stitutions is apparent only to the awakened and sober research of 
Christendom. The further elucidation of this question belongs to 
apologetics. We do not assert that certain branches of Church 
history are beyond the capacity of persons w^ho have no sympathy 
with the vital principle of Christianity, or who are even in antagon- 
ism with it. But the efforts of such inquirers must be restricted 
either to the mere collecting of material or to narrow criticisms, 
while that which really gives movement and life to history remains 
concealed from their vision. This was emphatically the case with 
Gibbon. 

Life, in its inmost relations, is disclosed only to him who loves,' 

^ Upon this point we coincide with Mohler (Kleine Schriften, ii, p. 284), the only 
difference being that he considers Roman Catholicism as constituting the highest stage, 
while we assign that character to Protestantism, Which of these latter is better 
qualified to understand the other, is, of course, a question of time, upon which, how- 
ever, our own opinion is formed. 

* Marcus Aurelius was a good and also an intelligent man, but he was no more able 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 309 

while it is doubtless true that the eye of a cold observer, or of a 
foe, will be keener to discover faults and frailties than that of love, 
which is often blind to such traits. Such blindness, however, is 
checked by the cultivation of the true Christian spirit, ^^^ cnristia 
which is a spirit of truth. In this spirit, and in the spirit both lov- 
measure in which it has been received into us, the im- ^^^ ^^ -'"^ * 
age of the Church is most accurately reflected, not, indeed, without 
spot or wrinkle, but exactly as it is, and with all its lights and 
shadows. The cold spirit of worldly wisdom catches upon the con- 
cave mirror of its really hollow head and heart only the caricature 
of the original picture, while it remains itself unknown.* 

SECTION XII. 
METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 

It is impossible, in view of the wide extent of Church History, to 
give equal attention to all the noteworthy factors within its do- 
main. For this reason the relation of the general to the particular 
will be determined by the degree of theological interest which at- 
taches to a given matter. Every scholar who desires to work suc- 
cessfully upon details will need to possess a general and 
systematic acquaintance with the whole field in its must be under- 
synchronous relations, in order to which the study of ^'^°°^' 
tables, or, better, the construction of them, will become necessary. 

to conceive of the spirit that brought the martyrs to the stake, and strengthened them 
there, than a person absolutely devoid of speculative ability is able to comprehend 
Spinoza's ethics. — Kliefoth, Einl. in d. Dogmengesch, p. 174. 

^ Gieseler says : " The ecclesiastical historian must renounce party interest, as well 
as prejudices arising from the peculiarities of his time. On the other hand, he can- 
not penetrate into the internal character of the phenomena in Church history without a 
Christian, religious spirit, because no spiritual manifestation that is foreign to our 
habits can be apprehended with historical correctness without being reproduced in the 
imagination of the inquirer. Only such inquiry can discover where the Christian 
spirit is entirely wanting, where it is only used as a mask, and what other spirit has 
taken its place. Nor will it fail to recognize its presence, even though finding expres- 
sion under forms of manifestation that are strange to our eyes." — Church History, 
American edition, vol. i, pp. 23, 24. Comp. also Schleiermacher, § 193, and Fricke, 
Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch, i, § 7. Thiersch makes it the great task of Church his- 
tory " to recognize what, in the course of events, was natural development, what was 
human guilt, and what, in consequence of man's sin, supernatural interference." He 
continues : " Church history rises to the character of a true and real theological sci- 
ence only when it connects the whole of the past with the present, and traces the 
progress of events from the beginning of the Church to our day, in order thus to re- 
veal the work of the Church that now is, to lay a foundation for the understanding of 
our own times, and open a conjectural view into the future of the Church." (Vorles- 
ungen viber Protestantismus und Katholicismus, vol. i, p. 138 sq. Erlangen, 1846.) 
Comp. also Ullmann, in the Preface to the 3d ed. of Neander, Church History. 



310 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

But, from this whole, the Protestant theologian will be able to select 
those particular sections in which the Church was either predomi- 
nantly engaged in the course of healthful development, or was 
returning to such state, involving, of course, the leading features of 
the history of its decline and degeneration during the Middle Ages, 
and also, as a necessary connecting link, the grand outward form 
assumed by the Church of that period. 

Every scholar should, moreover, be especially acquainted with 
the history of the Church, and the Reformation, and Protestantism, 
in his own country; and, since the universal derives animation and 
clearness only through its details, it follows that the study of spe- 
cial features is to be recommended as being particularly fitted to 
stimulate and shape the mind. 

The field of Church history is infinite in its extent,^ and there is, 
consequently, no limit to the labours of the Church historian. The 
student, however, who is preparing for ordinary service in the 
Church, the theologian in a general way, can only be required "to 
be familiar with so much of this infinite material as is necessary to 
his independent participation in the government of the Church." 
To this end the general history of the Church, which furnishes him 
Necessity of with the needed outline, is first of all necessary.^ Ev- 
generai history, gj.y scholar should be SO familiar with this as to leave 
no gap in the progress of centuries of development which he can- 
not fill with the names about which its principal reminiscences 
cluster. The fixing of this synchronistic syllabus in the mem- 
ory, by the use of tables, is indispensable, the entering upon par- 
ticulars being nothing more than a planless digging and grubbing 
unless such a picture of the whole has been impressed on the 
mind. 

Nor is the mere picture all that is necessary. The outline must 
be filled in, and made to live — a feature that should not be made to 
depend on accidental circumstances. No general decision can be 
rendered as to whether the history of the Church is more important 
in its ancient, its intermediate, or its modern periods. It is easy to 
see that the intermediate history will sustain a different relation to 
both the ancient and the modern, according to the Protestant or 
the Roman Catholic view. But it would be unhistorical, and ultra- 
Protestant as well, to argue that we might dispense with the his- 
tory of the Middle Ages and the hierarchy as beyond the limits of 
the Church. If it be regarded simply as a history of the decline 
and corruption of the Church, it would be important to understand 
it for that very reason. But it is more than this. It connects the 
' Schleiermacher, § 184. 2 Schleiermacher, §§ 91, 185, 18'7. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 311 

various threads in many ways, however much it severs and entan- 
gles them in other respects; and it is necessary that such ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ 
points of connexion be recognized, and that the Roman understand 
Catholicism of the Middle Ages be apprehended in its ^"^"^^^ ^^^^^^ 
principles, a work that is possible only when some acquaintance 
Avith the details of the material of history has been secured. It 
would, nevertheless, lead away from the goal at which the Protes- 
tant student of theology aims in the study of Church History, if 
special attention were directed, for instance, upon the details of the 
history of the popes and religious orders, or of the Romish ritual — 
us has been done in Hurter's Innocenz III.^ — while only a rapid 
survey is taken of the Reformation and the history of more recent 
times, or too great brevity is exercised while treating the ancient 
Church. The latter and the history of the Reformation, with the 
events resulting from it, constitute, therefore, the real soil of the 
Protestant Church, upon which the Protestant theologian should 
by all means be at home, even though he may not ignore the Middle 
Ages. The relation might almost be compared with that of the 
study of the Old Testament to that of the New, in the department 
of exegesis. 

To the above we must add the Church history of the student's 
native land. Every one ought to possess a more inti- Necessity of ac- 
mate knowledge of the founding and extension of Chris- quaiutance 

^ . -, , P -T 1 with Church 

tianity m his own country, and be more lamiliarly history of our 
acquainted with the history of its ecclesiastical institu- °^^'^ country. 
tions, and especially of Protestantism within its bounds, than will 
be possible to him from general history alone. In this direction 
private studies will become necessary to supplement the instruction 
received in the theological seminary. 

It is further necessary that just proportions be observed in the 
extent of treatment accorded to the different departments in the 
life of the Church. Protestants are inclined to discuss the history 

^ Corap. § 14, and Schleiermacher, §§ 154 and 191. We would direct attention to 
the fact that, in the study of Church history in general, the leading object is not a 
mere knowledge of details and the cramming of the memory — not merely conception ^ 
but perception. Comp. Roth (in Gelzer's Prot. Mon. Blotter, 1851, Dec, p. 364): " The 
objective history of the Church may be learned from lectures or books, and is an ob- 
ject of conception ; but the subjective history requires perception, as does scarcely 
another study. If the latter be taken as the object of conception merely, it will aiford 
no nourishment to the mind. Is there anything more discouraging than an examina- 
tion at which the candidate expresses his opinion respecting Augustine, Bernard of 
Clairvaux, or Abelard, in the precise terms which he copied from the respective lec- 
tures?" It appears, then, that to stimulate — be the subject what it may — remains 
the principal object of the historical lecture. 



S12 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

of teaching with greater thoroughness than the history of constitu- 
protestant em- tions and worship. For a long time they neglected 
MTrorT *of ^^^ history of art altogether, though it has now been 
teaching. properly restored by Hase, Piper, Hemans, and North- 

cote to a place in the organism of Church History. The history of 
heresies should be treated in such way as to give prominence to the 
principal tendencies represented by the several heresies, and avoid 
distracting the gaze by dwelling too greatly upon unimportant de- 
tails. At the same time, the danger incident to the generalizing 
process, of becoming superficial, and obliterating what is peculiar 
in any particular instance, should not be overlooked. It will, ac- 
cordingly, be useful to pursue, at times, a thoroughly specific and 
particular question down to its last threads, and this not only for 
him who devotes himself professionally to the study of Church 
History, but for every person who desires to arrive at a clear 
and living apprehension of the facts of ecclesiastical history in 
general. 

This leads us to monography, and, more immediately, to biogra- 
Necessity of P^y. It is not only greatly instructive, but also truly 
monograpiiy. refreshing and edifying, to enlarge one's own limited 
life by the process of entering thoroughly into the life of an age, 
or even of an individual and his inmost soul, until, so to speak, we 
breathe, think, and feel with him, look with his eyes upon the outer 
world, and travel, preach, and suffer with him. Let it be admitted 
that a momentary partiality is likely to result from this process. 
It will yet be most readily removed by a later absorption into a 
contemporaneous character of different type, by which means a new 
metempsychosis is passed through, and by a different road. An in- 
creased interest will also be obtained by studying, side by side, two 
antagonizing personalities, which appear to have been raised up in 
order to complement each other, like the two poles of the physical 
world; by explaining each by comparison with the other ; and by 
constructing, in a psychological way, the history to which they give 
movement and life from such personal factors. 

For illustration, let Bernard of Clairvaux be placed beside Arnold 
Necessity of of Brescia, Anselm beside Abelard, Erasmus beside 
parallels. Hutten, Luther beside Zwingli, Calvin beside Castellio, 

Knox beside Cranmer, and Bossuet beside Fenelon. Such parallels, 
if drawn by the hand of some Christian Plutarch, would necessar- 
ily be highly suggestive. In connexion with this subject it is im- 
portant, however, that the law of mutual interaction be not over- 
looked, by which each age is seen to be the product of the spiritual 
and personal forces that exert a controlling influence upon it, while 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 313 

they, in turn, are the product of their age, having been rooted in a 
long, extended past. It is equally improper to say that men make 
history, and to regard them as being merely the expression and hu- 
man image of the prevalent spirit of their time. Every person is 
the child of his time; but it is not given to every one to become the 
father of a new generation. 

While biography is undoubtedly a most valuable study for the 
developing theologian,^ it yet does not exhaust the task of monog- 
raphy. The description of sjjecial forms of ecclesiastical life, for 
example, of Port Royal in the seventeenth century, and the pursuit 
of special tendencies of mind down to their ultimate details, such 
as monasticism, mysticism, and other vagaries, is, likewise, highly 
instructive and invigorating, provided the particular subject be not 
treated as a dry curiosity, but in its connexion with the entire de- 
velopment of the life of the Church.'^ 

The Histoey of Church History. 

* F. C. Baur, Epochen d. kirchl. Geschichtsschreibung, Tub., 1852 ; Ter Haar, His- 
toriogiaphie der Kerkgeschiedenis, part i, Eusebius to Laurentius Valla ; part ii, Flac- 
cius to Semler, Uti^echt, 1870-71. John G. Bowling, New Introduction to the Critical 
Study of Ecclesiastical History, Attempted in an Account of the Progress, and a Short 
Notice of the Services, of the History of the Church, Lond., 1838. Philip Schaff, 
What is Church History? Phila., 1846. 

The origin of the Church itself furnishes the necessary condition 
for the origin of its history, and every monument of the life and 
work of the Church is, directly or indirectly, a source for that his- 
tory. The construction of a historical representation could not be 
undertaken before some time had elapsed, that is to say, before 
ground had been gained upon which to rear the structure of Church 
history. The first work of this kind was furnished by 
Eusebius, to A. D. 324, who availed himself, however, 
of the labours of an earlier writer, Hegesippus, about A. D. 150. 
Editions of Eusebius were published by Yalesius, Paris, 1659 sqq., 
and Reading, Cant., 1720; manual edition by Heinichen, Leips., 
1827-39, 4 vols.; and by Burton, including Vita Constantini, 1838. 
Later editions have been by Schwegler, 1852; Lammer, 1859; and 
Dindorf, 1867. With regard to his trustworthiness, compare the 

* Fricke says : " Every person is an individual mirror of his time. But the great 
spirits of any age are those who are most pure, clear, and prophetic. It should never 
be forgotten, however, that both for the purposes of conception and representation, 
they are only important as being the especially prominent expression of the common 
mind of their respective times, which ought always to be apprehended," p. 6. 

^ Upon this point compare, especially, Ullmann in the Preface to Trechsel, History 
of Early Antitrinitarians. 



314 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

works of Moeller, 1813, Danz, 1815, Kestner, 1817, Reuterdahl, 
1826, Rienstra, 1833, and Baur, 1834. 

Eusebius was succeeded by Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and the 
Arians, and by Philostorgius in the fifth century, and Theodorus and 
Evagrius in the sixth. Concerning the first three, compare Holz- 
hausen, 1825. The Arians are found in the editions by Reading 
and Valesius. 

The Latin Church was less prominently engaged than the Greek 
Latin histo- during the first period in writing Church history. Men- 
nans. ^JQj^ should, however, be made of Rufinus, the trans- 
lator of Eusebius, Sulpicius Severus at the beginning of the fifth 
century, Cassiodorus and Epiphanius (Tripartita History) in the mid- 
dle of the sixth, and Gregory of Tours at its close. In the Middle 
Ages the following chroniclers in the West are prominent, besides 
the Byzantines (collected by Mebuhr, 1828 sqq., 46 vols.) — Syncel- 
lus, Theophanes, and Nicephorus, in the fourteenth century; Jor- 
nandes (550), Gregory of Tours (died 595), the Venerable Bede 
(died 735), Paul Warnefried (died 795), Ilaymo of Halberstadt 
(died 853), Anastasius (died 886), Hermannus Contractus (died 
1054), Lambert of Herzfeld (died 1077), Sigbert of Gemblours 
(Gamblacensis, died 1112), Adam of Bremen (died about 1076), and 
still others. Besides these are many martyrologists and legend 
writers, who are generally uncritical and deficient in the qualities 
belonging to the historian. 

The influence of the Reformation was less immediately effective 
Reformation of upon Church history than upon exegesis. It was not 
church^wstory ^^^i^ after the religious Peace of Augsburg, when the 
than exegesis, storms were in part over, that a number of Lutheran 
theologians at Magdeburg, headed by Matthias Flacius (Ill^^ricus), 
undertook a diffuse history of the Church, arranged by centuries, 
and, at the same time, under rubrics. This is the Magdeburg Cen- 
turies, 1559-74. The work consisted of thirteen folio volumes, 
each of which covered a century. The German edition is by Count 
Mtinnich, Hamburg, 1855. Compare Twesten's Matthias Flacius, 
Berlin, 1844, pp. 16, 17. In opposition to the Centuries, Caesar 
Baronius published Ecclesiastical Annals (12 vols., Rome, 1588- 
1607) extending to 1198; other editions, with continuations, have 
also been issued from a Romish point of view. 

For a long time afterward Church history was cultivated simply 
in the interests of denominational parties. Of Lutherans, the more 
prominent writers were Kortholdt, Ittig, Cyprian, Buddseus, Weiss- 
mann, and Pfaff. Among the Reformed we may mention Hospin- 
ian, Turretin, J. Hottinger, Jablonsky, and others. Of Roman 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 315 

Catholics we enumerate Natalis (Noel), Alexander, Fleury, Bos- 
suet, and Tillemont. To these names mierht be added ^ 

' ^ . Denommation- 

those of members of the order of St. Maur in France, ai character of 

who rendered useful service by publishing editions of Church history. 

the Church Fathers, and by the investigation of special portions of 

Church history. The mystic Gottfried Arnold endeavoured to 

give an impartial attitude to Church history by taking the part of 

the hitherto despised heretics and sectarians, in his History of the 

Church and of Heretics, published in 1699, and frequently since. 

But his impartiality became partiality in their behalf. The great 

Mosheim, who died in 1755, was the first to succeed in „ ^ . 

' _ ' , Mosheim the 

obtaining for Church history the character of an inde- reformer of 
pendent science, and from his time Gottingen became ^^ ^^ ^^^' 
the seat of ecclesiastical historiography.^ Special departments of 
Church history were industriously cultivated by Chr. Wilhelm Fr. 
Walch, who died in 1784, and by his father, Joh. Georg Walch, 
of Jena, who died in 1775. 

Semler made use of criticism that was carried to the extent of scep- 
ticism, but " without any capacity to appreciate the peculiar condi- 
tions of earlier times," ^ or a single trace of historical art. At this 
time the influence of modern views also began to make itself felt, 
giving rise to the pragmatical method of writing history. We 
must regard G. J. Planck, of Gottingen, as the chief representative 
of this tendency. L. T. Spittler wrote a manual which is thought- 
ful, though evincing a rather worldly judgment, and devoted to the 
service of the enlightenment of the age. By its perspicuous ar- 
rangement, however, it affords a clear view of the field. Schrockh's 
work, in forty-five volumes, furnishes a rich wealth of material, and 
is written from the standpoint of moderate orthodoxy. The ra- 
tionalistic idea of Church history, by which it becomes predomi- 
nantly the history of human folly, finds expression in Henke. 
Schmidt, of Giessen, retraced the way to that purely objective pos- 
ition which requires indifference as the primary and cardinal virtue 
of history. Danz and Gieseler, in their text-books — the latter fur- 
nishing a more judicious and comprehensive selection — led the stu- 
dent back to the sources, by accompanying the text step by step with 
extended quotations from the original authorities. Gieseler, espec- 
ially, has added the most thorough elucidations of difficult points. 

This pre-eminently learned treatment was followed by the or- 
thodox and emotional method of Neander, who made 
it his object to present the history of the Church upon 
the basis of learned inquiry, "as a speaking demonstration of the 

^ Compare F. Luecke, De Joanne Laurentio Moshemio, Gott., 1837. ^ Ease. 



316 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

divine power of Christianity, as a school of Christian edification, 
doctrine, and warning, for all who are willing to hear." ^ While his 
glance was almost exclusively directed to the internal side of eccle- 
siastical events, in order to ascertain their religious importance, the 
rich mind of Hase reflected, in all its features, the image of the 
limes which, by his artistic skill, he outlines in glowing colours for 
such persons as are already somewhat familiar with the subject. 
Guericke, occupying the position of a prejudiced denominational 
polemic, employed the rich material, which had to some extent been 
borrowed from other writers, for the purpose of a defence of Luth- 
eranism, accompanied with unjust insinuations against the Reformed 
Church views. A similar, though more independent, disposition 
characterizes the work of Kurtz, which is distinguished, however, 
by the richness of its material. Schleiermacher has left a valuable 
work behind him in his Church History. It, however, lays no claim 
to completeness, and is rather a magnificent sketch in the spirit of 
the author than a work of history. Baur has given the results of 
his critical inquiries and combinations from the standpoint of a defi- 
nite, philosophical theory, in a series of descriptions of the several 
periods, which have lately been combined into a whole. 

In the Roman Catholic Church various tendencies likewise come 
into view. Jansenism found its organs, and also the Illuminati of 
the reign of Joseph 11. of Austria (1765-90), both being in oppo- 
sition to the method of writing history in support of ultramontan- 
ism. Stolberg's Church History came to an end with year 530, and 
was continued by Kerz to the year 1300, and by Brischar to the 
present time. Among later works, those by Katerkamp, Ritter, 
Locherer, Doellin ger, Annegarn, Reichlin-Meldezg, and Alzog, are 
of principal importance. 

LITERATURE. 
I. 

GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

1. Literature. — Manuals and Text-Books, Latin, German, and French. 

L. Mosheim, institutionumhistoriaeecclesiasticaelibriW. Helmst., 1755. Ed. 2, 1764. 

J. M. Schrockh, christl. Kircheng. Lpz., 1768-1803. 35 vols. (2d ed. of vols. 1-13. 
1772-1808). — Kirchengesch. seit der Reformation. Lpz., 1804-12. 10 vols. 
(Vols. 9 and 10 by Tzschirner). 

J. M. Schrockh, historia rel. et ecclesiae christianae, adumbrata in usum lectionum. 
Berol., 1777. Ed. 7, em. et auct. cur. Ph. Marheineke. Berol., 1828. 

*L. T. Spittler, Grundriss der Gesch. der christl. Kirche. G5tt., 1782. 5th ed. Con- 
tinued to 1812 by G. S. Planck. Gott., 1812. 

^ Hagenbach, Neander's Verdienste und KirchengescMchte, in Stud. u. Krit., 1851, No. 2; O. 
Krabbe, Aug. Neander, Hamb., 1852 ; Ullmann, Pref. to the 3d ed. of Neander's Church History. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 317 

H. Ph. Conr. Henke, allgem. Gescli. der christlichen Kirche. Braunschw., 1788- 
1823. 9 vols. Continued from vol. vii by J. G. Vater. The most of the vols, in 
many editions. 

J. E. Ch. Schmidt, Lehrb. der christl. Kirchengesch. Giess., 1800. 3d ed. 1827. 

Handbuch der christl. Kirchengesch. Giessen, 1801-20. 6 vols. 2d ed, 

from vol. 1-4. 1824-27 (to Innocent III.). Continued by F. M. Kettberg. Vol. 7 
(to Boniface VIII.). Giessen, 1834. 

W. Mimscher, Lehrbuch der christl. Kirchengesch. zum Gebr. bei Vorlesungen. Marb., 
1804. 2d ed. by Machler, 1815. 3d ed. by Beckhaus, 1826. 

Ph. Marheineke, Universal-Kirchenhistorie des Christenthums. Grundziige zu akad. 
Vorlesungen. Pt. I. Erl, 1806. 

f F. L. V. Stolberg, Gesch. der Rel. Jesu Christi, Hamb., 1806-18. 15 vols, (until 
430). Continued by F. v. Kerz, 16-45. vols, (until 12th century) Mainz, 
1824-48. New series by J. N. Brischar, 46-53. vols, (until 13th century) Mainz, 
1851 ff. 

f Til. Katerkamp, Kirchengeschichte. Miinster, 1824-34. 5 vols, (ui^til 1153). 

K. F. Staudlin, Universalgeschichte der christl. Kirche. Hann., 1807. 5th ed. Im- 
proved and enlarged by F. A. Holzhausen. Hann., 1833. 

f J. J. Ritter, Handb. der Kirchengeschichte. Bonn, 1826-35. 3 vols. 6th ed., pub- 
lished by Ennen, 1862. 2 vols. 

J. T L. Danz, Lehrbuch der christl. Kirchengesch. zum Gebrauch akad. Vorlesungen. 
Jena, 1818-26. 2 vols, in 3 parts. 

Kurzgef. Zusammenstellung der christl. Kirchengeschichte. Jena, 1824. 

* J. K. L. Gieseler, Lehrb. der Kirchengesch. 6 vols. Bonn, 1824-55. 4th Germ, 

ed., translated by S. Davidson. Amer. ed., revised and edited by H. B. Smith 
(5 vols.) N. Y., 1868-79. 
f J. N. Locherer, Gesch. d. christl. Rel. u. Kirche. Ravensberg, 1824-34. 9 vols. 

* A. Neander, allgem. Geschichte der christl. Religion und Kirche. Hamb., 1825-52. 

6 vols, in 11 parts. Last number (to 1431) published from the author's MSS. by 
K. F. T. Schneider. Amer. and Eng. ed., translated by J. Torry, New York and 
Edinb., 1851-55. K. F. Th. Schneider (to 1431). 4th ed. 9 vols. Gotha. 
1864 -65. 

M. J. Matter, histoire universelle de I'eglise chretienne. Strasb., 1829. 2 vols. ed. 2, 
Par., 1838 ss. 4 vols. 

F. A. Ad. Naebe, compend. historiae eccles. ac sacrorum christianorum in usum studi- 
osae juventutis compositum. Lips., 1832. 

* K. Hase, Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch. Lpz., 1834. 10th ed. 1877. Amer. ed., 

translated by Blumenthal and Wing. N. Y., 1855. 
H. E. F. Guericke, Handbuch der Kirchengesch. Halle, 1833. 2 vols. 9th ed. 

Lpz., 1866 f. 3 Bde. Amer. ed., translated by W. G. T. Shedd. 2 vols. And., 

1857-70. 

Abriss der Kirchengeschichte. Lpz., 1842. 

J. G. V. Engelhardt. Handb. der Kirchengesch. Erl, 1833 f. 4 vols. 

J. C. W. Augusti, histor. ecclesiasticae epitome. Lips., 1834. 

F. Schleiermacher, Geschichte der chi'istl. Kirche, pub. by E. Bonnell. Berl., 1840. 

f J. Alzog, Universalgesch. der christl. Kirche. Mainz, 1840. 9th ed. 1872. 2 vols. 

Am. ed., translated by Pabisch and Byrne. 3 vols. Cin., 1874-78. 
H. J. Royaards, compend. histor. eccles. chr Traj. ad Rhen. 1840-45. 2 fasc. 
A. F. Gfrorer, allgem. Kirchengesch. Stuttg., 1841-46. 4 vols, (to 1056). 
f J. A. Annegarn, Gesch. der christl. Kirche. Miinster, 1842-44. 3 vols. 
*Cb. W. Niedner, Gesch. der christl. Kirche. Lpz., 1846. 2d ed. Berl., 1866. 



318 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

W. B. Lindner, Lehrb. der christl. Kirchengesch. mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung 

der dogmat. Entwicklung. Lpz., 1848-54. 3 vols, in 4 parts. 
*J. H. Kurtz, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. Mitau, 1849. Vth ed. (2 vols.), 18*74. 

(For students.) American ed,, translated by J. H. A. Bomberger. 2 vols. Phila., 

1860-62. 
Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch., zunachst flir hohere Lehranstalten. Mitau, 1851. 

6th ed., 1868. 
Handbuch der allgem. Kirchengesch. Vol. I, in 3 parts. Vol. H, 1 part. Same, 



1853-56. 2d. ed., 1858 f. 
G. A. Fricke, Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch. 1st part (to 768). Lpz., 1850. 
J. L. Jacobi, Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch. Berl., 1850. 1st part (to 590). 
f J. G. B. Huber, Universalg. d. christl. Kirche, mnemonisch bearb. Sulzb., 1850. 
H. Schmid, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte. Nord., 1851. 2d ed., 1856. 
J. P. Lange, die Geschichte der Kirche. Braunschw., 1853, 1854. Vols. I, H, 1, 2. 
F. C. Th. Schneider, Compendium der alteren Kirchengesch. Zunachst fiir den akad. 

Gebr. entworfen. 1st part. Berl., 1859. 
*F. C. Baur, Gesch. d. christl. Kirche. 5 vols. Tiib., 1863 f. Also under the spe- 
cial titles : 

das Christenth. u. d. christl. Kirche der 3 ersten Jahrh. 1853. 3d ed., 1863. 

die christl. Kirche des 4-6 Jahrh. 1859. 2d ed., 1863. 

die christl. Kirche des Mittelalters. 1861. 2d ed., 1869. 

Kirchengesch. der neuern Zeit von der Reform, bis zu Ende des 18. Jahrh. 1863. 

Kirchengeschichte des 19. Jahrh. 1862. 2d ed., E. Zeller. Lpz., 1811. 

F. R. Halle, Kirchengeschichte. Pub. by A. Kohler. 3 vols. Lpz., 1864. 2d ed., 

1872 (in 1 vol.). 
R. Rothe, Vorless. liber Kirchengesch. u. Gesch. des christl.-kirchl. Lebens. Pub. by 

H. Weingarten. Heidelb., 1875. 2 parts. 
f F. X. Kraus, Lehrb. der Kirchengesch. fiir Studirende. Trier, 1872-75. 3 parts. 

(4 Th.: Synchronist. Tabellen, 1876). 
f J. Hergenrother, Hdb. der AUg. Kirchengesch. Freib., 1876-78. 2 vols. 2d ed., 

1879. 
J, Herzog, Abriss der gesammten Kirchengesch. Erl., 1876-79. 2 parts. 
fRohrbacher, histoire universelle de I'eglise catholique. Par., 1842 ff. 29 vols.; 

nouv. ed. par Fevre, Par., 1875 if. ; German by Rump, Toppehorn, and Neteler. 

Milnster, 1858 ff. 

For cultivated readers in general : 
J. G. Miiller, Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Gesch. des Christenthums. Lpz., 1806 fP. 

3 vols. (Also under the title, " Reliquien alter Zeiten," etc., 2-4. parts.) 
A. Neander, Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Gesch. des Christenth. und des christl. Lebens. 

Berl., 1822 f. ; 2d ed., 1825-27. 3 vols. In part a reproduction of his larger his- 
tory; and again reduced, and pub. in English translation under title of Light in 

the Dark Places. Lond. and N. Y., 1850. 
J. G. D. Ehrhart, die christl. Kirche in alter und neuer Zeit. Ulm, (1829) 1839. 
H. Thiele, kurze Geschichte der christl. Kirche fiir alle Stande. 2d. ed. Ziirich, 

1852. 
E. Zeller, Geschichte der christl. Kirche. Stuttg., 1848. 
W. Zimmermann, Lebensgeschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi (mit Vorwort von Hundes- 

hagen). 4 vols. Stuttg., 1857-59. 
J. H. A. Ebrard, Handb. der christl. Kirchen- u. Dograengeschichte fiir Prediger u. 

Studierende. 4 vols. Erl., 1865-67. 
J. A. Mohler, Kirchengesch., pub. by P. Gams. Regensb., 1867 f. 3 vols. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 319 

For popular use: 
J. B. Trautmann, Geschichte der christl. fvir Jedermann. Dresd., 1851 ; continued 

by K. A. E. Kluge. 3 Abth. 1852-57. 
C. Sudhoff, Gesch. d. christl. Kirche in Vorl. Frankf., 1855. 2d ed., 1861. 
Th. Sauer, Gesch. der christl. Kirche far Schule u. Haus. Dresd., 1859. 
K. R. Hagenbach, Kirchengesch. von der altesten Zeit bis zum 19. Jahrh. 7 vols. 

Lpz., 1869-72. English translation of his Hist, of Reformation in Germany and 

Switzerland, by Evehna Moore. 2 yols. Edinb., 1878, 1879. 
H. Thiele, christl. Kirchengesch. fiir Schule u. Haus. 3d ed. Stuttg., 1875. 
P. V. Schmidt, Hdb. der Kirchengesch. Lpz., 1879. 

In Biographical Form (also for the general reader) : 
F. Bohringer, die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen, oder die Kirchengesch. in Bio- 

graphien. Ziirich, 1842-58. 12 vols. 2d ed., Stuttg., 1861 ff. (2d ed., 1873 ff.) 
A. G. Rudelbach, christl. Biographie. Lebensbeschreibungen der Zeugen der christl. 

Kirche als Bruchst. zur Gesch. derselben. Lpz., 1849 f. 
f J. Hepp, Gesch. der christl. Kirche in Lebensbeschreib. Mainz, 1850 f. 2 vols. 
Fd. Piper's evang. Kalender. Berl., (Lpz.), 1850-70. 21 years. 
f F. X. Kraus, Charakterbilder aus der christl. Kirchengesch. Trier, 1879. 

2. Tables.* 
J. S. Yater, svnchronistische Tafeln der Kircheng. Halle, 1803. 6th ed. (continued 

by Thilo), 1833, fol. 
K. G. H. Haupt, tabell. Abriss der vorziiglichsten Religionen der jetzigen Erdbewoh, 

ner, insonderheit der christl. Welt. Quedlinb., 1821, fol. 
A. W. Moller, Hierographie oder topographisch-synchronist. Darstell. der Gesch. der 

christl. Kirche in Landkarten. Elberf., 1822 f. 2 parts, fol. 
C. Schoene, tabulae hist. ect;les. sec. ordin, synchron. et periodos digestae. Berol., 

1828, fol. 
P. T. Hald, historia ecclesiast. synoptice enarrata. Kopenh., 1830-32. 2 parts. 
F. Fiedler, tabula ecclesiastico-historica, seriem xix seculorum synchronistice exhibens. 

Lips., 1832. 
J. T. L. Danz, kirchenhistorische Tabellen. Jena, 1838, fol. 
Lobeg. Lange, Tab. der Kirchen- und Dogmengeschichte. 2d ed. Jena, 1848, 4. 
C. D. A. Douai, pragmatisch-synchronistische Tabellen zur Gesch. der christl. Religion 

und Kirche. Lpz., 1841. 2d ed., Braunschw., 1849, fol. 
C. Wahl, Kirchen-Geschichte in Bildern, oder Hauptmomente der Kirchengesch, in 

sinnbezeichnenden bildern dargest. u. synchron. geordnet. Meissen, 1840, fol, 
De Bray, tableau general d'histoire ecclesiastique, 1855. 
F. Uhlemann, Zeittafeln der Kirchengesch. vom 1. christl. Jahrb. bis zum Augsb. 

Frieden. Berl., 1864. 2d ed., 1865. 
H. Weingarten, Zeittafeln zur Kirchengesch. 4th ed. Berl., 1874. 

3. DlCTIOXARIES.- 

W. D. Fuhrmann, Handworterb. der christl. Religions- und Kirchengesch. Mit Yor- 
rede von A. H, Niemeyer. Halle, 1826-29. 3 vols. 

Ch. G. Neudecker, allgem. Lexikon der Religions- und christl. Kirchengesch. fiir alle 
Confessionen, enth. die Lehren, Sitten, Gebrauche u. Einrichtungen der heidn., 
jiid., christl. und mohamed. Religion, etc. Weim., 1834-37. 5 vols. 

' Older works by Sachs (1760), Semler (17aS-86), Seller (9tb ed., ]809\ 

2 Older works by Rechenberg (Hlerolexlcon reale, 1714), Herold (Kirchen- u. Ketzerlexicon, 
r 58), MebHg (1758), von Einem (1789), Roch (1784), Wittlg (1801). 



320 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

P. Kohler u. R. Klopsch, Revert, der Kirchengesch. Glog., 1845. 
Compare also the Lexicons of Aschbach, Wetzer, and Welte (Freib., 184'7-56. 12 vols.) 
and Herzog's Realencylopadie. 

4. Selections from the Original Authorities. 
* Herm. Olshausen, historiae ecclesiasticae veteris monumenta praecipua. Praef. est 
Neander. Berol., 1820-22, vol. 1, pars 1, 2. 

5. Periodicals in Church History. 

Magazin f iir Religions-, Moral-, u. Kirchengesch. ; published by K. F. Staudlin. Hann., 
1802-5. 4 vols. 

Archiv fxir alte und neue Kirchengeschichte ; pub. by K. F. Staudlin u. H. G. Tzschir- 
ner. Lpz., 1813-22. 5 vols. 

Kirchenhistorisches Archiv, pub. by Staudlin, Tzschimer, und J. S. Vater. Halle, 
1823-26. 4 vols. 

Zeitschrift fiir die historische Theologie ; pub. by Ch. F. Hlgen ; (since 1846) by Ch. 
W. Niedner ; (since 1867) by Kahnis. Lpz., 1832-'74. 

Archief voor kerkelijke geschiedenis, inzonderheid van Nederland, door N. Ch. Kist 
en Hm. J. Royaards. Leyden, 1829 ff. (Still continued.) 

Zeitschr. fiir Kirchengesch., in Yerbind. mit W. Gass, H. Reuter, u. A. Ritschl, pub. 
by Th. Brieger. Gotha, 18*76 fp., in 4 Nos. (Still published, and furnishes im- 
portant contributions in the newest literature of Church history.) 

II. 

SPECIAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

a. The Earlier Church History (First Six Centuries). 
1. General. 

J. L. Mosheim, Commentarii de rebus Christianorum ante Constantinum. M. Helmst. 

1753. 4. Best English ed. of Mosheim is the translation by Murdock and Barnes, 

edited and brought down to the present time, by W. Stubbs, 3 vols. Lond., 

1863. 
J. A. Stark, Gesch. der christl. Kirche des 1. Jahrh. Berl , 1779 f. 3 vols. 
A. F. Gfrorer, das Jahrhundert des Heils (1. u. 2. Abth. der "Gesch. des Urchris- 
, tenth."). Stuttg., 1838. 
Gesch. der christl. Kirche in den 3 ersten Jahrh. Stuttg., 1841. (1 vol. of the 

Allgem. Kirchengesch.) 
W. 0. Dietlein, das Urchristenthum (against Baur). Halle, 1845. 
Capefigue, les quatres premiers siecles de I'eglise chret. Par., 1848-50. 3 vols. 

F. C. Baur, das Christenthum und die christl. Kirche der drei ersten Jahrh. 3d ed. 
Tiib., 1863. 

die christl. Kirche vom Anfang des 4. bis zum ende des 6. Jahrh. in den Haupt- 

moraenten ihrer Entwicklung. 2d ed., 1863. 

G. V. Lechler, das apostol. und nachapostol. Zeitalter. (Haarlem, 1851.) 2d ed. 
Stuttg., 1857. 

J. P. Lange, das apostolische Zeitalter. Braunschw., 1853, 1854. 2 vols. 

K. Graul, die christliche Kirche an der schwelle des Irendaischen Zeitalters. Lpz., 1860. 

J. J. Dollinger, Christenth. und Kirche in der Zeit ihrer Grundlegung. 2d ed. 

Regensb., 1868. English ed., translated by E. Cox. 4 vols. Lond., 1840-42. 
F. Overbeck, Studien zur Gesch. der alten Kirche. 1. Heft. Schloss-Chemn. 1875. 
Th. Keim, aus dem Urchristenthum. Zur., 1878. 



METHOD OF CHURCH PHSTORY. 321 

G. Ublhorn, der Kampf des Christenth. mit dem Heidenth. 3d ed. Stuttg., 1879. 
American ed., translated by E. C. Smyth and C. J. H. Ropes. N. Y., 1879. 

F. Gorres, krit. Untersuchungen iiber die Licinianische Christenverfolgg. Jena, 1875. 
K. Wieseler, die Christenverfolgg. der Ciisaren bis zum 3. Jahrh. Giitersl., 1878. 

B. Aube, hist, des persecutions de I'eglise. La polemique paienne a la fin du 2. siecle. 

Par., 1878. 

Popular Presentations : 
Ch. Hoffmann, das Christenthum ira ersten Jahrhundert. Stuttg., 1853. 
K. R. Hagenbach, Kirchengesch. der ersten sechs Jahrh. 3d ed. Lpz., 1869. 
f A. Winiger, die drei ersten Jahrhunderte der Christen. Luzern, 1854. (Especially 

after Stolberg.) 
H. Kritzler, die Heldenzeiten des Christenthums. Vol. I. : der Kampf mit dem Heiden- 

thum. Lpz., 1856. 
Merle d'Aubigne, Bungener, de Gasparin et Viguet, le Christianisme des 3 premiers 

siecles. Geneve et Paris, 1857. 
E. de Pressense, histoire des trois premiers siecles de I'eglise. Par., 1858 ff. Eng. 

and Anier. ed., translated by Annie Harwood. Lond. and N. Y., 1873-78. 

C. Burk, die Jugendzeit der christl. Kirche. (7 Lectures.) Stutt., 1875. 

2. Spread of Christianity and Downfall of Paganism} 

J. B. Lederwald, die Ausbreitg. der christl. Religion. Helmst., 1788. 
J. Andra, Entwickelung der natiirlichen Ursachen, welche die schnelle Ausbreitung 
des Christenthums in den ersten 4 Jahrh. beforderten. Helmst., 1792. 

G. E. Lessing, von der Art und Weise der Fortpflanzung und Ausbreitung der christl. 
Religion; in collected works. 7th vol., pp. 131-160. 

J. A. Osiander, Kritik der gangbaren Meinung, die angebliche grosse und schnelle 

Ausbreitung des Christenthums betr. ; in Staudlin und Tzschirner's Archiv fiir 

Kircheng. Vol. 4., No. 2. 
A. Neander, die verschied. Wege der Bekehrung vom Heidenth. zum Christenthume ; 

in den Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Gesch. des Christenth. Vol. 2, pp. 1-66. 
C. H. Blumhardt, Versuch einer allgem. Missionsgeschichte der Kirche Christl. Basel, 

1828-37. 3 vols, in 5 parts. (Incomplete.) 
C. D. A. Martini, iiber die Einfuhrung der christl. Religion als Staatsreligion im rom. 

Reiche durch Kaiser Constantin. Miinchen, 1813. 
H. G. Tzschirner, der Fall das Heidenthums ; pub. by C. W. Xiedner. Lpz., 1829. 

1st vol. (Incomplete.) 
E. V. Lasaulx, der Untergang des Hellenismus und die Einziehung seiner Tempelgiiter 

durch die christl. Kaiser. Miinchen, 1854. 

(Comp. the Monograph on Constantine and Julian, p. 253 If.) 

3. Constitutional History. 

* G. F. Planck, Geschichte der Entstehung und Ausbildung der christl.-kirchl. Gesell- 

schaftsverfassung. Hann., 1803-5. 5 vols. 
A. Ritschl, die Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche. Bonn, 1850. 2d ed., 1857, 

(greatly improved.) 
S. Sugenheim, Geschichte der Enstehung und Ausbildung des Kirchenstaats. (See 

History of the Popes.) 
K. B. Hundeshagen, Beitrage z. Kirchenverfassungsgesh. "Wiesb., 1864. 

^ Rich historical Material in J. A. Fabricius, Salutarls lux evangelii, etc. Hamb., 1731, vol. 4. 
And in R. Millar, Hist, of the Propagation of Christianity in Several Ages. 3d ed. Lond., 1735. 
2 Parts. 

21 



322 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

4. Heresies and Delusions (comp. History of Doctrines). 
W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstand. Historie der Ketzereien, etc. Lpz., 1*762-85. 

11 vols. (To the close of the Image Controversy.) 
A. Neander, genetische Entwickelung der vornehmsten gnostischen Systeme. Berl., 

1818. 
J. Matter, hist, critique du Gnosticisme et de son influence sur les autres sectes Relig. 

et philos. pendant les 6 premiers siecles de notre era. Par., 1828. 2 vols. (2. ed. 

Strasb., 1843. 3 vols.) German, by Ch. H. Dorner. Heilb., 1833. 2 vols. (2d ed., 

1844). 
f J. A. Mohler, Yersuche ilber den Gnosticismus. Tiib., 1831. (Also in his collected 

Works, pub. by Dollinger, vol i.) 

F. C. Baur, die christl. Gnosis in ihrer geschtl. Tiib., 1835,^ 

das manichaische Religionssystem, nach den Quellen untersucht und entwick- 
elung. Tiib., 1831. (Comp. also Schneckenburger, in Stud. u. Krit. 1833. 3.) 

A. Schwegler, der Montanismus u. die christl. Kirche des 2 Jahrh. Tiib., 1841. 

A. Lipsius, der Gnosticismus. Wesen, Ursprung, Entwickelung. Lpz., 1860. (Comp. 
A. Harnack, zur Quellenkritik der Gesch. des Gnosticismus. Lpz., 1873.) 

Strohlin, essai sur le Montanisme. Strasb., 18Y0. 

A. Lipsius, die Quellen der altesten Ketzergesch. Lpz., 1875. 

A. Thierry, les grandes heresies du Y. siecle (Nestorius et Eutyches). Par., 18*78. 

W. Hermann, die Kirche der Thomaschristen. Giitersl., 1877. 

5. Church Councils. 
Ch. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstand. Historie der Kirchenversammlungen. 
Lpz., 1759. 

G. D. Fuchs, Bibliothek der Kirchenvers. des 4. und 5. Jahrh. in Uebers. und Auszii- 
gen aus ihren Acten, etc. sammt dem Original der Hauptstellen. Lpz., 1780-84. 
4 vols. 

H. T. Bruns, bibliotheca ecclesiastica. Canones et concilia saecc. 4-7. Berol., 1739. 

2 torn. 
*f Hefele, Conciliengeschichte. 7 Bde. (to 16th Cent.) Freib., 1855-74. 2d ed. 

1873 fe.2 English ed., translated by H. N. Oxenham. Edinb., 1871-76. 

6. Ecclesiastical Institittions. 
H. E. F. Guericke, de schola quae Alexandriae floruit catechetica. Hal., 1824, 1825. 

2 vols. 
Hasselbach, de schola, que Alexandriae floruit, catechetica. Stett., 1826. 
J. Matter, histoire de I'ecole d'Alexandrie. Par., 1820 (1840). 2 vols. 

7. Worship and Life of the Christians, together with the Beginnings of Monasticism. 

E. Leopold, das Predigtamt im IJrchristenthurae. Liineb., 1846. 

F. Piper, Geschichte des Osterfestes. Berl., 1845. 

K. L. Weitzel, die christl. Passafeier der drei ersten Jahrh. ; zugl. ein Beitrag zur 
Gesch. des Urchristenth. Pforzh.. 1848. (On the contrary, Baur in the Tiib. 
Jahrb., 1848, 2. Reply by Weitzel in Stud. u. Krit., 1848, 4.) 

* More especially on the Gnostic Systems, in Winer's Handb. der theol. Liter. 3d ed., i, p. 640 f . 

^ For a more thorouarh study, see the collection of proceedings by Ph. Lahheus and Gahr. 
Cossart. Par., 1671 fl. 18 vols., fol. Also a supplementary vol. by St. Baluzius. Par., 1683, fol. 
Further, by J. Harduin, conciliorum collectio regla maxima s. acta coucc. et epistt. decretales 
summorum pentiff. Par., 1715. 12 vols. fol. The most complete collection by J. D. Mansi, sacr. 
conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio ; acced. et notae et dlssertatt., etc. Flor. et Venet., 
1759-98. 31 vols. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 323 

A. Ililgenfeld, der Pasehahstreit der alten Kirche, etc. Halle, 1860. 

C. Schmidt, essai hist, sur la societe civile dans la monde romain et sur sa transfor- 

mation par le christianisme. Strasb., 1853. 

E. Chastel, etudes hist, sur Tinfluence de la charite durant les premiers siecles Chre- 
tiens. Par., 1853. (German, with Preface, by Wichern. Hamb., 1854.) 

G. J. Mangold, de monachatus originibus et causis. Marb., 1852. 

f A. Mohler, Geschichte des M5nchthums in der Zeit seiner Enstehung ; in his col- 
lected Works, vol. ii, p. 165 ff. 

*H. Weingarten, derUrspr. des Monchthums im nachconstant. Zeitalter. Gotha, 1877. 

E. Friedberg, aus deutschen Bussbiichern. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Culturge- 
schichte. Halle, 1868. 

f Fr. Frank, die Bussdisciplin der Kirche von den Apostelzeiten bis zum 7. Jahrhun- 
dert. Mainz, 1868. 

f F. Probst, Liturgie der drei ersten christl. Jahrh. Tiib., 1870. 

Lehre und Gebet in den drei ersten christl. Jahrh. Tiib., 1871. 

Sakramente u. Sekramentalien in d. drei ersten christl. Jahrh. Tiib., 1872. 

kirchl. Disciplin in den drei ersten christl. Jahrh. Tiib., 1873. 

E. de Pressense, la vie ecclesiastique religieuse et morale aux 2. et 3. siecles. Par., 

1877.1 

8. Biography.'^ 

J. C. F. Manso, das Leben Constantins. BresL, 1817. 

J. Burckhardt, die Zeit Constantins des Grossen. Basel, 1853. 

Th. Keim, der Uebertritt Constantins des gr. zum Christenthum. Ziir., 1862. 

G. Wiggers, Julian der Abtriinnige. (Zeitschr. fiir hist. Theol. 1837. 1.) 

fj. Auer, Kaiser Julian der Abtriinnige im Kampfe mit d. Kirchenvatern f. Zeit. 

Wien., 1855. 
A. Xeander, Kaiser Julian und sein Zeitalter. Lpz., 1812. 2d ed., Gotha, 1867. 

D. F. Strauss, der Romantiker auf dem Thron der Casaren, oder Julian der Abtriin- 

nige. Mannh., 1847. (Political Tendency.) 
W. Mangold, Julian der Abtriinnige. Stuttg., 1862. 
C. Semisch, Julian der Abtriinnige. Bresl., 1862. 
A. Miicke, Fl. Claudius Julianus. Gotha, 1867-69. 
G. Torquati, Studien iiber Jul. Apostata (Italian). Rome, 1878. 
J. H. Stuffken, de Theodosii M. in rem christ. meritis. Lugd. Bat., 1828. 
J. W. Lobell, Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit. Lpz., 1839. 2d ed. (by Sybel), 1869. 
K. G. Kries, de Gregorii Turonensis vita et scriptis. Yratisl., 1839. 
J. H. Reinkens, Martin von Tours. Gera., 1866. 3d ed., 1876. 

b. Church History of the Middle Ages. 

1. General. 

J. K. Fiissli, neue und unparth. Kirchen- u. Ketzerhistorie der mittlem Zeiten (11-13. 

Jahrh.). Lpz., 1770-74. 3 vols, 
f J. F. Bamberger, Synchronist. Geschichte der Kirche und der Welt im Mittelalter. 

Regensb., 1850-54. 6 vols. 
Capefigue, Feglise au moyen-age. Par., 1852. 

F. V. Raumer, Gesch. der Hohenstaufen u. ihrer Zeit. 4th ed. Lpz., 1871. 6 vols. 
Giesebrecht, Gesch. der deutschen Kaiserzeit. 4 vols. Braunschw., 1854-72. 

C. F. Baur, Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters. (See his General Church History.) 

^ See further, the literature on Archaaologv. 
^ Exclusive of matter belonging to Patristics. 



324 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

For the more cultivated : 
Chastel, le christianisme de I'eglise au moyen-age. Par., 1859. 

Agenor de Gasparin, le christianisme au moyen-age. (Innocent III.) Geneve, 1859. 
K. R. Hagenbach, Kirchgeschichte des Mittelalters. 2d ed. Lpz., 1869. 

2. On the History of the Popes {from the Beginning to the Reformation). 

a. In General.^ 

Ch. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollstand. Historic der rom Papste. Gott., (1756) 
1*758. 

G. J. Planck, Gesch. des Papstthums. Hann., 1805. 3 vols. 

J. A. Llorente, die Papste, etc. (From the French.) Lpz., 1823. 2 vols. 

L. T. Spittler, Gesch. des Papstthums ; with annotations, pub. by J. Gurlitt, Hamb., 
1802 ; new ed. by H. E. G. Paulus. Heidelb., 1826. 

\ C. Hofler, die deutschen Papste. Regensb., 1839. 

F. A. Gfrorer, Geschichte der Karolinger. Freib., 1848. 2 vols. 

Artaud de Montor, Geschichte der rom. Papste ; translated from the French, and con- 
tinued by Boost. Augsb., 1848 ff. 8 vols. 

J. A. Wylie, Geschichte, Lehren, Geist u. Aussichten des Papstthums. Elberf., 1853. 
2d. ed., 1854. 

S. Sugenheim, Gesch. d. Entsteh. u. Ausbildung d. Kirchenstaats. Lpz., 1854. 

R. A. Lipsius, Chronologic der rom. Bischofe bis zur Mittedes 4. Jahrh. Kiel, 1869. 

Gams, series episcoporum ecclesiae cathol. Regerisb., 1873. 

J. Friedrich, zur altesten Gesch. des Primates in d. Kirche. Bonn, 1879. 

E. Dumont, la papaute, les premiers empereurs Chretiens et les premiers conciles ge- 
neraux. Par., 1877. 

E. Castan, histoire de la papaute. Par., 1875 ff. 

V. Grone, die Papst-Geschichte. 2d ed. Regensb., 1875. 2 vols. 
W. Wattenbach, Gesch. des rom. Papstthums. Vortrage. Berl., 1876. 
Fevre, histoire apologetique de la papaute. Par., 1878 f. (So far, 4 vols.) 
f J. J. Dollinger, die Papstfabeln das Mittelalters. Miinchen, 1863. 
R. Baxmann, die Politik der Papste von Gregor I. bis Gregor VII. Elberf., 1868 f. 
2 vols. 

F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter. Vom 5. bis zum 16. Jahrh. 

Stuttg., 1859-73. 2d ed., 1869 ff. 8 vols. 
A. V. Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom. 3 vols. Berl., 1866-70. 
R. Zopffel, die Papstwahlen und die mit ihnen im nachsten Zusammenhange stehen 

den Ceremonien, etc., vom 11-14. Jahrh. Gott., 1872. 
f C, Hofler, die Avignonesischen Papste, etc. Wien., 1771. 

/?. Biographies of Individual Popes : on Gregory I., see Patristics. 
D. Bartolini, di S. Zaccaria papa e degli anni del suo pontificate. * Regensb., 1879. 
f 0. F. Hock, Gerbert od. Silvester II. und sein Jahrh. Wien., 1837. 
Delarc, un pape Alsacien (Leo IX.). Par., 1876. 
J. Voigt, Hildebrand als Papst Gregor VII. und sein Zeitalter. Weimar, 1815. 2d. ed., 

1846. 
J. M. Soltl, Gregor der Siebente. Lpz., 1847. 

* Older Works, by B. Platina (de Sacchi), In different editions ; F. Pagi, A. Sandin, Arch. 
Bower (History of Popes, Lond., 1749. 4. ; translated and continued by J. J. Rambach, Magdeb., 
1751-80, 10 vols.). Comp. Winer, pp. 680 ff. Also sources : Ph. Jaffe, regesta pontifleum ro- 
man. a condita eccl. ad a. 1198. BeroL, 1851 (continued to 1304, by A. Pottbaust. BeroL, 1874. 
3 vols. 4.) 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 325 

F. A. Gfrorer, Papst Gregor VII. u. s. Zeitalter. Schaffh., 1859-64. 8 vols. 

M. Villemain, hist, de Gregoire VII. Par., ISIS. 2 vols. 

O. Meltzer, Papst Gregor VII. und die Bischofswahlen. 2d ed. Dresd., 18*76. 

H, Renter, Gesch. Alexander III u. der Kirche seiner Zeit. Bresl. (Lpz.), 1845-64. 

3 vols. (Vol. I., 2d ed., 1860.) 
f F. Hurter, Gesch. Innocenz III. und seiner Zeitgenossen. Hamb., 1834 ff. 4 vols. 

3d ed., 1845 ff. 
f Jorry, hist, du pape Innocent III. Par., 1853. 

W. Drumann, Gesch. Bonifacius des Achteu. Konigsb., 1852. 2 vols. 
M. Brosch, Papst Julius II. u. die Griindung des Kirchenstatts. Gotha, 18*78. 

Geschichte des Kirchenstaates. Gotha, 1880. 

A. J. Dumesnil, hist, de Jules II. sa vie et son pontificat. Par., 18*73. 

3. On the History of Monks, Orders, and Saints} 
L. T. Spittler, Geschichte der Bettelmonchsorden ; pub. by J. Gurlitt. Hamb., 1823. 4. 

E. Miinch, Gesch. des Monchthums in alien seinen Verzweigungen, etc. Stuttg., 1828. 

2 vols. 
M. W. Doring, Gesch. der vornehmsten Monchsorden, etc. Dresd., 1828. 

F. V. Biedenfeld, Ursprung, etc., siimmtlicher Monchs- u. Klosterfrauen-Orden, Weim., 

1837. 2 vols. Supplementary vol., 1839. 
f Montalembert, les moines d'occident depuis St. Benoit jusqua a St. Bernard. Par., 

1860 ff. English ed., 5 vols, thus far, Edinb., 1861-6*7. 
C. E. Gilbert, les moines au moyen-age. Moulins, 18*75. 
Der hi. Benedikt u. seine Orden. Einsied., 18*75. 
Fz. Winter, die Pramonstratenser des 12. Jahrh. Berl., 1865. 

die Cistercienser des nordostl. Deutschlands. Gotha, 1868-*71. 3 vols. 

L. Janauschek, originum Cisterciensium. Vol. I. Wien., 1877. 

4. History of the Crusades and Propagation of Christianity? 
J. Michaud, bibliotheque des croisades. Par., 1829 f. 4 vols. 

F. Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzilge. Lpz., 1807-32. 7 vols. 

J. Michaud, hist, des croisades, Par., 1812, ed. 6., 1840 ff., 6 vols. ; Germ, by Un- 

gewitter und Forster. Quedlinb., 1828-31. 7 vols. 
H. Hagenmeyer, Peter der Eremite. Lpz., 1879. 
C. Klimke, die Quellen zur Gesch. des 4. Kreuzziiges. Bresl., 1875. 
f K. Maurer, Bekehrung des norweg. Stammes z. Christenth. 1st part. Miinch., 1855. 

G. Weil, Gesch. der islam. Volker von Mohammed bis zur Zeit des Sultans Selim. 
Stutt., 1866. 

5. Mysticism, Sects, Inquisition. 
H. Schmid, der Mysticismus des Mittelalters, etc. Jena, 1824. 
J. Gorres, die christl. Mystik. Regensb., 1836-42. 4 vols. 
W. Prager, Gesch. der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter. 1st part. Lpz., 1874. 

1 Older works by R. Hospinian (de manachis, etc. Tigur., 1588, 1609. Gen., 1669). H. Hel- 
yot (hist, des ordres monastiques, etc. Par., 1714-19. 8 vols. 4. ; German, Lpz., 1753-56. 8 vols. ; 
new ed., 1829 fl.) Comp. Winer, pp. 698 ff., on the Acta Sanctorum, Idem, pp. 670 ff. The most 
celebrated among these, the Acta Sanctorum, quotquot toto orbe coluntar, coll., etc. J. Bollan- 
dus, with accessions of many other editors, the so-called BoUandists (Antv., 1643-1794. 53 vols. 
fol. Ten further vols, appeared 1845 fl.) A new edition of this work appeared at Paris, 1863-76. 
L. Surius, hlstoriae sen vitae sanctorum (Coin, 1560 fl. u. o.) ; new ed., Turin (Lpz.), 1875 ff. 
J. E. Stadler, Vollstand Heiligenlexikon (Augsb., 1856 fl.), was continued by J. N. Ginal. 

2 J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos. Hanau, 1611. 2 voll. fol. For the older and newer 
literature, see Winer, pp. 588 fol. 



326 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

C. A. Hahn, Gesch. der mittelalterl. Ketzer. Stuttg., 1846-50. 3 vols. 

J. M. Manderbach, Gesch. des Priscillianismus. Trier, 1851. 

A. Lombard, Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-Hommes en Orient et en Occident. Ge- 
neve, IS'ZQ. 

A. W. Dieckhoff, die Waldenser im Mittelalter. Gott., 1851. 

J. J. Herzog, die romanischen Waldenser, ihre vorreformatorisclien Zustande u. 
Lehren, etc. Halle, 1853. (Comp. the Waldensian Histories of Monastier, Hus- 
ton, and others.) 

K. Hase, neue Propheten. Lpz., 1851. 2d ed., 1861. (Maid of Orleans, Savonarola.) 

A. Sartori, die christliehen und mit der christlichen Kirche zusammenhangenden Sec- 
ten. Liibeck, 1855. (In tabular form, 4to.) 

E. Schmidt, die Gottesfreunde im 14. Jahrh. Jena, 1854. 
I Jos. Schwab, Johannes Gerson, etc. Wiirzb., 1858. 

H. Reuter, Gesch. der relig. Auf klarung im Mittelalter vom Ende des 8. bis zum Anf. 

des 14. Jahrh. Berl., 1875-77. 2 vols. 
Frd. Hoffmann, Gesch. der Inquisition. Bonn, 1878. 2 vols. 

(For the History of Scholasticism, see the general history of the Church and Doc- 
trines. On the more important Scholastics and Mystics, see the following biographies.) 

6. Monographs} 
f A. Seiters, Bonifaz der Apostel der Deutschen nach seinem Leben und Wirken. 

Mainz, 1845 (to be used with allowance). 
J. P. Miiller, Bonifacius. Eene kerkhistorische studie. Amsterd., 1869 f. 2 vols. 
A. Werner, Bonifac, der Ap. d. Deutschen, u. die Romanisirung von Mitteleuropa. 

Lpz., 1875. 
G. Pfahler, St. Bonifac. u. s. Zeit. Regensb., 1880. 
G. H. Klippel, Lebensbeschr. des Erzbisch. Ansgar. Bremen, 1845. (In addition, the 

biographies by f A. Tappehorn, 1863, G. Lentz, 1865, C. Monckeberg, 1865.) 
A. Hiifing, der hi. Liudger. Mlinster, 1878. 
H. Gehle, de Bedae Venerab. vita et scriptis. Lugd., 1838. 
K. Werner, Beda der Ehrwiirdige u. s. Zeit. Wien., 1875. 

F. Lorentz, Alcuins Leben. Halle, 1829. 

K. Werner, Alcuin u. sein Jahrh. Paderb., 1876. 
f F. Kunstmann, Hrabanus Maurus. Mainz, 1841. 
f F. A. Staudenmaier, Joh. Scotus Erigena und die Wissenschaf t seiner Zeit. Frankf,, 

1834. 
Th. Christlieb, Leben und Lehre des Joh. Scot. Erigena. Gotha, 1860. 
C. B. Hundeshagen, de Agobardi . . . vita et scriptis. Giess., 1831. 
A. Vogel, Ratherius von Verona und das 10. Jahrh. Jena, 1854. 2 vols. 

G. F. Franck, Anselm von Canterbury. Tilb., 1842. 

F. R. Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury. Lpz., 1843-52. 2 vols. 

Ch. de Remusat, St. Anselme de Cant. Par., 1853; German, by C. Wurzbach, 
Regensb., 1854, 

Abailard. Par., 1845. 2 vols. 

Ragey, vie intime de St. Anselm au Bee. Par., 1877. 

J. de Crozals, Lanfranc, etc. Par., 1877. 

H. Franke, Arnold von Brescia und seine Zeit. Ziirich, 1825. 

Clavel, Arnauld de Breschia et les Romans, du 12 siecle. Par., 1868. 

Guibal, Arnauld de Brescia, et les Hohenstauffen. Par., 1868. 

Giesebrecht, Arn. von Brescia. Mlinchen, 1873. 

^ Comp. also the History of Doctrines and Patristics. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 327 

G. de Castro, Arnaldo da Brescia, etc. Livorno, 1875. 

A. Neander, der h. Bernhard u. sein Zeitalter, Berl., 1813, 3d. ed., Gotha, 1865. 

J. Ellendorf, der h. Bernh. v. Clairvaux u. d. Hierarchie s. Zeit. Essen, 1837. 

C. A. Wilkens, Petrus der Ehrw. Abt von Clugny. Lpz., 1857. 

*A. Liebner, Hugo v. St. Victor u. die theol. Richtungen s. Zeit. Lpz., 1832. 

J. G. B. Engelhardt, Rich, von St. Victor u. Job. Ruysbroek. Erl., 1838. 

II. Renter, Jon. von Salisbury. Bresl., 1842. 

E. Voigt, der heil. Franciscus von Assisi. Tiib., 1840. 

K. Hase, Franz, von Assisi, ein Heiligenbild. Lpz., 1856. 

Caterina von Siena, ein Heiligenbild. Lpz., 1864. 

L. de Cherance, St. Frangois d' Assise. Par., 1879. 

At, hist, de St. Antoine de Padoue. Par., 1879. 

f K. Werner, der h.' Thomas von Aquino. Regensb., 1858 ff. 3 vols. 

Ch. W. Stromberger, Bertold v. Regensburg. Giitersl., 1877. 

A. Kaufman, Casarius, von Heisterbach. Koln, 1850. 

f J. Bach, Meister Eckhardt, der Vater der deutschen Speculation. Wien., 1864. 

A. Lasson, Meister Eckhardt der Mystiker. Berl., 1868. 

C. Schmidt, Job. Tauler von Strassburg. Hamb., 1841. (Comp. Bohringer, in the 

Biographies, where also the Lives of Suso and Ruysbroek can be found.) 
f J. B. Diepenbrock, Suso's Leben und Schriften, mit Einleit. von Gorres. Regensb., 

1829. 3d ed., 1854. 

F. W. V. Ammon, Geiler v. Kaisersberg. Erl., 1826. 

A. Stoeber, essai historique et litteraire sur la vie et les sermons du de Geiler' 

Strasb., 1834. 4, 
J. Dacheux, J. Geiler de Kaysersberg. Par., 1876. 
H. Vast, le cardinal Bessarion. Par., 1879. 
Rolland, hist, de St. Frangois de Paule. 2. ed. Par., 1876. 

7. Forerunners of the Reformation. 
L. Flathe, Gesch. der Vorlaufer der Reformation. Lpz., 1835 f. 2 vols. 
*C. Ullmann, Reformatoren vor der Reformation, vornehml. in Deutschl. und in den 

Niederlanden. Hamb., 1841 f. 2 Bde. 2d ed., Gotha, 1865 f. (Vol. L : Joh. von 

Goch, Joh. von Wesel, and others. Vol. II. : Joh. von Wesel and others, especially 

the German Mystics. EngUsh ed., translated by R. Menzies. 2 vols. Edinb., 

1855. 
C. de Bonnechose, reformateurs avant la reforme du XVI. siecle. Par., 1853. 2 vols- 

(Gerson, Hus, the Council of Constantinople.) 
F. Scharpff, der Cardinal u. Bischof Nicolaus von Cusa als Reformator in Kirche, Reich 

u. Philosophic des 15. Jahrhunderts. Tiib., 1871. 
A. G. Rudelbach, Hieron. Savonarola und seine Zeit. Hamb., 1835. 
F. K. Meier, Girol. Savonarola. Berl, 1836. 
F. Perrens, Jer. Savonarola, etc. Par., 1853-57. 2 vols. 
Pasquale Pierroli, Geschichte Girolamo Savonarola u. seiner Zeit. Deutsch von M. 

Berduschek. Lpz., 1868. 2 vols. 

E. C. Bayonne, etude sur Jer. Savonarole. Par., 1879. 
0. Jiiger, John WyclifPe. Halle, 1854. 

F. Bohringer, J. Wycliffe (Biographien II, 4, 1 ; s. p. 248). 

*G. Lechler, Joh. v. Wiclif u. die Vorgesch. der Reformation. Lpz., 1873. 2 vols. 
J. A. Helfert, Hus und Hieronymus. Prag., 1853. '. 
L. Krummel, Gesch. der bohm. Reformation im 15. Jahrh. Gotha, 1866. 
Utraquisten u. Taboriten. Gotha, 1871. 



328 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

F. Palacky, Documenta Mag. Joa. Hus vitam, doctrinam, causam in Constantiensi con- 

cilio actam et controversias de religione in Bohemia annis 1403-1418 motas illus- 

trantia, etc. Prag., 1869. 

urkundl. Beitrage zur Gesch. des Husitenkriegs. Prag., 18*73 f. 2 vols. 

W. Bergei', Johaunis Hus und Konig Sigismund. Augs., 1872. 

F. Reiser, Reformation des Konig Sigmund. Pub. by W. Bohm. Lpz., 1876. 

F. V. Bezold, zur Gesch. des Husitentums. Miinchen, 1874. 

Konig Sigmund und die Reichsl^riege gegen die Husiten. Miinster, 1872-75. 

2 parts. 
E. Denis, Huss et la guerre des Hussites. Par., 1878. 
E. Th. Mayerhoff, Joh. Reuchlin und seine Zeit. Berl., 1830. 
L. Geiger, Johann Reuchlin, sein Leben und seine Werke. Lpz., 1871. 
A. Miiller, Leben des Erasmus von Rotterdam. Hamb., 1828. 
0. Stichart, Erasmus von Rotterdam. Seine Stellung zu der Kirche und zu den kirchl. 

Bewegungen seiner Zeit. Lpz., 1870. 
Martin, Erasmus en zijn tijd. Amsterd., 1870. 
Durand de Laur, Erasme precurseur et initiateur de I'esprit moderne. 2 vols. Par., 

1872. 
D. F. Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten. Lpz., 1858-60. 3 vols. (New ed., in 1 vol., 1871.) 

Booking published the works of Hutten (Lpz., 1859-62) in 5 vols. 
K. Ullmann, Franz von Sickingen. Lpz., 1872. 

H. A. Prohle, Andreas Proles, ein Zeuge der Wahrheit kurz vor Luther. Gotha, 1867. 
0. G. Schmidt, Petrus Mosellanus, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des humanismus in 

Sachsen. Lpz., 1867. 

On the Reformatory Councils : 

Monumenta conciliorum gener. saec. XV. Wien., 1857-74 (tom. I, II: Concil. Basil. 

scriptores). 
f J. H. K. V. Wessenberg, die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 15. und 16. Jahr- 

hunderts. Const., 1840. 4 vols. 
P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli. Gotha, 1877. 

c. History of the Reformation. 

1. General {and German) History of the Reformation} 

K. L. Woltmann, Gesch. der Reformation in Deutschland. Altona, 1801-5. 2d ed., 

1817. 3 vols. 
*Ph. Marheineke, Geschichte der teutschen Reformation. Berl., 1817. 2 vols. 

2d ed., 1831-34. 4 vols. 
K. A. Menzel, neuere Geschichte der Deutschen, von der Reformation bis zur Bunde- 
sacte. Vols. 1-8. Breslau, 1826 ff. 

' Sources : the Writings of the Reformers (Corpus Reformatorum, pub. by Bretschneider, and 
after his death by Blndseil. Halle, 1834 fl. (Melanthonis opera, 28 tomi), continued by Baum, 
Cunitz, Reuss. (CaMni opera. Brunsv., 1863 ff., thus far 20 tomi). Luther's Briefe und Send- 
schreiben by de Wette. Berl., 1825-28. 5 vols. Vol. 6 by J. Seidemann, 1856. [In addition : C. 
Burckhardt, Luther's Briefwechsel. Lpz., 1866.] Luther's sammtl. Werke by Plochmann and 
Irmischer. Frankf ., 1826-57. 67 vols. 2d ed., 1864 fl. Zwingli's Werke by Schuler and Schul- 
thess. Zur., 1828 fl. Calvin's Briefe, French, pub. by Jules Bonnet. Par., 1854. 2 vols. Older 
Histories of the Reformation by Sleidanus (1555 ; edition by E. Hoche, Lpz., 1846), Seckendorf 
(1688; German abridgement by Junius 1755, by Roos 1788), Scultetus (1618), Gerdes (1744 ff.), etc. 
For Switzerland : H. BuUinger (pub. by Hottinger and Vogeli, Frauenfeld, 1838 fl. 3 vols.) ; 
J. Strickler, Actensammlung zur Schweizer. Reformationsgesch. (1521-32.) Zur., 1877 ff. Comp. 
also the collections of the acts and original documents by Loscher, Kopp, Strobel, Wagenseil, 
Forstemann, Neudecker, Friedlander, K. and W. Krafft (Briefe u. Documente aus der Zeit der 
Reform., Elberf., 1876), etc. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 329 

K. R. Hagenbach, Geschichte der Reformation, vorzuglich in Deutschland und der 

Schweiz. In vorlesungen. 4lh ed. Lpz., 1870. 
W. Wachsmuth, Darstellungen aus der Gesch. des Reform ationszeitalters. 1st part. 

Lpz., 1834 (Peasant War). 
H. Clausen, populiire Vortrage iiber die Reformation. Translated from the Danish 

by Jenssen. Lpz., 183*7. 
Merle d'Aubigne, hist, de la reformation du 16. siecle. Par., 1835-53. 5 vols. 4. ed., 

1861 ff. English ed. passim. 
hist, de la ref. en Europe au temps de Cauvin. Par., 1863-78. 8 vols. (German, 

Elberf., 1863 ff.) American ed., 8 vols. N. Y., 1873. 
*L. Ranke, deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation. Berl., 1839 ff. 5th ed., 

Lpz., 1874. 6 vols. 
K. Hagen, Deutschlands liter, und relig. Verhaltnisse im Reformationszeitalter. Erl., 

1841-44. 3 vols. 
C. G. Neudecker, Gesch. der deutschen Reform, von 1517-32. Lpz., 1842, 
Gesch. des evang. Protestant, in Deutschland. Lpz., 1844 f. 2 vols. 

F. A. Holzhausen, der Protestantism us in seiner geschichtl. Entstehung, Begriindung 

und Fortbildung. Lpz., 1846-59. 3 vols. 
C. H. Bresler, die Gesch. der deutschen Reform. (1846). 2d ed., Berl., 1850 f. 2 vols. 
f J. J. Dollinger, die Reformation, ihre innere Entwicklung und ihre Wirkungen. 

(1846 ff.) 2d ed., Regensb., 1851 ff. 3 vols. 
H. E. F. Guericke, Geschichte der Reformation. Berl., 1855. 
B. ter-Haar, Reformationsgeschichte in Schilderungen. From the Dutch by C. Gross. 

Gotha, 1856. 2 vols. 
*D. Schenkel, die Reformatoren u. die Reformation. Wiesb., 1856. 
*G. Freytag, Bilder aus dem Jahrh. der Reformation. 11th ed. Lpz., 1879. 
K. Braune, die Reform, u. die drei Reformatoren. 2d ed. Altenb., 1 873. 
*L. Hausser, Geschichte des Zeitalters der Reformation, pub. by Oncken. Berl., 

1867 f. 
E. F. Souchay, Deutschland wahrend der Reformation. Frkf. a. M., 1868.^ 

G. Plitt, Einleit. in die Augustana. Vol. 1 : Gesch. der evang. Kirche bis zum Augs- 

burger Reichstage. Erl., 1867. 

W. Maurenbrecher, Karl V. und die deutschen Protestanten, 1545-1555. Diisseld., 1865. 

A. Baur, Deutschland in den J. 1517-25. Betrachtet im Lichte gleichzeitiger anony- 
mer u. pseudonymer deutscher Volks- u. Flugschriften. Ulm, 1872. 

K. Griin, Culturgeschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts. Lpz., 1872. 

Jahrbiicher des deutschen Reichs und der deutschen Kirche im Zeitalter der Reforma- 
tion, pub. by J. K. F. Knaake. 1 vol. Lpz., 1872. 

E. L. Th. Henke, neuere Kirchengesch. (Lectures) Pub. by W. Gass. Yol. 1 : Gesch. der 
Reform. Halle, 1874. Yol. 2: Gesch. der getrennten Kirchen(to about 1750). 1878. 

On Persecutions : 
Th. Fliedner, Buch der Martyrer und anderer Glaubenszeugen der evang. Kirche von 
den Aposteln bis auf unsere Zeit. Kaiserswerth, 1852-60. 4 vols. 

2. Lives of Individual Reformers. 
Yitae quatuor Roformatorum — Lutheri a Melanchth., Melanchthonis a Camerario, 
Zwinglii a Myconio, Calvini a Th. Beza — conscriptae, nunc junctim editae. Prae- 
fat. est A. F. Neander. Berol., 1841. 

' Attractive special features of the history of the Reformation, in the 3d and 4th vols, of J. G. 
Miiller's Denkwiirdigkeiten, etc. Also the Reformationsalmanach, published by F. Keyser (three 
years, 1817-20), presents much interesting history. 



330 HISTORICxiL THEOLOGY. 

a. German Keformers of the Lutheran Church. 

* Leben und ausgewahlte Schrif ten der Vater und Begriinder der luther. Kirche, pub. 
by J. Hartmann and others, introduction by K. J. Nitzsch. Elberf., 1861 ff. (Parts 
1 and 2: *M. Luther by J. Kostlin. 1875. Part 3: Melanchthon by C. Schmidt, 

1861. Part 4: Joh. Bugenhagen Pomeranus by K. A. T. Vogt. 1867. Part 5: 
Andreas Osiander by W. MoUer. 1869. Part 6: Joh. Brenz by Jul. Hartmann. 

1862. Part V : Urbanus Khegius by G. Uhlhorn. 1861. Part 8: J. Jonas, C. 
Cruciger, P. Speratus, L. Spengler, N. v. Amsdorf, P. Eber, M. Chemnitz, D. Chy- 
traus, by Th. Pressel. 1863.) 

Lives of Luther : 
G. H. A. TJkert, Luthers Leben, nebst einer kurzen Gesch. der Reform. Deutschlands. 

Gotha, 1817. 2 vols, (with abundant literature). 
Ch. W. Spieker, Gesch. M. Luthers und der durch ihn bewirkten Kirchenverbesserung 

in Deutschland. 1 vol. Berl, 1818. 

C. F. G. Stang, Mart. Luther. Sein Leben und Wirken. Stuttg., 1835-7. 
G. Pfeizer, Mart. Luthers Leben. Stuttg., 1836. 

K. r. Ledderhose, M. Luther, nach seinem aussern und innern Leben darges'tellt. 
Speier, 1836. 

M. Meurer, Luthers Leben, aus den Quellen erzahlt. Dresd., 1843-46. 3 vols.; se- 
lection from the same, 1850. 3d ed., 1870. Jugend- u. Volksausg. 3d ed., Lpz., 
1878. 

K. Jiirgens, Luthers Leben. Lpz., 1846, 1847. 3 vols. 

Luther, der deutsche Reformator, in bildichen Darstellungen von G. Konig und in 
geschichtl. Umrissen, by H. Gelzer. Hamb., (Gotha) 1851. 4to, with 48 steel 
plates. (Excellent.) 

G. A. HofP, vie de Luther. Par., 1860. 

H. W. J. Thiersch, Luther, Gustav Adolph und Maximilian L Nordl., 1869.^ 

D. Schenkel, Luther in Worms und in Wittenberg und die Erneuerung der Kirche in 
der Gegenwart. Elberf., 1870. 

H. Lang, Martin Luther, ein religioses Charakterbild. Berl., 1870. 

K. E. Kohler, Luthers Leben dargest. in s. Reisen. Eisen., 1875. 

H. Spath, Lather u. sein Werk. Oldenb., 1876. 

Aubin, histoire de la vie, etc., de Luther. 4. ed. Par., 1876. 

A. Baur, M: Luther. Tiib., 1878. 

Comp. also: Luthardt, die Ethik Luthers in ihren Grundziigen, 2d ed., Lpz., 1875; 
S. Lommatzsch, Luthers Lehre vom ethisch-relig. Standp. aus., Berl., 1879 ; H. Ber- 
ing, die Mystik Luthers, etc., Lpz., 1879 ; K. Hase, 275 Lutherbriefe in Auswahl 
u. Uebers., new ed., Lpz., 1878. 

Melanchthon (by Camerarius. See foot note below).' 
M. Facius, Melanchthons Leben und Charakteristik, Lpz., 1832. 
L. F. Heyd, Melanchthon und Tubingen 1512-18. Tiib., 1839. 
F. Galle, Versuch einer Charakteristik Melanchthons als Theologen. Halle, 1840. 

^ Older biographies of Luther by Melanchthon, Mattheslus (frequently published, by Rust, 
with pref. by A. Neander (Berl., 1841), Walch, Keil, (1753 ff. 4 vols.), by Ch. Niemeyer, and 
many others. 

2 The older biography by Joach. Camerarius, de Ph. Mel. ortu, totius vitae curriculo et morte, 
implicata rerum memorabilium temporis illius hominumque mentione, etc. (first, Lips., 156(5), 
has been frequently pubhshed. The most useful, with many annotations, is by Strobel (Halle, 
1777). Later (at same time with Melanchthons Life of Luther), by August! (BresL, 1817) ; Ger- 
man, by Zimmermann, with notes by Villers, and Preface by Planck, Gott. (1813), 1816. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 331 

Wohlfahrt (1860) and many other works which appeared on anniversary of Melanch- 
thon's death, 19th April, 1860. (Comp. die Gottinger Biblioth. theol. XIII. 1. 
pp. 13-15). 

Herlinger, die Theol. Melanchthons in ihrer gesch. Entwicklung. Gotha, 1879. 

Brenz': J. H. Vaihinger (Stuttg., 1841), J. Hartmann und K. Jiiger (Hamb., 1840-42. 
2 vols.). 

Justus Jonas': Knapp (1817). 

Bugenhagen's : Zietz (Lpz., 1829; 2d ed., 1834), Bellermann (Berl, 1859), and 
Vogt (1867). 

Fr. Myconius' : C. F. Ledderhose (Gotha, 1854). 

Karlstadts: K. F. Jager (Stuttg., 1856). 

M. Chemnitz' : H. Hachfeld (Lpz., 1867). 

(3. The Reformers of the Reformed Church. 

* Leben und ausgewahlte Schrif ten der Viiter und Begriinder der ref ormirten Kirche, 
published by J. W. Baum, R. Christoifel, K. R. Hagenbaeh, and others, introduced 
by K. R. Hagenbaeh, Elberf., 1857-63. (I. Zwingli, by Christoffel. II. Oecolam- 
pad u. Myconius, by Hagenbaeh. III. Capito u. Butzer, by Baum. IV. Joh. Cal- 
vin, by E. Stahelin. V. Heinr. Bullinger, by C. Pestalozzi. VI. Th. Beza, by 
H. Heppe. VII. Peter Martyr Vermigli, by C. Schmidt. VIII. Olevianus u. Ur- 
sinus, by K. Sudhoff. IX. 1. Joh. a Lasco, by P. Bartels; Leo Juda, by Pestalozzi; 
Franz. Lambert, by F. W. Hassencamp ; Wilh. Farel u. Peter Viret, by C. Schmidt. 
IX. 2. J. Vadian, by Th. Pressel ; B. Haller, by Pestalozzi ; A. Blaurer, by Th. 
Pressel. X. John Knox, by Brandes.) 

Leben Zwingli's: Nuscheler (1776), Rotermund (1818); J. C. Hess, vie d'Ulr. Zwingle 
(Par. et Gen., 1818; German, by Usteri, Ziir., 1811); J. M. Schuler (Ziir., 1819); 
J. Hettinger (Zur., 1842); G. Roder (St. Gallen und Bern, 1855); R. Christoffel 
(see above). H. Sporri, Zwinghstudien. Lpz., 1866. *J. C. Morikofer, Ulrich 
Zwingli. Lpz., 1867-69. 2 vols. 

Oekolampadius : J. Herzog (Bas., 1843. 2 vols.), Hagenbaeh (see above). 

Oswald Myconius' : M. Kirchhofer (Ziir., 1830), Hagenbaeh (see above). 

Berthold Haller's: M. Kirchhofer (Ziir., 1828). 

Heinr. Bullinger's (and his wife) : H. Christoffel (Ziir., 1875). 

y. Calvin and his Disciples. 

Lives of Calvin: H. Bolsec (Lyon, 1577; new ed., by P. L. Chastel, Lyon, 1875); P. 
Henry (Hamb., 1835-44. 3 vols.; Selections by same, 1846); F. P. W. Guizot 
(Joh. Calvin, ein Lebensbild, from the French, by M. Runkel, Lpz., 1847); *Stahelen 
(see above); F. Bungener (1862, French; German, Lpz., 1863); Pressel (1864); 
Viguet et Tissot (1864); *f Kampschulte (Joh. Calvin, seine Kirche und sein Staat 
in Genf. 1st vol., Lpz., 1869) ; Guizot (in Vies de quatre grands Chretiens francais. 
Par., 1873, tom i); C. Goguel (2d ed., Toulouse, 1878); P. Lobstein (die Ethik 
Calvins in ihren Grundziigen entw., Strassb., 1877) ; and many smaller writings on 
the centennial occasion of his death, 1864.^ 

Farel's: Kirchhofer (Ziir., 1832, 1833); Schmidt (Strassb., 1834); Junod (Par., 1865). 

Beza's : J. W. Baum (Theodor Beza, Lpz., 1843-51, 2 vols. ; appendix to 2d vol., 
Lpz., 1852) ; Schmidt (Farel and Viret, see above. 

6. Further Biographical Histories of the Reform,ation. 

f G. Tb. Rudhardt, Thomas Morus. Nurnb., 1829.) Augsb., 1852. 

R. Baumstark, Thom. Morus. Freib., 1879. 

* Of special value Is the Brlefsammlung der franzosischen Reformatoren, published by Her- 
mlnjard. Genf., 1866. 



332 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

< 

Jules Bonnet, vie d'Olympia Morata. Par., 1850. 

*Ch. H. Sixt, Petrus Paulus Vergerius, papstl. Nuntius, kathol. Bischof und Vor- 

kampfer des evangeliums. Braunschw., 1855. 
Th. Keim, Ambr. Blurer, der schwab. Reformator. Stuttg., 1860. 
Th. Pressel, A. Blaurers, des schwab. Reformators, Leben und Schriften. Stuttg., 

1861. 
C. J. Cosack, Paulus Speratus' Leben und Lieder. Braunschw., 1861. 
K. Benrath, Bernardino Ochino von Siena. Lpz., 1875. 

3. The Sects of the Period of the Reformation. 

H. W. Erbkam, Gesch. der prot. Secten im Zeitalter d. Reform. Hamb., 1858. 

C. Hase, das Reich der Wiedertaufer (neue Proph.,) 2d ed. Lpz., 1860. 

C. A. Cornelius, Gesch. des Miinsterischen Aufruhrs. Lpz., 1855-60. 2 vols. 

F. Trechsel, die protestant. Antitrinitarier vor Faustus Socin. Heidelb., 1839-44. 

2 vols. 
H. Tollin, das Lehrsystem Mich. Servets. GiitersL, 18'76-'78. 3 vols. 

4. Single Epochs and Important Points in the History of the Reformation. 

Reichstag zu Worms: Friedrich (in den Abhandl. der Miinch. Akad., 1871). 
Deutscher Bauernkrieg: Sartorius (1795), Wachsmuth (1834), Zimmermann (1841 ff. 

new e4., 1856, 3 vols.), Cornelius (1861). 
Marburger Religionsgesprach : Schmitt (Marb., 1840), Schirrmacher (Briefe u. Acten. 

Gotha, 1876). 
Reichstag zu Speier (1529): J. Ney (Hamb., 1880). 
Augsburger Reichstag (1530): Rotermund (1829), Pfaff, Fikenscher, Facius, and 

others (1830), Schirrmacher (Briefe u. Acten. Gotha, 1876). 
Religionsgesprach zu Regensburg (1541): Hergang (Cassel, 1858). 
Augsburger Interim : Hergang (Lpz., 1855), Frege (1855). 
Augsburger Religionsf rieden : Spieker (Schleiz, 1854). 

d. History of the Sixteenth and Setenteenth Centuries. 
1. Roman Catholic Church. 

F. Bungener, histoire du concile de Trente. Par., 1847; 2d ed., 1850. 2 vols. Eng- 
lish ed. Edinb., 1854. 

J. T. L. Danz, Geschichte des Tridentin. Concils. Jena, 1846. 

Th. Sickel, zur Geshichte des Concils von Trient (1559-63). Actenstiicke aus oster- 
reichischen Archiven. 3 parts. Wien, 1870-72. 

L. Maynier, etude histor. sur le concile de Trente. 1st part. Par., 1874. 

J. J. Dollinger, Berichte u. Tagebb. zur Gesch. des Cone, von Tr. Nordl, 1876. 
A. Theiner published the Authentic Transactions of the Council of Trent of An- 
gelo Massarelli (Agram u. Leipz., 1874. 2 torn. fol.). 

*L. Ranke, die rom. Papste ihre Kirche u. ihr Staat im 16. u. 17. Jahrh. Berl., 1834- 
36. 3 vols. 6th ed. Lpz., 1874. Translated by Sarah Austin. 4th ed. 3 vols. 
Lond., 1866. 

E. Zirngiebl, Studien iiber das Institut der Gesellschaft Jesu. Lpz., 1870. 

f J. Huber, der Jesuitenorden, etc. Berl., 1873. 

Spuller, Ignace de Loyola et la compagnie de Jesus. Par., 1876. 

J. Lorenz, Sixtus V. u. seine Zeit. Mainz, 1852. 

C. Ignazio, Innocenzo X. e la sua corte. Rom., 1878. 

A. v. Hubner, Sixtus V. (Par., 1870. 3 vols.) Germ. Lpz., 1871. 2 vols. 

C. E. Scharling, Michael Molinos. (From the Danish.) Gotha, 1855. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 333 

*H. Reuchliu, Geschichte von Port-Royal. Hamb., 1839-44. 2 vols. 

Pascals Leben uud der Geist seiner Schriften. Stuttg., 1840. 

G. Dreydorff, Pascal, sein Leben und seine Kampfe. Lpz., 1870. 

Th. W. Ecklin, Blaise Pascal, ein Zeuge der Wahrheit. Basel, 18*70. 

H. Heppe, Gesch. der quietistischen Mystik in der kath. Kirche. Berl., 1875. 

Fuzet, les Jansenistes du 17. siecle, leur histoire et leur dernier historien, M. Ste. 

Beuve. Par., 1877. 
Wunderlich, Fenelou, Erzbisch. v. Cambrai. Hamb., 1873. 

2. Protestant Church. 
A. Tholuck, der Geist der luther. Theologen Wittenbergs im Verlauf des 17. Jahrh. 

Hamb. u. Gotha, 1852. 
Vorgeschichte des Rationalismus. Halle, 1853 f. 2 vols. (Vol. 1 : Das akadem. 

Leben des 17. Jahrh. mit besond. Beziehung auf die protest-theolog. Facultaten 

Deutschlands. Vol. 2 : Die akadem. Geschichte der deutschen, skandinav., nieder- 

land., und schweiz. hohen Schulen.) 
Lebenszeugen der luther. Kirche aus alien Standen vor und wahrend der Zeit 

des dreissigjahrigen Krieges. Berl., 1859. 
Gesch. des Rationalismus. 1st part (Gesch. des Pietismus). Berl., 1865. 



K. R. Hagenbach, der ev. Protestantism, in s. Verhaltn. zum Katholicism. im 16, u. 

17. Jahrh. Part 1: Die Zeiten vor dem 30 jahr. Krieg. Part 2: Der 30 jahr. 

Krieg. u. die Folgezeit bis zu Ende des 17. Jahrh. 3d ed. Lpz., 1870 f. 
J. C. Morikofer, J. J. Breitinger u. Ziirich. Lpz., 1873. 
O. Krabbe, David Chrytraus. Rostock, 1870. 

C A. Wilkens, Tilem. Hesshusius, e. Streittheolog der Lutherskirche. Lpz., 1860. 
A. Peip, Jakob Bohme, der deutsche Philosoph. Hamb., 1862. 
Ch. Scharling, Jac. Bohme's Theosophie (Danish). Kopenh., 1879. 

E. L. Til. Henke, Georg Calixtus und seine Zeit. Part 1 (Die Uuivers. Helmstadt 
im 16. Jahrh.), Halle, 1833. Parts 2-4, 1853-60. 

Kasper Peucer u. Nicolaus Crell. Marb., 1865. 

F. Brandes, der Kauzler Crell, ein Opfer des Orthodoxismus. Lpz., 1873. 
W. Hossbach, Joh. Valentin Andrea uud sein Zeitalter. Berl., 1819. 

J. Vial, Balthasar Schuppius, ein. Vorlaufer Speners. Mainz, 1857. — E. Oelze, B. 

Schuppius. Hamb., 1863. 
W. Hossbach, Phil. Jac. Spener und seine Zeit. Berl., 1828. 2 vols. 3d ed., by G. 

Schweder, 1861. 
H. G. F. Guericke, A. H. Francke. Halle, 1827. 

G. Kramer, neue Beitrr. zur Gesch. A. H. Francke's. Halle, 1875 f. 
G. Droysen, Gustav Adolph. 2 vols. Lpz., 1868-70. 

e. History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 

1. General. 
K. R. Hagetibach, die Kirche des 18. und 19. Jahrh. (Vorlesungen vols. 6, 7.) 4th ed. 

Lpz., 1871, 1872. English and American ed., translated by John F. Hurst. 2 vols. 

Lond. and N. Y., 1869. 
K. F. A. Kahnis, der innere Gang des deutschen Protestantismus seit Mitte des vorigen 

Jahrh. Lpz., 1854. 3d ed. (2 vols.) 1874. English ed., Lond., 1855. 
C. Schwarz, zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie. Lpz., 1856. 4th ed., 1869. 
T. Wangemann, sieben Biicher Preussischer Kirchengeschichte ; eine aktenmassige 

Darstellung des Kampfes mn die lutherische Kirche im 19. Jahrh. Berl., 1859-61. 

3 vols. 



334 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

*F. Nippold, Handb. der neuesten Kirchengesch. seit der Restauration von 1814. 

2d ed. Elberf., 1867. 
H. Schmid, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche Deutschlands von der Mitte des 18. 

Jahrh. bis in die Gegenwart. Miiuchen, 1872. 
J. Bertrand, le pontificat de Pie VI. Par., 1876. 2 vols. 
On the newest papal history, comp. the Biographies of Pius IX., by Villefranche 

(Lyon, 1876); J. G. Shea (English, N. Y., 1877); Gillet (French, Munster, 1877); 

de Bussy (Par., 1878) ; L. Wappmannsperger (Regensb., 1878) ; und die Leo's XIII., 

by A. ChauHeu (Par., 1878). 
0. Mejer, zur Geschichte der romisch-deutschen Frage. Part 1: Deutscher Staat 

und romisch-kathol. Kirche von der letzen Reichszeit bis zum Wiener Con- 

gresse. Rostock, 1871. Part 2: Die bayer. Concordatsverhandlung. Rostock, 

1872. 

F. Brandes, Gesch. der kirchlichen Politik des Hauses Brandenburg. (Vol. 1 : Gesch. 

der evangel. Union in Preussen.) Gotha, 1872 ff. 2 vols. 
f H. Rolf us, Kirchengeschichtliches in chronolog. Reihenfolge (since 1869). Mainz, 

1877-79. 
Allgem. kirchl. Chronik, founded by K. Matthes, continued by H. Schultze, now by 

0. Stichart. Hamb., 1855 fE. 
Evang. Kirchen-Chronik. Lpz., 1868 ff. 

2. Biographies. 

M. V. Engelhardt, Valent. Ernst Loscher. Dorp, 1853. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1856. 

J. Ch. F. Burk, Joh. Alb. Bengels Leben und Werken. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1832. 

0. Wachter, Joh. Alb. Bengels Lebensabriss. Stuttg., 1865. 

C. A. Auberlen, die Theosophie F. C. Oetingers. Tiib., 1847. 2d ed., 1859. 

Cramp, Gesch. des Baptismus bis zum Schluss des 18. Jahrh. German, by J. Balmer. 

Hamb., 1873. 
K. A. Varnhagen v, Ense, Leben des Grafen v. Zinzendorf. Berl., 1830. 
L. C. V. Schrautenbach, der Graf von Zinzendorf und die Briidergemeinde seiner Zeit. 

Gnadau, 1851. 2d ed., 1872. 
J. F. Schroder, der Graf Zinzendorf und Herrnhut, oder Geschichte der Briiderunitat 

bis auf die neueste Zeit. Nordh., 1857. 2d ed., Lpz., 1863. 

G. Burckhardt, Zinzendorf und die Briidergemeinde. Gotha, 1866. 
H. Plitt, Zinzendorf s Theologie. Gotha, 1869 fE. 3 vols. 

E. W. Groger, Gesch. der erneuerten Briiderkirche. Gnadau, 1852-54. 3 vols. 

K. C. G. Schmidt, des Johannes Wesley Leben und Werken. Halle, 1849. 

L. S. Jacoby, Handbuch des Methodismus, enth. die Geschichte, Lehre, etc., desselben, 

Bremen, 1853. 3d ed., 1871. 
J. Jiingst, der Method, in Deutschland. 2d ed. Gotha, 1877. 
V. Verlaque, histoire du card, du Fleury. Par., 1879. 
G. V. Lechler, Geschichte des engl. Deismus. Stuttg., 1841. 
L. Noack, die Freidenker in der Religion. Bern, 1853-55. 3 vols. (Vol. 1 : die 

engl. ; Vol. 2: die franzos. Deisten; Vol. 3: die deutsche Aufkliirung.) 
A. Pichler, die Theologie des Leibnitz. 2 vols. Miinchen, 1869, 1870. 
C. Schwarz, G. Ephr. Lessing als Theolog. Halle, 1854. 
G. Rope, Joh. Melchior Goeze. Eine Rettung. Hamb., 1860. 
0. Thelemann, Fr. Ad. Lampe. Sein Leben u. s. Theologie. Bielef., 1868. 
*F. W. Bodemann, Joh. Caspar Lavater. Gotha, 1856. (Comp. the biographies under 

Practical Theology.) 
A. Werner, Herder als Theologe. Berl., 1871. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 335 

C. H. Gildemeister, Joh. Georg Hamanns, des Magus in Xorden, Leben und Schriften. 

6 vols. Gotha, ISST-TS. 2d ed., 1875 ff. Idem: Hamann-Studien. Gotha, 1874. 
A. Disselhoff, Wegweiser zu Joh. Georg Hamarm. Elberf., 1870. 
M. Petri, Hamanns Schriften im Zusammenh. seines Lebens erl. Hann., 1872-74. 

4 vols. 
G. Poel, Joh. G. Hamann, etc. Hamb., 1874-76. 2 vols. (Vol. 1 : Das Leben ; 

Yol. 2: Die Schriften.) 

C. Monckeberg, Matthias Claudius (Gallerie Hamburgischer Theologen, vol. 6). Hamb., 

1869. 
R. A. T. Reichlin-Meldegg, H. E. G. Paulus und seine Zeit ; nach dessen literar. Nach- 
lasse, etc. Stuttg., 1853. 2 vols. 

D. Schenkel, F. Schleiermacher. Ein Lebens- u. Charakterbild. Elberf., 1868. 
W. Dillthey, Leben Schleiermachers. Yol. 1. Berl., 1870. 

W. Bender, Schleiermachers Theologie. 2 vols. Nordl., 1876-78. 

C. Palmer, die Gemeinschaften und Sekten Wiirttembergs, pub. by Jetter. Tiib., 1877. 

3. History of Christian Life and Later Mysticism. 

*Max Gobel, Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der rheinsch-westphalischen evan- 
gelischen Kirche. Coblenz, 1849-60. 3 vols. 2d ed., 1862 f. 

H. Heppe, Gesch. Pietismus u. der Mystik in der reform. Kirche, nam. der Nieder- 
lande. Leiden, 1879. 

Jul. Hamberger, Stimmen aus dem Heiligthum der christlichen Mystik und Theoso- 
phie. Stuttg., 1857. 2 vols. 

4. History of Later Councils, and the Vatican Council. 

Acta et decreta sacrorum conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis (by the Jes- 
uits at Maria Laach). Frib., 1871-79. Y tomi (I: The Councils of the Catholic 
Bishops of the Latin ritus, and H: Of the Oriental Bishops, 1682-1789 ; III: The 
American and English ; lY : The French ; Y : The German, Hungarian, and Dutch 
Councils of 1789-1869). 

Acta et decreta concilii Yaticani. Frib., 1871. 

Decreta et canones s. et oecum. concilii Yatic. Regensb., 1875 (likewise Latin and 
German). 

E. Friedberg, Sammlung der Aktenstiicke zum ersten vatikan. Concil mit einem Grund- 

risse der Gesch. desselben. Tiib., 1871 f. 
J. Friedrich, Tagebuch. Wahrend des vatik. Concils gefiihrt. Nordl., 1871. 2d ed., 

1873. 

Gesch. des vatik. Concils. Bonn, .1877. 

T. Frommann, Geschichte und Kritik des vatikanischen Concils. Gotha, 1873. 

£. de Pressense, le Concile du Yatican, son histoire et ses consequences politiques et 

religieuses. Par., 1872. (American ed., translated by Rev. George Prentice. 

N. Y., 1870.) 
f E. Cecconi, Geschichte der allgem. Kirchenversammlungen im Yatican. German by 

Molitor. Regensb., 1873. 
f Manning, die wahre Gesch. des vatic. Concils. German by W. Bender. Berl, 1877. 

Special History of the Church and Reformation in Individual Countries. 
Germany : 

F. "W. Rettberg, Kirchengesch. Deutschlands. Gott., 1846-48. 2 vols. (Incomplete.) 
W. Krafft, Kirchengesch. der german. Yolker. Berl., 1854. 

H. Heppe, Entstehung, Kampfe und Untergang evangel. Gemeinden in Deutschland. 
Wiesb., 1862. 



336 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

J. Friedrich, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands. Vol. 1 : Die Romerzeit. Vol. 2 : Me- 
rovingerzeit. Bamberg, 1867-69. 

Switzerland : 
J. J. Hettinger, helvetische Kirchengesch. (Ziir., 1708 ff.;) edit, by L. Wirz and M. 

Kirchhofer. Ziir., 1808-19. 5 vols. 
A. Ruchat, histoire de la reformation de la Suisse. Gen., 1727 f. Nyon, 1835-38. 

7 vols. 
E. F. Gelpke, Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz unter der Romer-, Burgunder und Ale- 

mannenherrschaft. Bern, 1856-61. 2 vols. 

die christliche Sagengeschichte der Schweiz. Bern, 1862. 

H. Bullingers Reform ationsgeschichte nach dem Autographon, published by J. Hot- 

tinger and J. Vogeli. Frauenf., 1838-40. 3 vols. 
*J. C. Morikofer, Bilder aus dem kirchl. Leben der Schweiz. Lpz., 1864. 

France : 
G. Weber, geschichtl. Darstellung des Calvinismus in Genf. u. Frankreich bis zur 

Aufhebung des Edicts von Nantes. Heidelb., 1836. 
Die protestantische Kirche Frankreich von 1787-1846. Pub. by J. C. L. Gieseler. 

Lpz., 1848. 2 vols. 
L. Ranke, franzos. Gesch. vornehml. im 16. u. 17. Jahrh. Stuttg., 1852-61. 5 vols. 
G. de Felice, histoire des Protestants de France, depuis I'origine de la reformation 

jusqu'au temps present. 6th ed. Toulouse, 1867. English ed., Lond. and N. Y., 

1853. 
A. Coquerel, histoire des eglises du desert. Par., 1841 f. 2 vols. (German, ed. by 

G. Schilling. Stuttg., 1846.) 
Nap. Payrat, histoire des pasteurs du desert, depuis la revocation de I'edit de Nantes 

jusqu'a la revolution francaise. Par., 1842. 
*Eug. et Em. Haag, la France protestante ou vies des protestants fran^ais. Par., 

1853-1860. JO vols. 
Ch. Weiss, hist, des refugies protestants de France depuis la revocation de I'edit de 

Nantes jusqu'a nos jours. Par., 1852. 2 vols. English ed., Lond., 1854. 
W. G. Soldan, Gesch. des Protestant, in Frankr. (to 1574.) Lpz., 1855. 2 vols. 
C. Drion, hist, chronolog. de I'eglise protestante de France (to 1685). Strasb., 1855. 

2 vols. 
G. Stahelin, der Uebertritt Konig Heinrichs IV. v. Frankreich zur romisch-kathol. 

Kirche. Basel, 1856. 2d ed., 1862. 
G. V. Polenz, Gesch. des franz. Calvinismus bis 1789 (from 1629). Gotha, 1857-69. 

5 vols. 
T. W. Rohrich, Mittheilungen aus der Geschichte der evangel. Kirche des Elsasses. 

Strasb., 1855. 3 vols. 
L. Buch, 20 vorles. liber d. Gesch. der Ref. in Frankreich. Brem., 1860. 
E. de Pressense, I'eglise et la revolution fran9aise. Par., 1864. 
W. Mangold, Bilder aus Frankreich. Vier kirchengesch. Vorles. Marb., 1869. 
Correspondance des reformateurs dans les pays de langue frangaise recueillie, etc., par 

A. L. Herminjard. Gen., 1867-72. 4 vols. 
J. P. Hugues, histoire de la restauration du protestantisme en France au 18. siecle. 

Par., 1872. 2 vols. 

Great Britain: 
K. F. Staudlin, allgem. Kirchengesch. von Grossbritannien. Gott., 1819. 2 vols. 
G. Weber, Gesch. der akathol. Kirchenu. Secten von Grossbrit. Lpz., 1845-53. 2 vols. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 38T 

M. C. Walcott, Scoti Monasticon: the ancient Church of Scotland. Lond., 18*74. 
Merle d'Aubigne, trois siecles de lutte en Ecosse. Geneve, 1850. (German: Die 

schott. Kirche in ihrem 300 jahr. Kampfe, by 0. Fiebig. Lpz., 1851.) 
K. G. V, Rudloff, Geschichte der Reformation in Schottland. Berl., 1847-49. 2 vols. 

New ed., 1854. 
*H. Weingarten, die Revolutionskirchen Englands. Lpz., 1868. 
J. Kostlin, die schott. Kirche, ihr inneres Leben u. ihr Verhaltniss zum Staat von d. 

Reform, bis auf d. Gegenw. Hamb., 1852. 
f C. J. Greith, Geschichte der altirischen Kirche und ihrer Verbindung mit Rom, 

Gallien, und Allemannien. Freib., 1867. 

Netherlands : 
H. J. Royaards, geschiedenis van het Christendom in Nederland. Utr., 1849-53. 2 vols. 
Moll, Kerkgeschiedenis van Nederland vor de Hervorming. Arnhem, 1867. 
F. Nippold, die altkatholische Kirche des Erzbisthums Utrecht. Heidelb., 1872. 
die rom- kathol. Kirche im Konigr. der Niederl. Lpz., 1877. 

Scandinavia : 
Maurer (see above. History of Propagation of the Church). 

F. Miinter, Kirchengesch. von Danemark u. Norwegen. Lpz., ^l 823-33. 3 parts. 
H. Reuterdahl, Gesch. der schwedischen Kirche ; translated from the Swed. by Th. 
Mayerhoff. 1st part. Berl., 1837 (Introduction, and Life of Ansgar). 

E. Tegn^r, die Kirche Schwedens in den beidenletztenJahrzehnten. From the Swed- 

ish by G. Mohnike. Strals., 1837. 

Russia : 
Ph. Strahl, Geschichte der russischen Kirche. Halle, 1830. 

Beitrage zur russischen Kirchengeschichte. Halle, 1827. 

A. Murawieff, Gesch. der russ. Kirche. Karlsr., 1857. 

H. Dalton, Geschichte der reformirten Kirche in Russland. Gotha, 1865. 

Philaret, Geschichte der Kirche Russlands, translated by Blumenthal. Frankf., 1872. 

2 parts. 
Basarow, die russ. orthod. Kirche. Stuttg., 1873. 

F. Hunnius, die evang.-luther. Kirche Russlands. Lpz., 1877. 

Lescoeur, I'eglise cathol. en Pologne (1772-1875). 2d ed. Par., 1876. 2 vols. 

Italy : 
D. Erdmann, die Reform, u. ihre Martyrer in Italien. Berl., 1855. 2d ed., 1876. 

Spain : 
P. Gams, die Kirchengesch. von Spanien. Regensb., 1862-69. 3 vols, in 6 parts. 
Adolf de Castro, Gesch. der spanischen Protestanten u. ihrer Verfolgung durch 
Philipp IL (Cadiz, 1851.) German by Hertz. Frankf., 1866. 2d ed., 1874. 

Bohemia, Hungary, and Transylvania: 
A. Frind, die Kirchengesch. Bohmens. Prag., 1862-78. 4 vols. 
Annales evangelicorum in Hungaria, etc. Presb., 1861. 

J. Borbis, die evang.-luther. Kirche Ungarns, nebst einem Anhang iiber die Gesch. 
der prot. Kirchen in den deutsch-slavischen Landern. Nordl., 1861. 

die Martyrer der evangelisch-lutherischen Slovaken. Erl., 1863. 

V. Hornyansky, Beitrage zur Gesch. der evang. Gemeinden in Ungarn. Pest, 1863. 
A. Fabo, Skizzen aus der Gesch. des Ungar. Protestantismus. Pest, 1869.^ 

' More elaborate in K. F. Staudlins Gesch. u. Liter, der Kirchengesch., published by .T. T. 
Hemsen (Hann., 1827), p. 310 fl. ; and in Winer's Handb. der theol. Lit. 3d ed. (Lpz., 1838 flj 
I., p. 778 ff. ; im Erganzungsbeft (Lpz,, 1842), p. 122 fl. 
22 



338 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Individual German countries have been described. We recall the labours oif 
Vierordt, iiber die badische Kirche ; Keim, iiber die schwadische Reform.-gesch. 
Gomp. for the later period, H. N. A. Jensen, Schleswig-Holsteinische Kirchengesch., 
published by Michelsen (Kiel, 1873-79. 4 vols.) ; H. Heppe, K.-gesch. beider Hessen. 
Marb., 1876. 2 vols. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

I. 

GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY. 

J. Bennett, The History and Prospects of the Church. Elgin, 1852. 

W. M. Blackburn, History of the Christian Church, from its Origin to the Present 

Time. Cincinnati, 1879. 
C. M. Butler, An Ecclesiastical History, from the 1st to the 19th Century. 2 vols. 

Phila., 1868-72. 
J. G. Dowling, An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesiastical History. Lond., 

1848. 
Jonathan Edwards, A History of the "Work of Redemption, Comprising an Outline of 

Church History. N. Y., 1838. 

F. W. Farrar, The Witness of History to Christ. Lond., 1875. 

E. S. Ffoulkes, A Manual of Ecclesiastical History, from the 1st to the 12th Century 

inclusive. Oxford, 1851. 
R. Flint, Philosophy of History in France and Germany. Vol. i. N. Y., 1875. 
C. Girdlestone, Christendom, Sketched from History in the Light of Holy Scripture. 

Lond., 1870. 
S. F. Jarvis, A Chronological Introduction to the History of the Church. Lond., 1844. 

N. Y., 1845. 
W. Jones, The History of the Christian Church, from the Birth of Christ to the 18th 

Century; including the very interesting Account of the Waldenses and Albigenses. 

2 vols. Lond., 1826. 

E. Lawrence, Historical Studies. N. Y., 1876. Contents: The Bishops of Rome; Leo 

and Luther ; Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical Councils ; The Vaudois ; The 
Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem ; Dominic and the Inquisition ; The Con- 
quest of Ireland ; The Greek Church. 

H. C. Lea, Studies in Church History : the Rise of the Temporal Power ; Benefit of 
Clergy; Excommunication. Phila., 1869. 

J. J. M'Elhinney, The Doctrine of the Church : an Historical Monograph, with a full 
Bibliography of the Subject. Phila., 1871. 

S. R. Maitland, A Collection of Pamphlets on Church History. Lond., 1853. 

G. Matheson, Growth of the Spirit of Christianity from the First Century to the Dawn 
of the Lutheran Era. 2 vols. Edinb., 1877. 

F. D. Maurice, Lectures on Ecclesiastical History. Lond., 1854. 

Joseph Milner, The History of the Church of Christ, continued by Rev. I. Milner. 

New ed., revised by Thomas Grantham. 4 vols. Lond., 1860. 
William Palmer, A Compendious Ecclesiastical History, from the Earliest Period to 

the Present Time. N. Y., 1841. 
J. Craigie Robertson, History of the Christian Church, from the Apostolic Age to the 

Reformation, 1517. 4 vols. Lond., 1858-73. 
Philip Schaff, History of the Apostolic Church ; with a General Introduction to Church 

History. N. Y, 1853. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 339 

Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, from the Birth of our Lord to Gregory 

the Great. 2 vols. N. Y., 1858-67. 
Henry B. Smith, History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. N. Y., 1859 
Philip Smith, The Student's Ecclesiastical History. N. Y., 1879. 
Henry Stebbing, History of the Church of Christ, from the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, 

to the Eighteenth Century. 3 vols. Edinb., 1842. 
James White, The Eighteen Christian Centuries with a copious Index. N. Y, 1860. 

II. 

ANCIENT PERIOD. 

Eusebius, Pamphilus, Ecclesiastical History. Translated from the original by C. F. 
Cruse, and an Historical View of the Council of Nice, by Isaac Boyle. N. Y., 1856. 

G. P. Fisher, The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of the State of the Roman 
World at the Birth of Christ. N. Y, 1877. 

Greek Ecclesiastical Historians (The) of the First Six Centuries of the Christian Era : 
Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 vols. Lond., 1843-47. 

6. Hinds and J. H. Newman, History of the Christian Church in the First Century. 
Lond., 1862. 

G. A. Jackson, The Apostolic Fathers, and the Apologists of the Second Century. In 
Early Christian Literature Periods. Edited by Prof. George P. Fisher, D.D. N. Y., 
1879. 

J. A. Jeremie, History of the Christian Church in the Second and Third Centuries. 
Lond., 1852. 

C. Kingsley, Hypatia ; or. New Foes with an Old Face. Historical Romance. 6th ed. 
Lond., 1863. 

M. Mahan, Church History of the First Seven Centuries, to the Close of the Sixth 
General Council. (Vol L of Mahan's Works.) N. Y., 1873. 

R. Mant, Primitive Christianity. Exemplified and Illustrated by the Acts of the 
Primitive Christians. Lond., 1842. 

F. D. Maurice, Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Cen- 
turies. Lond., 1854. 

L. A. Merivale, Christian Records. A Short History of the Apostolic Age. Lond., 1857. 

C. Merivale, Four Lectures on Some Epochs of Early Church History. N. Y., 1879. 

H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity ; including that of the Popes to the Pon- 
tificate of Nicholas V. 8 vols. N. Y., 1881. 

The History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of Pagan- 
ism in the Roman Empire. 3 vols. N. Y., 1881. 

J. H. Newman, Callista ; a Sketch of the Third Century. Historical Romance. Lond., 1873. 

Historical Sketches. 3 vols. Lond., 1872, 1873. 

The Arians of the Fourth Century. 3d ed. Lond., 1872. 

W. H. Pinnock, An Analysis of Ecclesiastical History; from the Birth of Christ to 
the Council of Nice, A.D. 325. 5th ed. Cambridge, 1859. 

H. J. Pye, A Short Ecclesiastical History; from the Conclusion of the Acts of the 
Apostles to the Council of Nice, A.D. 325. Lond,, 1854. 

J. Russell, Essays on the Rise and Progress of the Christian Religion in the West of 
Europe; from the Reign of Tiberius to the Council'of Trent. Lond., 1873. 

E. M. Sewell, History of the Early Church. N. Y, 1860. 

Socrates, Ecclesiastical History; from the Accession of Constantine, A.D. 305, to the 
Thirty-eighth Year of Theodosius II., including a Period of 140 Years. With the 
Notes of Valesius. Lond., 1853. 



840 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

A. P. Stanley, Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age. Oxfora, 1852. 

J. Stoughton, Ages of Christendom before the Reformation. Lond., ISST. 

I. Taylor, Ancient Christianity, and the Doctrines of the Oxford Tracts for the Times. 
Lond., 1842. 

W. C. Taylor, History of Christianity ; from its Promulgation to its Legal Establish- 
ment in the Roman Empire. Oxford, 1844. 

G. Townsend, Ecclesiastical and Civil History ; from the Ascension of our Lord to the 
Death of Wycliffe, Philosophically Considered. 2 vols, Lond., 184*7. 

R. St. John Tyrwitt, The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church ; with an Index of 
Subjects, Historical and Emblematic. Lond. 

G. Waddington, A History of the Church ; from the Earliest Ages to the Reforma- 
tion. 3:vol8. Lond., 1835. N. Y., 1878. 

F. Watson, The Ante-Nicene Apologies. Their Character and Yalue. Camb., 1870. 

G. Wordswoctb, A Church History to the Council of Nicaea, A.D. 323. Lond., 
1881. 

ni. 

MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 

J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. N. Y., 1877. 

E. A. Freeman, Historical Essays. 2 vols. Lond., 1872, 1873. 

H. Hallam, Yiew of • the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. 3 vols. N. Y., 

1880. 
C Hardwick, A History of the Christian Church during the Middle Ages. From 

Gregory the Great to the Excommunication of Luther (A.D. 575-1517). Lond., 

1872. 
A. L. Koeppen, The World in the Middle Ages. 2 vols. N. Y., 1856. 
P. Lacroix, Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1874. 
H. C. Lea, Superstition and Force. Phila., 1871. 
S. R. Maitland, The Dark Ages. Lond., 1853. 
R. C. Trench, Lectures on Mediaeval Church History. N. Y., 1878. 
J. Wyse, A Thousand Years ; or, the Missionary Centres of the Middle Ages. Lond., 

1872. 

IT. 

THE REFORMATION". 

1. Forerunners. 

E. H, Gillett, The Life and Times of John Huss ; or, the Bohemian Reformation of 

the Fifteenth Century. 2 vols. Boston, 1863. 
G. Rossetti, Disquisitions on the Antipapal Spirit which Produced the Reformation. 
2 vols. Lond., 1834. 

2. General History of the Reformation. 
W. Cunningham, The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation. Edinb., 1862. 
0. P. Fisher, The Reformation. N. Y, 1873. 

C. Hardwick, A History of the Christian Church during the Reformation. Lond., 1873. 
G. P. Krauth, The Conservative Reformation and its Theology. Phila., 1871. 
J. Morison, The Protestant Reformation in all Countries. Lond., 1843. 
Seebohm, The Era of the Protestant Revolution. With Notes on Books in English 

relating to the Reformation, by George P. Fisher. N. Y., 1875. 
J. Tulloch, Leaders of the Reformation: Luther, Calvin, Latimer, and Knox. Edinb., 

1860. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 3^1 

3. Reformation according to Countries. 
Bohemia: 

V. Krasinski, Sketch of the Religious History of the Slavonic Nations. Bohemia: 

pp. 24-118. Edinb., 1851. 
C. A. Pescheck, Reformation and Anti-Reformation in Bohemia. 2 vols. Lond., 1826. 

England : • 
J. J. Blunt, Sketch of the Reformation in England. Lond., 1848. 
J. H. Blunt, The Reformation of the Church of England ; its History, Principles, and 

Results (A.D. 1514-47). Lond., 1878. 
S. H. Burke, Men and Women of the English Reformation, from the Days of Wolsey 

to the Death of Cranmer. 2 vols. Lond., 1871. 
Ov Burnet, The History of the Reformation of the Church of England. Revised and 

Corrected by Rev. E. Nares. 4 vols. New ed., V vols. Lond., 1865. 

C. Geikie, The English Reformation. How it came about, and why we should up- 
hold it. N. Y., 1879. 

P. Heylyn, Ecclesia Restaurata ; or, the History of the Reformation of the Church of 
England, with the Life of the Author by John Barnard. 2 vols. Lond., 1849. 

F. C. Massingberd, History of the English Reformation. Lond., 1857. 

W. H. Pinnock, An Analysis of English Church History. Comprising the Reforma- 
tion Period, and Subsequent Events. Camb., 1870. 

H. Soames, History of the Reformation of the Church of England. 4 vols. Lond», 
1826, 1827. 

J. Williams, Studies on the English Reformation. N. Y, 1881. 

France : 

D. C. A. Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France in the Reign of Louis XIV. ; or, The 
Huguenot Refugees and their Descendants in Great Britain and Ireland. 2 vols. 
Lond., 1871. 

H. M. Baird, History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France. 2 vols. N. Y., 1879. 
W. M. Blackburn, Admiral Coligny and the Rise of the Huguenots. 2 vols. Phila., 

1869. 
W. S. Browning, A History of the Huguenots. Phila., 1845. 
W. Hanna, Wycliffe and the Huguenots. Edinb., 1860. 

Wars of the Huguenots. Edinb., 1871. 

Mrs. H. F. Lee, The Huguenots in France and America. 2 vols. Boston, 1852. 
Mrs. Marsh, The Protestant Reformation, in France; or, History of the Huguenota 

2 vols. Phila., 1851. 
W. C. Martyn, A History of the Huguenots. N. Y., 1866. 
F. T. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World. Boston, 1879. 
R. L. Poole, A History of the Huguenots of the Dispersion at the Recall of the Edict 

of Nantes. Lond., 1880. 
W. G. Simms, The Huguenots in Florida; or, the Lily and the Totum. N. Y., 1864. 
S. Smiles, The Huguenots in France after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

N. Y., 1874. 
The Huguenots ; their Settlements, Churches, and Institutes in England and Ire- 

land ; with an Appendix Relative to the Huguenots in America. N. Y., 1868. 
C. Weiss, History of the French Protestant Refugees, from the Revocation of the 

Edict of Nantes to our own Days. 2 vols. N. Y., 1854. 
H. White, The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Preceded by a History of the Religious 

Wars in the Reign of Charles IX N. Y., 1868. 



842 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Germany : 

A. R. Pennington, God in the History of the Reformation in Germany and England, 

and in the Preparations for it. Lond., 1869. 
J. Scott, Luther and the Lutheran Reformation. 2 vols. N. Y., 1833. 

Holland : 

W. C. Marty n, The Dutch Reformation : a History of the Struggle in the Netherlands 

for Civil and Religious Liberty in the Sixteenth Century. N. Y., 1868. 
J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic. N. Y., 18'79. 
History of the United Netherlands ; from the Death of William the Silent to the 

Twelve Years' Truce, 1609. 4 vols. N. Y., 1879. 
The Life and Death of John of Barneveld, Advocate of Holland. With a View 

of the Primary Causes and Movements of the Thirty- Years' War. 2 vols. N. Y., 

1879. 

Italy : 

W. R. Clark, Savonarola: his Life and Times. Lond., 18Y8. 

W. Dinwiddle, Times before the Reformation, with an Account of Fra Girolamo Savo- 
narola, the Friar of Florence. N. Y., 1880. 

T. M'Crie, Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Cen- 
tury; with a Sketch of the Reformation in the Grisons. Pliila., 1856. 

W. H. Rule, Savonarola ; with Events of the Reign of Pope Alexander VI. Lond., 1855. 

Jerome Savonarola, The Triumph of the Cross. Translated from the Latin, with Notes 
and a Biographical Sketch, by 0. T. Hill. Lond., 1868. 

C. Strack, Renata of Este, a Chapter from the History of the Reformation in France 
and Italy. Translated by Catherine E. Hurst. Cincinnati, 18*73. 

P. Vilari, The History of Girolamo Savonarola, and of his Times. Translated from 
the Italian, by Leonard Horner. Lond., 1863. 

M. Young, The Life and Times of Aonio Paleario ; or, A History of the Italian Refor- 
mation in the Sixteenth Century. 2 vols. Lond., 1860. 

Scotland : 

G. Cook, History of the Reformation in Scotland. 2d ed., 3 vols. Lond., 1819. 

W. M. Hetherington, History of the Church of Scotland, from the Introduction of 
Christianity to the Period of the Disruption, 1843. '7th ed., 2 vols. Edinb., 1852. 

R. Keith, History of Affairs in Church and State in Scotland, from 1527 to 1568. 
3 vols. Lond., 1844-50. 

A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Church of Scotland. N. Y., 1872. 

The Tercentenary Book, Commemorative of the Completion of the Life and Work of 
John Knox, of the Huguenot Martyrs of France, and the Establishment of Pres- 
bytery in England. Phila., 1878. 

Spain 
G. Borrow, The Bible in Spain. 8 vols. Lond., 1843. 

E. Charles, The Martyrs of Spain and the Liberators of Holland. Lond., 1861. 
T. M'Crie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain in 

the Sixteenth Century. Edinb., 1829. 
W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Philip IL 8 vols. Boston, 1855. 

Switzerland : 
Christoffel, R. Zwingli ; or, the Rise of the Reformation in Switzerland. A Life of the 
Reformer, with Notices of his Times and Contemporaries. Edinb., 1860. 



METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 843 

V. 
MODERN PERIOD. 

John H. Blunt, A Key to the Knowledge of Church History (Modern). Lond., 18'72. 
Etienne Chastel, Christianity in the Nineteenth Century. A Religious and Philosophic 

Survey of the Immediate Past, according to the Spirit of Jesus. Translated by 

J. R. Beard. Lond., 18Y4. 
Henry Stebbing, History of the Christian Church. 2 vols. Lond., 1850. 

SECTION xm. 

AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 

The auxiliaries to Church History are : 
I. Material. 

1. A knowledge of the general history of the world, more par- 
ticularly as connected with the general history of religion ; of phi- 
losophy and the sciences ; and of art, especially Christian art. 

2. The Geography of the Church. 

3. The Chronology of the Church. 
11. Instrumental. 

1. Acquaintance with the languages necessary for the study of 
sources. This is Ecclesiastical Philology. 

2. The antiquarian skill needed for judging of the value of sources, 
monuments, and documents. This we call Church Diplomatics. 

GENERAL HISTORY. 

The importance of familiarity with the general history of 
the world will be apparent without discussion. Not only does 
church history, as an integral part of the history of the world and 
the human race, assume the latter, but the two often intimate reia- 
pass over into each other to some extent, as, for in- ^V^'^ ? ^^"^^ '^ 
stance, in the Middle Ages. Hence, in this special field, history, 
non-theological and theological writers find a common ground.* 
Nor may we forget that the history of Christianity, which certainly 
should not be lost sight of in the history of the Church, covers a 
larger surface than church history itself. To oppose the history of 
the world to the latter, as being merely profane history, would be 
to commit serious error. "This is a mode of judging," says Rothe, 
" in connexion with which the Christian element in history will in- 
evitably appear to become more and more exhausted as time goes 

' We cite, in illustration, Raumer's Gesch. d. Hohenstaufen, and similar works. 
An acquaintance with the literature of general history is taken for granted. Comp. 
Giftseler, Church History, vol. i, p. 19, notes. 



S44 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

on, and the history of the Christian world becomes the history of 
the self-effected dissolution of Christianity, according to a view 
that has now become popular." * 

Nor may the ecclesiastical historian disregard the history of other 
religions, among which the history of the Israelites is most nearly 
related to Christianity, so that Old Testament history becomes at 
this point an auxiliary to church history. Not only did the arrange- 
ments of the early Church grow out of the later organization of the 
Jewish synagogues, but the whole of the Middle Ages presents to 
view, in certain aspects, a repetition of Israelitish history, such as 
the hierarchy, the temple service, the Levitical institution, the unif y- 
mg of Church and State, intolerance, and the parallel between David 
Mohammedan- ^^^ Charlemagne. The history of Mohammedanism is 
ism- important for a proper conception of the Spanish, and 

also of the Greek and later Oriental, churches, as well as for the 
Crusades. But Hellenism and Paganism should also arrest the 
attention of the church historian. For the peculiarities of Christi- 
anity, whose historical development he is to describe, can only be 
recognized by contrast with non-Christian institutions. The signifi- 
cance of Christianity in universal history cannot be scientifically un- 
Need of knowi- derstood without acquaintance with the ancient world 

edge of the an- ^^^ -^g religions. Nor does the fact that the delinea- 
cient world and » • i-. 

Its faiths. tion of church history m general will connect itself 

with descriptions of the religious state of the ancient world, consti- 
tute the only important feature. For the missionary history of 
every country will always embrace the two leading elements of a 
description of what previously existed, and a statement of what 
subsequently took its place. The material for religious history 
will, consequently, increase in quantity in proportion as the contin- 
ued expansion of Christianity provides a constant supply of new 
material for church history. 

GERMAN AND FRENCH LITERATURE. 

1. General History of the Ethnic Faiths. 

C. Meiners, allgem. kritische Gesch. der Religionen. Hannov., 1806 f. 2 vols. 

J. K. F. Schlegel, fiber den Geist der Religiositat aller Zeiten und Volker. Hannov., 

1819. 2 vols. 
*P. Creuzer, Symbolik u. Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen. Lpz., 

u. Darmst., 1810-12. 2d ed., 1819-21. 4 vols. (3d ed. in Creuze's Werken. 

' Rothe, Debatte uber d. Prot. Verein, in Schenkel's Zeitschr., vol. v, p. 302. Whether chnrch 
history is to pass over into the history of the world, " since the stream (of Christianity) has 
ftjrmed a new bed, namely the civil and moral, into which it now courses from its temporary 
Channel, the ecclesiastical," is a different question, which we leave untouched for the present. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 345 

Darmst., 1837 if.) Continued by F. G. Mone u. d. T. : Gescb. des Heidenth. im 
nordl. Europa. Darmst., 1822 f. 2 vols. Creuzer's Werk, reduced by G. H. Moser. 
Darmst., 1822, Comp. J. H. Voss, Antisymbolik. Stuttg., 1824. 2 vols. 

F. Ci Baur, Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Alterthums. Stuttg., 

1824 f. 2 vols. 
K. 0. Miiller, Prolegomena zu e. wissensch. Mythologie. Gott., 1825. 
*P. F. StuBr, allgem. Gesch. der Religionsformen der heidn. Volker. Berl., 1836 ff. 

2 vols. (Vol. 1 : die heidn. Volker des Orients ; Vol. 2 : Religions systeme der 

Hellenen.) 
K. Eckermann, Lehrbuch der Religionsgesch. und Mythologie der vorziiglichsten 

Volker des Alterthums. Halle, 1854 f. 2 vols. 
A. Wuttke, Geschichte des Heidenthums in Beziehung auf Religion, "Wissen, Kunst, 

etc. Breslau, 1852 f. 2 vols. 
(L. Noacft), das Buch der Religion, oder der religiose Geist der Menschheit in seiner 

geschichtl. Entwickelung. Lpz., 1850. 2 vols. 
A. V. Colin, Lehrbuch der vorchristl, Religionsgesch. Lemgo, 1853. 
f J. A. B. Lutterbeck, die neutestam. Lehrbegriffe. Vol. 1 : die vorchristliche; Ent- 
wickelung. Mainz, 1852. 
f J. J. Dollinger, Heidenthum und Judenthum; Vorhalle zur Geschichte des Christen- 

thums. Regensb., 185*7.* Eng. ed., under title of Jew and Gentile, translated by 

N. Darnell. 2 vols. Lond., 1862. 
E. Renan, etudes d'histoire relig. Par., 1857. 7th ed., 1864. 
J. C. Bluntschli, altasiatische Gottes- u. Weltideen. Nordl., 1866. 
0. Pfleiderer, die Religion. Die Geschichte der Religion. Lpz., 1869. 
K. Werner, die Religionen u. Culte des vorchristl. Heidenthums. Ein Beitrag zub 

Gesch. der Philosophic der Religionen. Schaffh., 1871. 
Girard de Rialle, la mythologie comparee. Vol. 1 : theorie du fetichisme. Par., 1878. 

G. Roskoff, das Religionswesen der rohesten Naturfolker, Lpz., 1880. 

2. On German Mythology. 
J. Grimm, deutsche Mythologie. Gott., 1835. 4th ed., Berl, 1876. 
G. Klemm, german. Alterthumskunde. Dresd., 1836. 
W. Miiller, Gesch. und System der altdeutschen Religion. Gott., 1844. 
J. Kehrein, Feberblick der deutschen Mythologie. Gott., 1848. 
K. Simrock, Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie. Bonn, 1853 ; 4th ed., 1874. 
Mannhardt, die Gotter d. deutschen u. nord. Volker, Berl., 1860. 
Bratuschek, german. Gottersage. 2d ed. Berl., 1873. 
Ad. Holtzmann, deutsche Mythologie, pub. by Holder. Lpz., 1874. 
A. Wuttke, der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, Hamb., 1860*. 2d ed., 
BeTl., 1869. 

3. On the Greek and Roman Mythology. 

M. Heffter, Mythologie der Griechen u. Romer. 2d ed. Brandenb., 1848. New ed., 

1854. 
W. F. Rinck, die Religion der Hellenen, aus den Mythen, den Lehren der Philosophic 

und dem Cultus entwickelt. Ziirich, 1853 f. 2 vols. 
*L. Preller, griech. Mythologie. Lpz., 1854. 2 vols. 3d ed., Berl., 1872-75. 
— — romische Mythologie. Lpz., 1857. 2d ed., Berl., 1865. 
Th. Mundt, die Gotterwelt der alten Volker. 2d ed. Berl., 1854. 
E. Gerhardt, griech. Mythologie. Berl., 1845 f. 2 parts. 

^ On the Religious History of the Israelites, see above. 



346 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

F. Welcker, griech. Gotterlehre. Gott., 1857-63. 3 parts. 

K. F. Nagelsbach, die homerische Theologie. Niirnb., 1850. 2d ed., 1861. 

— — die nachhomerische Theologie des griech. Volksglaubens. I^iirnb., 185Y. 

F. Jacobs, die Erziehung der Hellenen zur Sittlichk. Lpz., 1829 (verm. Schriften, 

3d part). 
Helbig, die sittlichen Zustande des griech. Heldenalters. Lpz., 1839. 
R. Griineisen, das Sittliche der bildenden kirnst bei d. Griechen. Lpz., 1833. 

4. On the Oriental Religions. 

J. F, Kleuker, Zend-Avesta, Zoroasters lebendiges Wort. Riga, 1776 f. 3 vols. Ap- 
pendix. Lpz. u. Riga, 1781-83. 2 vols. 

J. G. Rhode, die heilige Sage uud das gesammte Religionssystem der alten Baktrer, 
Meder u. Perser oder des Zendvolks. Frankf. a. M., 1820. 

*F. Spiegel, Avesta, die heiligen Schriften der Parsen. Transl. from original text. 
Lpz., 1852-63. 3 vols. 

J. C. Kroger, Abriss einer vergleichenden Darstellung der Indisch-Persischen und 
Chinesischen Religionssysteme. Eisl., 1842. 

*C. Lassen, indische Altersthmnskunde. Bonn, 1844-62. 4 vols. 2d ed., vol. 1, 
1867. 

Th. Benfey, Art. "Indien" in Ersch und Grubers Encyklop. 2d sect., vol. 17. 

Wollheim da Fonseca, Mythologie des alten Indiens. Berl., 1857-60. 

*C. F. Koppen, die Religion des Buddha. 2 vols. Berl., 1857-59. 

W. Wassiljew, der Buddhismus, seine Dogmen, Geschichte, und Literatur. Transl. 
from the Russian. Lpz., 1860. 

Barthelemy St. Hilaire, Bouddha et sa Religion. 2d ed. Par., 1862. 

*R. Lechler, acht Yorlesungen iiber China. Basel, 1861. 

Plath, die Religion und der Cultus der alten Chinesen (Abhandlungen der Miinchener 
Akademie. Vol. ix, 1863). 

Confucius und seiner Schiiler Leben und Lehren (Abhandlungen der Miinchener 

Akademie. Vol. ix fif., 1867 if.). 

*P. Wurm, Geschichte der indischen Religion. Basel, 1874. 

L. Carre, I'ancien orient, etudes histor., religieuses et philosophiques. Vol. 1, Pales- 
tine. Par., 1875. 

* E. L. Fischer, Heidenth. und Offenbarung, Studien iiber die Veriihrungspunkte der 
altesten hi. Schriften der Inder, Perser, etc., mit der Bibel. Mainz, 1878. 

*W. Baudissin, Studien zur semit. Rel.-geschichte. Lpz., 1876-78. 2 parts. 

[The following works are an attempt to attribute the Old Testament religion to 
imaginative and mythological sources : J. Grill (die Erzvater der Menschheit. Lpz., 
1875), M. Schultze (Hdb. der ebr. Mythol. Nordh., 1876), J. Goldziher (der Mythoa 
bei den Hebraern. Lpz., 1876), J. Popper (der TJrspr. des Monotheismus. Berl., 
1879).] 

5. On Mohammedanism. 

A. Geiger, was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthum aufgenommen ? Bonn, 1833. 

G. Weil, Mohammed der Prophet ; sein Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttg., 1843. 
historisch-krit. Einleitg. in den Koran. Bielef., 1844. 2d ed., 1878. 

J. J. Dollinger, Muhammeds Religion nach ihrer innern Entwicklung und ihrem Ein- 

flusse auf das Leben der Volker. Regensb., 1838. 
C. F. Gerock, Versuch einer Christologie des Koran. Hamb., 1839. 
*A. Sprenger, das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammed. Berl., 1861-65. 3 vols. 
*Th. Noldecke, das Leben Muhammeds popuL dargest. Hann., 1863. 
Gesch. des Qorans. Gott., 1860, 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 847 

Das Leben Muhammeds, nach Muhammed Ibn Ishak, prepared by Abd el-Malik Ibn 
Hischam, translated from the Arabic by G. Weil. 2 vols. Stuttg., 1864. (The 
Arabic original was pub. by F. Wiistenfeld. Gott., 1858-60. 2 vols.) 

*A. V. Kremer, Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams, Der Gottesbegriff, 
die Prophetie und Staatsidee. Lpz., 1868. 

M. Wolff, Muhammedan. Eschatologie. Lpz., 1872. 

G. H. Delaporte, vie de Mahomet, etc. Par., 1874. 

H. Vambery, der Islam im 19. Jahrh. Lpz., 1875. 

M. Liittke, der Islam u. seine Volker. Giitersl., 1878. 

Germ, translations of the Koran by Boysen (1773), Wahl (1828), L. Ullmann (1840; 
5th ed., 1865); French translation by M. Kasimirski (Par., 1852 u. o.); Eng. trans- 
lation by G. Sale (Lond.), and by J. M. Rodwell (2d ed., Lend., 1876) ; J. la Beame, 
le Koran analyse, etc., Par., 1878. 

6. On America. 
* J. G. Miiller, Gesch. der amerikan. UrreUgionen. Basel, 1855. 2d ed., 1867. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

I. GENERAL. 

S. Baring-Gould, Origin and Development of Religious Belief. 2 vols. N. Y., 1878. 
J. F. Clarke, Ten Great Religions : an Essay in Comparative Theology. Boston, 1871. 

F. P. Cobbe, Prehistoric Religion. Religions of the World, etc. (In Darwinism, in 
Morals, and other Essays.) Lond., 1872. 

B. F. Cocker, Christianity and Greek Philosophy. N. Y., 1875. 

M. D. Conway, Sacred Anthology : Book of Ethnical Scriptures. N. Y., 1875. 
S. F. Dunlap, Vestiges of the Spirit History of Man. N. Y., 1858. 

G. W. Faber, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. 3 vols. Lond., 1816. 

E. S. F. Ffoulkes, Christendom's Divisions. 2 vols. Lond., 1865-67. 
J. Gardner, The Faiths of the World. 2 vols. Edinb., 1858-60. 

J. T. Goodsir, Seven Homilies on Ethnic Inspiration. Lond., 1871. 

C. Hardwick, Christ and other Masters. 4th ed. Lond., 1875. 

S. Johnson, Oriental Religions and their Relation to Universal Religion. Boston, 1872. 
R. W. Mackay, Progress of the Intellect, as exemplified in the Religious Development 
of the Greeks and Hebrews. 2 vols. Lond., 1850. 

F. D. Maurice, The Religions of the World and their Relations to Christianity. Lond., 

1876. 
.1. C. Moffat, A Comparative History of Religions. 2 vols. N. Y., 1874. 

F. Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Religion, with a Paper on Buddhist Nihil- 

ism, and a Translation of the Dhammapada; or "Path of Virtue." N. Y., 1877. 

Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religions 

of India (Hibbert Lectures). N. Y., 1879. 

G. Rawlinson, The Contrasts of Christianity with Heathen and Jewish Systems. Lond. 
The Origin of Nations. N. Y., 1881. 

D. T. W. Rhys, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. Lond., 1882. 

E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture : Researches into the Development of Mythology, Phi- 

losophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. 2 vols. N. Y., 1877. 

A. Vinet, Vital Christianity : Essays and Discourses on the Religions of Man and the 
Religion of God. Edinb., 1851. 

W. D. Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Stories. The Veda ; The Avesta ; The Sci- 
ence of Language. N. Y., 1873. 



us HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 



II. MOHAMMEDANISM. 

J. M. Arnold, The Koran and the Bible ; or, Islam and Christianity. Lend., 186*8. 
E'. Deutsch, Islam. (Literary Remains, pp. 59-134.) Lond., 18 74. 

E. F. Fiske, The Respective Peculiarities in Creeds of the Mohammedan and the 
Hindoo. Camb., 1850. 

J. B. Macbride, Mohammedan Religion Explained. Lond., 185*7. 

F. A. Neale, Islamism : its Rise and Progress ; or, the Present and Past Condition of 

the Tm-ks. 2 vols. Lond., 1854. 
W. G. Palgrave, Essays on Eastern Questions. Lond., 1872. 
S. Sekles, The Poetry of the Talmud. N. Y., 1880. 
R. B. Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism. Lond., 1874. 
W. C. Taylor, History of Mohammedanism and its Sects. Lond"., 1851. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Christianity came into relation with the ancient systems of phi- 
losophy as with the ancient religions. It brought with it no new 
philosophy, indeed, though many philosophically cultured Christians, 
such as Justin Martyr, believed it did ; but its contents presented 
themselves at once to philosophic thought as an object of specula- 
tion. Hence arose the influence of Platonism and Aristotelianism. 
As, during the Middle Ages, the external history of the Church coin- 
cides with that of the world and of nations, so the theology of the 
Church and the philosophy of individual thinkers interpenetrate 
each other in scholasticism. The most recent phenomena in the 
territory of the theological world, moreover, are utterly incompre- 
hensible without a familiar acquaintance with the immense revolu- 
tion in philosophical ideas that has taken place since the beginning 
of the last century. Ko person will, accordingly, be likely to ques- 
tion the importance of a knowledge of the history of philosophy in 
this connexion. 

HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. 

J. Brucker, Historia critica philosophiae. Lips., 1741-44. 5 vols. 2d ed., 1766, 

1767. 6 vols. 
D. Tiedemann, Geist der speculativen Philosophie. Marb., 1791-97. 7 vols. 
J. G. Buhle, Lehrb. der Gesch. der Philosophie. Gott., 1796-1804. 8 vols. 
Gesch. der neueren Philosophie seit der Epoche der Wiederherstellung der Wis- 

senschaften. Gott., 1800-5. 6 vols; 
W. G. Tennemann, Geschichte der Philosophie. Lpz., 1798-1819. 11 vols. Eng. 

abridg. by Johnson. Lond., 1852. 
*H. Ritter, Gesch. der Philosophie. Hamb., 1829-53. 12, vols. 2d ed. of vols. 1-3. 

1836 ff. 
E^ Reinhold, Handb. der allg. Gesch. der Philosophie. Gotha, 1828 ff. 3 vols. 
V. Cousin, cours d'histoire de la philosophie. Par., 1840 ff. 8 vols. 
J. G. Mussmann, Grundriss der allgemv Geschichte der christl. Philosophie mit be- 

sonderer Riicksicht auf die christliche Theologie. Halle, 1830; 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 849 

*L. Preller (und H. Ritter), Historia philosophiae graecae et romanae ex fontium 
locis contexta. Hamb., 1838. 6th ed., Gotha, 1878. 

H. M. Chalybaus, histor. Entwickelung der spectulativen Philosophie von Kant bis 
Hegel. Dresd., 1839. Eng. transl. by A. Tulk. Andover, 1854. 

H. C. W. Sigvvart, Gesch. der Philosophie vom allgemein wissenschaftl. und geschichtl. 
Standpunkte. Stuttg., 1844. 3 vols. 

C. L. Michelet, Gesch. der Philos. von Kant bis Hegel. Berl., 1887 f. 2 vols. 

J. E. Erdmann, Versuch einer wissenschaftl. Darstellung der Gesch. der neueren Phi- 
losophie. 3 vols, in 6 parts, Lpz,, 1834-53. 

C. A. Brandis, Handb. der Gesch. der griech-rom. Philosophie. Berl., 1835-66. S vols. 

*A. Schwegler, Gesch. der Philos. im Umriss. Stuttg., 1848. Eng. transl. by J. H. 
Seelye. N. Y., 1856. 

K. Fortlage, genetische Geschichte der Philosophie seit Kant. Lpz., 1852. 

K. Fischer, Geschichte der neueren Philosophie. Mannh. (Heidelb.), 1854-77. 6 vols. 
(I, 1 in 3d ed., Miinch., 1878 ; I-IV, in 2d ed., Heidelb., 1865.) 

E. Zeller, die Philosophie der Griechen. Tub., 1844-52. 3 vols. (Vol. I, in 4th ed. 

Lpz., 1877; II, in 3d ed., 1875-79; III, in 2d ed., 1865.) 

Gesch. der deutschen Philos. seit Leibnitz. (1873.) 2d ed., Miinch., 1875. 

L. Xoack, Gesch. der Philosophie in gedrangter Uebersicht. Weim., 1853. 

L. Strvimpell, Gesch. der Philosophie der Griechen. Lpz., 1854-61. 2 vols. 

*F. Ueberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. von Thales bis auf die Gegegenwart. 

3 vols. Berl, 1863-66. Vols. I, II, 5th ed. by M. Heinze, 1876 f . ; III, 4th ed. 

by Reicke, 1875. American ed. by H. B. Smith and President Porter (of Yale). 
J. G. Erdmann, Grundriss d. Gesch. der Philos. 2 vols. Berl., 1876. 3d ed., 1878. 

F. Schmidt, Grundr. d. Gesch. d. Phil, von Thales bis Schopenhauer. Erl., 18&7. 

E. Hermann, Geschichte der Phil, in pragraatischer Behandlung. Lpz., 1867. 

*J. H. Scholten, Gesch. der Religion u. Phil. From the Dutch by Redepenriing. 

Elberf., 1868. 
Du Bois-Reymond, iiber die Grenzen des Naturerkennens. Lpz., 1872. 4th ed., 

1876. 
f Stockl, Lehrb. der Gesch. der Philos. 4th ed. Mainz, 1876. 

F. Harms, die Philosophie seit Kant. Berl, 1876. 

R. Eucken, Gesch. u. Kritik der Grundbegriffe der Gegenwart, Lpz., 1878. 

*F. A. Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus. Iserl, 1866. 3d ed., 1876 f. 2 vols. 

L. Noack, philosophie-geschichtl. Lexikon. Lpz., 1878 ff. • 

Later treatises on Logic: Drobisch (4th ed., Lpz., 1875), Sigwart (Tiib., 1873-78. 
2 vols.), Ueberweg (4th ed., Bonn, 1874), J. Stuart Mill (7th ed., Lond., 1868. 
2 parts). On Psychology: J. H. Lichte, (Lp?:., 1872 f., 2 parts), Erdmann, (Grun- 
driss, 5th ed., Lpz., 1873 ; psycholog. Brief e, 5th ed., Lpz., 1875), Hartsen, Berl., 
1874), Fr. Brentano (1st vdl., Lpz., 1874), Beneke (4th ed., Berl., 1877). 

The history of other sciences, with the whole of the history of 
literature and culture, also belongs within the Church historian's 
circle of knowledge, and should not be disregarded by him. Church 
history often derives assistance from the history of jurisprudence, 
of commerce, of war, and of medicine. A specially important aid, 
however, is found in the history of Christian art as connected with 
the history of the progress of culture. Compare Archaeology and 
Liturgies. 



350 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

GERMAN AND FRENCH. 
1. History of Culture and Literature. 

G. F. Kolb, Gesch. der Menschheit und der Cultur. Pforzh., 1843. 2d ed., 18*72. 

G. Klemm, allgemeine Culturgesch. der Menschheit. Lpz., 1843-62. 10 vols. 

W. Wachsmuth, allgem. Culturgeschichte. Lpz., 1850-52. 3 vols. 

H. Riickert, Culturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes in der Zeit des Uebergangs aus 
dera Heidenthum in das Christenthum. Lpz., 1853 f. 2 vols. 

G. Freytag, Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit. Lpz., 1859. 4 vols. 

*J. Burckhardt, die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien. Basel, 1860. (Comp. espe- 
cially the 6th section.) 2d ed. by L. Geiger. Berl, 1877. 

*M. Carriere, die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Culturenwickelung und die Ideale 
der Menschheit. Lpz., 1863-73. 5 vols. 3d ed. of vols. 1 and 2, 1877. 

J. J. Honneger, Grundsteine einer allgemeinen Culturgeschichte der neuesten Zeit. 
Lpz., 1868-74. 5 vols. Idem: Liter, u. Cultur des 19. Jahrh. 2d ed., Lpz., 
1879. 

0. Henne am Rhyn, Kulturgesch. der neueren Zeit. Lpz., 1870-72. 3 vols. 
F. V. Hellwald, Culturgesch. in ihrer natiirl. Entw. Augsb., 1874. 2d ed., 1876. 
H. Rau, kulturgeschichtl. Vorlesungen. Wiesb., 1875. 

F. Lenormant, die Anfange der Cultur. (From the French.) Jena, 1875. 2 vols. 
A. V. Cremer, die Culturgesch. des Orients unter den Chalifen. 1st vol. Wien, 1875. 
J. Scherr, deutsche Kultur- und Sittengesch. Lpz., 1853. 7th ed., 1879. 

Germania. 2 Jahrtausende deutschen Lebens. Stuttg., 1876 ff. 

R. Calinich, aus d. 16. Jahrh. Culturgeschichtl. Skizzen. Hamb., 1876. 
C. Griin, Culturgesch. des 17. Jahrh. 1st vol. Lpz., 1880. 
A. von Eye, Atlas der Culturgesch. Lpz., 1875. 

J. G. T. Grasse, Lehrb. einer allgem. Literargesch. Lpz., 1837-59. 4 vols. 
W. Wackernagel, Gesch. der deutschen Literatur. Basel, 1848-56. 2d ed., by E. 
Martin, 1877 ff. 

G. Gervinus, Gesch. der deutschen Dichtung. 5th ed. Lpz., 1871 ff. 5 vols. 

H. Gelzer, die neuere deutsche National-Liter, nach ihren ethischen u. religiosen Ge- 

sichtspunkten. Lpz., 1847-49. 2 vols. 1st vol., 3d ed., 1858. 
A. F. C. Vilmar, Gesch. der deutschen National-Literatur. 19th ed. Marb., 1879. 
A. Koberstein, Grundriss der Gesch. der deutschen National-Literatur. 5th ed. Lpz., 

1872 ff 6 vols. 
H. Kurz, Gesch. der deutschen Literatur mit Proben aus den Werken der vorziiglich- 

sten Schriftsteller. Lpz., 1851 ff. 3 vols. 7th ed., 1876 f. 4 vols. 
K. Goedeke, Grundriss zur Gesch. der deutschen Dichtung. Dresd., 1859 ff. 3 vols. 
H. J. T. Hettner, Literaturgesch. des 18. Jahrh. Braunschw., 1856-70. 6 vols. 

(Deutsche Liter. 3d ed., 1879. 4 vols.) 
f G. Brugier, Gesch. der deutschen Nationallit. 4th ed. Freib., 1874. 
W, Hahn, Gesch. der poet. Liter, der Deutschen. 8th ed. Berl., 1877. 
J. Scherr, allgem. Gesch. der Liter. 5th ed. Stuttg., 1875. 2 vols. 
R. Gottschall, die deutsche Nationallit. des 19. Jahrh. 4th ed. Lpz., 1875. 4 vols. 
J. Hillebrand, die Deutsche Nationallit. im 18. u. 19. Jahrh. 3d ed. Gotha, 1875. 

3 vols. 
G. Brandos, die Haupstromungen der Liter, des 19. Jahrh. From the Danish by A. 

Strodtmann. Berl., 1872-76. 4 vols. 
R. Konig, deutsche Literaturgesch, Bielef., u. Lpz,, 1879.* 

* Other writings, by Barthel, Buchner, Weber, Wolff, etc. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 3^1 

2. History of Art. 
J. C.W. Augusti, Beitrage zur christl. Kunstgeschichte u. Liturgik. Lpz., 1841-46. 2 vols, 
f J. H. K. V. Wessenberg, die christl. Bilder. Constanz, 182'7. 2 vols. New ed. St. 

Gallen, 1845. 
C. J. V. Bunsen, die Basiliken des christl. Roms. Miinchen, 1843. (Text for the 

copper plates by Gutensohn and Knapp.) 

F. Kugler, Handbuch der Gesch. der Malerei von Constant, d. Gr. bis auf die neuere 

Zeit. Berl., 1837. 3d ed., Lpz., 1867. 3 vols. English ed., by Eastlake, Head, 

and Waagen. 3 vols. Lond., 1854-60. 
Handbuch der Kunstgeschichte. Stuttg., 1841 f. 5th ed., by Liibke, 1872. 

Dazu : Atlas, Denkmaler der Kunst, etc., by E. Guhl and J. Casper. Stuttg., 

1845 ff. 2 vols. 3d ed., by Liibke u. v. Liitzow, 1874 ft. 
C. Schnaase, Gesch. der bildenden Kiinste. Diisseld., 1843-61. 7 vols. 2d ed., 

1866-79. 8 vols. 

G. Kinkel, Gesch. der bildenden Kiinste bei den christl. Volkem. Bonn, 1845. 

*H. Otte, Handbuch der kirchlichen Kunstarchaologie des deutschen Mittelalters. 
Nordh., 1842. 4th ed., Lpz., 1863-68. 

F. Piper, Mythologie u. Symbolik der christl. Kunst. Weim., 1847-51. 2 parts. 

W. Liibke, Vorschule zum Studium der kirchl. Kunst des deutschen Mittelalters. 

Dortm., 1852. 6th ed., Lpz., 1874. The same, Gesch. der Architektur. Lpz., 1855. 

4th ed., 1870; Grundr. der Kunstgesch. Stuttg., 1860. 8th ed., 1879. 2 vols. 

English ed., by Wheatley. Lond., 1870. 
f G. M. Dursch, Aesthetik der christl. bildenden Kunst des Mittelalters in Deutsch- 

land. Tiib., 1854. 
*f J. Kreuser, Kolner Dombriefe oder Beitrage zur altchristl. Kirchenbaukunst. 

Berl., 1844. 
der christliche Kirchenbau; seine Geschichte, Symbolik, etc. Bonn, 1851. 3 

vols. Vol 1 in 2d ed. Regensb., 1860. 
A. H. Springer, die Baukunst des christl. Mittelalters. Bonn, 1854. 
A. Reichensperger, Fingerzeige auf dem Gebiete der kirchlichen Kunst. Lpz., 1854. 
E. Forster, Geschichte der deutschen Kunst. Lpz., 1851-60. 5 vols. 

Denkmale deutscher Baukunst, Bildnerei u. Malerei. Lpz., 1853-69. 12 vols. 

H. G. Hotho, Geschichte der christl. Malerei. Berl., 1867. 

M. Carriere, Aesthetik. 2d ed. Lpz., 1873. 2 vols. 

Bethmann-Hollweg, Christenth. u. bild. Kunst. Bonn, 1875. 

R. Garrucci, storia dell' arte cristiana nei primi 8 secoli della chiesa. Prato, 1875-79. 

5 vols. 
C. B. Stark, Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst. Lpz., 1878. 

G. Portig, Relig. u. Kunst in ihrem gegenseit. Verhaltniss. Iserl., 1879 f. 2 parts. 
Th. Seemann, Gesch. der bild. Kunst. Jena, 1879. 2 parts. 

Periodicals for Christian Art: 
Christliches Kunstblatt, founded by C. Griineisen and others, now pub. by Merz u. 
Pfannschmidt. Stuttg., 1858 ff. (Yearly, 12 Nos.) Organ for Christian Art, I 
pub. by J. van Endert. Koln, 1851 f. 

Biographical : 
Quatremere de Quincy, histoire de la vie et des ouvrages des plus celebres architectes. 

Par., 1830. 3 vols. Deutsch, Darmst., 1831. 2 vols.' 
J. Meyer, allgem. Kiinstlerlexicon. (2d ed. of Naglers K. lex.). Lpz., 1870 ss. 

* The special literature is elaborately and accurately given in Otte's work. Compare also 
Liturgies. 



S52 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. Culture and Literature. 

H. T. Buckle, History of Civilization in England. 3 vols. New ed., Lond., 1878. 
J. W. Draper, A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe. Revised ed. 
2 vols. N. Y., 1876. 

F. Guizot, The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the 
French Revolution. Translated by William Hazlitt. 4 vols. N. Y., 1859. 

W. A. Mackinnon, History of Civilization. 2 vols. Lond., 1846. 

2. Architecture and Art. 
0. L. Eastlake, History of the Gothic Revival. Lond., 1872. 

C. E. Norton, Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages. Venice, 
Siena, Florence. N. Y., 1880. 

G. A. Poole, History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. Lond., 1848. 

G. G. Scott, An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture Prior to the 

Separation of England from the Roman Obedience. Lond., 1881. 
Sir G. Scott, Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture. Hlus- 

trated. 2 vols. Lond., 1879. 
E. Sharpe, Seven Periods of English Architecture. Lond., 1871. 
C. E. Clement, A Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art. N. Y., 1872. 
Painters, Sculptors, Architects, Engravers, and their Works. 6th ed. N. Y., 

1881. 
Mrs. A. Jameson, The History of our Lord as Exemplified in Works of Art ; with 

that of his Types: St. John the Baptist, and other Persons of the Old and New 

Testaments. 2 vols. New ed. Lond., 1872. 

Legends of the Madonna. New ed. Lond., 1879. 

Sacred and Legendary Art. New ed. 2 vols. Lond., 1879. 

Ecclesiastical geography differs from political in the fact that 
countries are divided up according to their ecclesiastical relations. 
The Christian countries are separated from the non-Christian ; and, 
within the limits of the former, the denominational are distinguished 
from the unconf essional by boundaries, while the territory embraced 
within the limits of a single ecclesiastical organization is further 
subdivided into the politico-ecclesiastical sections covered by patri- 
archates, dioceses, parishes, and other subdivisions. The places are 
topographically distinguished — with all of which the remarkable 
facts in Church history stand connected. In studies we must con- 
nect geographical charts with historical tables. It is also proper to 
adduce ecclesiastical statistics in connexion with the geography. 
But the former, considered as the science of ecclesiastical condi- 
tions, is rather a product of Church history than an auxiliary sci- 
ence.' The aggregate resulting from the past is represented in the 
present. We may name the following as important works : 

' Older works by Clericus, Spanheim, Bingham, and others ; see Gieseler (Amer. 
ed.), vol. i, pp. 16, 17. The works of Staudlin, Wiggers, and Wiltsch; see under 
Statistics. 



AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 353 

Atlas antiquus sacer, ecclesiasticus et profanis, coUectus ex tabulis geographicis Nic. 
Samsonis. Tabulas emendavit J. Clericus. Amst., 1*705 sq. 

A. W. Moeller, Hierographie, vide 8upra under Tables. 

J. E. T. Wiltsch, Atlas sacer s. ecclesiasticus. Gotha, 1843 sq. English ed., trans- 
lated by John Leitch. 2 vols. Lond., 1859. 

3. Ecclesiastical chronology is identified with chronology in gen- 
eral. The different eras are of special importance. The following 
are the best works in this department : 

J. Ch. Gatterer, Abriss d. chronologic. Gott., 177Y. 

J. Ideler, Handbuch der chronologic. 2 vols. Berl., 1825, 1826. Lehrbuch do., 

1831. 
F. Piper, Kirchenrechnung. Berl., 1841-44. 
*Brinkmann, Prakt. Handb. d. histor. Chronologie. Lpz., 1843. 
F. V. Schmoger, Grundriss d. christl. Zeit- u. Festrechnung. Halle, 1854. 
J. E. Riddle, Ecclesiastical Chronology. Lond., 1848. 

IL 1. Ecclesiastical philology. This is generally understood to 
designate the knowledge of ecclesiastical Greek and Latin, and it is 
upon this soil that the language of the Church has actually secured 
its chief development in the accumulation of ecclesiastical ideas. 
But, in reality, the language of every people to whom the Gospel 
has forced its way — and it is destined to be proclaimed in all the 
tongues of the earth — is within the range of ecclesiastical philology. 
This applies to the different Oriental languages, the speech of the 
Occident during the Middle Ages, and the modern tongues of 
Europe and other lands. To trace the ecclesiastical language of 
Germany through its development by the mystics, Luther, the piet- 
ists, and the influence of modern philosophy, would prove a serious 
task. Much remains to be done with reference to the etymology 
of German ecclesiastical terms. The best authorities are : 

J. Cp. Suicer, Thesaurus ecclesiasticus e Patribus graecis (1682). 2d ed. Amstel., 

1728. 2 vols. f. 
C. du Fresne (du Cange), Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Graecitatis. 

Lugd., 1688. 2 vols. f. 
Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis (1678); ed. nova opera 

et stud. Monachor. ord. S. Benedicti. Par., 1733-36. 6 vols, f. New ed., by G. 

Henschel. Par., 1840 fE. 7 vols. 4. 
P. Carpentier, Glossarium novum ad scriptores medii aevi cum latinos tum gallicos. 

Par., 1766, 4 vols. 4. 
(J. C. Adelung) Glossarium manuale ad scriptores mediae et infimae Latinitatis. 

Halle, 1772-84. 6 vols. 
*G. Hoffmann, Gesch. des Kirchenlateins. 1st vol., 1st part. Bresl., 1879. 
Compare also C. L. Bauer, Glossarium Theodoreteum to Schultz's edition of Theodoret 

(Halle, 1775); Index Latinitatis TertuUianeae (by Schiitz and Windorff) to Sem- 

ler's edition of Tertullian (Halle, 1776), and the important Indices to the larger 

and smaller editions of the same church Father by Ohler (Lpz., 1853 f.). 
23 



354 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

H. Ronsch, Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachidiom der urchristlichen Itala und der 

katholischen Vulgata unter Beriicksichtigung der romischen Volkssprache durch 

Beispiele erlautert. Marb. (Lpz.), 1869. 2d ed., 1875. 
J. G. Scherz, Glossarium germanicum medii aevi ed. Oberlin. Argent., 1781-84. 

2 vols. f. 
E. G. Graff, althochdeutscher Sprachschatz. Berl., 1834-46. 6 vols. 
J. A. Schmeller, bayerisches Worterbuch. Stuttg., 182'7-3'7. 4 vols. 2d ed., edit. 

by Frommann. Miinch., 18'72 ff. 2 vols, 
W. Wackernagel, altdeutsches Handworterb. Basel, 1861. 
*J. and W. Grimm, deutsches Worterbuch. Lpz., 1854 ff. Continued by Heyne, 

Hildebrand, and Weigand ; completed to the letters A-F, H-K. 
*F. C. Diez, etymolog. Worterb. der roman. Sprachen. Bonn, 1855. 3d ed., 

1874. 
A. von Raumer, die Einwirkung des Christenthums auf die althochdeutsche Sprache. 

Stuttg., 1845. 

2. Diplomatics is the science of diplomas, i. e., of original docu- 
ments (bulls, briefs, letters of institution or foundation, patents, 
etc.), with which numismatics, heraldry, and sphragistics are to be 
combined. We may cite as the best late work : 

W. Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (Lpz., 1871. 2d ed., 1877). On 
the general works of Mabillon (2d ed,, Par., 1704), Gathrer, Schoenemann, see 
Gieseler, vol. i, p, 20, 

SECTION XIY. 
SEPAEATE BEAT^-CHES OF HISTOEICAL THEOLOGY. 

It is possible to separate special divisions of the life of the Church 
from the whole field included within the range of Church history, 
and consider them in their separate development. In this regard 
the history of the system pf Christian teaching comes most promi- 
nently into notice under the name of the History of Doctrines, and 
as endowed with a measure of independence. The next place is 
held by Patristics and Ecclesiastical Symbolics, and upon these fol- 
lows the history of worship and of the constitution of the Church, 
under the name of Archaeology. The latter constitutes the his- 
torical basis of practical theology, the others of dogmatic. 

The possibility of according a special treatment to precisely these 
branches is not the result of accident. Dogma, constitution, and 
worship are the principal elements in the life of the Church. The 
territorial expansion of Christianity and its persecutions constitutes 
the trunk from which these branches rise. It is, of course, possi- 
ble to consider the trunk itself alone. But it would result in fur^, 
nishing but a barren picture so long as we look only to territorial 
extension and limitations. The History of Missions has, likewise, 
received separate treatment. But this will, whenever it is treated 



SEPARATE BRANCHES OF HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 355 

forcibly, itself expand into Church history in its earliest periods, 
inasmuch as the object must be to show how Chris- History of mis- 
ti;inity was extended, what doctrines it taught, what sions. 
customs and manners it introduced, and what fruits it has pro- 
duced.' Or, it may be compressed into a monograph on the life 
of some distinguished herald of the faith. ^ It is only to recent 
Histories of Missions that the name can be applied with propriety, 
and here, if regard be had chiefly to the impulse of missionary 
effort, it coincides with the history of Christian life and work, such 
as the founding of missionary societies, or, where the attention is 
directed principally to results, it leads immediately into Statistics. 

The History of Missions has the same bearing upon the work of 
the future missionary that is exercised by the study of the history 
of the home Church upon him who designs to labour within its 
limits. Its special treatment should be appropriate for his needs. 
In proportion as the Church itself enlarges its share in missionary 
effort will every theologian be obliged to pursue this branch of 
Church history, to the extent necessary for acquaintance with the 
whole history of the Church, and for imparting animation to the 
picture in which that whole is described. It is otherwise, however, 
with respect to the branches mentioned above, which, bending out- 
ward from the trunk of the history, became immediately inter- 
wo\ en with the growth of other fields, such as the dogmatic and 
the practical. In this instance we obtain, on the one hand, the 
History of Doctrines, and, on the other, Archaeology, with this soli- 
tary distinction — that the history of doctrines has assumed more of 
the form of a distinct science than is the case with archaeology. 
This we shall show hereafter. 

In addition to dogma, constitution, and worship. Christian ethics 
might receive attention ; and, in point of fact, both the chnstian Eth- 
History of Christian Morality itself and that of Chris- i^s. 
tian Ethics, as a science, have received separate treatment. Prop- 
erly considered, the latter should Constitute the parallel to the His- 
tory of Doctrines, or, rather, should grow out of a living treatment 
of this branch. The former appears to the best advantage as the 
blossom of Church history itself, and it is still a serious question 
whether it be advisable to separate it from the parent stem. The 
most vital view of Christian morality is obtained from the study 
of monographs and of archaeology, especially when the latter is 

' This is the case in Bhimhardt's Missionsgeschichte and Tzschirner's Fall des Hei- 
denthums. 

2 The " Lives " of Columba, Gallus, Boniface, Ansgar, Otto v. Bamberg. Comp. the 
literature in text-books of Church history. 



?) 2 



356 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

made to embrace a somewhat extended field. On the relation of 
Patristics and Symbolics to the History of Doctrines, see below. 

Still other branches might be separated, but they would possess 
value only for the professional historian. This is true, especially, 
of the careful tracing of such features " as must be included in the 
historical presentation for the sake of continuity alone, and which 
are not to be regarded as properly historical elements." ^ A com- 
plete history of the popes, for instance, carried through from be- 
ginning to end, or a similar history of Church councils — in short, 
every thing in connexion with which completeness requires that, in 
addition to matters exerting an influence upon the history, special 
attention be given to names and figures, and the like, can only claim 
the attention of such persons as are called to cultivate historical sci- 
ence for its own sake. For " nothing is more unfruitful than the 
heaping up of historical knowledge which neither serves any prac 
tical ends nor imparts itself to others through the representation. 

LITERATURE OF MISSIONS. 
German and French Works. 
The Lettres edifiantes. Par., lYlY-Ye (in the spirit of Romanism). 
Die Hallischen Sammlungen von 1705-69 (dan. Mission) und 1'7Y0-1834 (ostind 

Mission). 
Die Elberf elder Nachrichten von der Ausbreitung des reiches Jesu Christi seit 1815. 
Das Easier Magazin, by Blumhardt (1817-39) und Hoffmann, (new series since 1857 

by Ostertag, now Hesse). 
Der evang. Heidenbote (Basel, 1827 ff.). 
Der Missionsfreund (Berl., 1846 ff.). 
Das Elberfelder Missionsblatt by Ball (1836 ff.). 
Das Calwer M. Blatt by Barth, now Gundert ; das Hermansburger, by Pastor Harms ; 

das der Briidergemeinde by Romer; das evang. luther. by Graul, now Harde- 

land ; die Biene auf dem Missionfelde, by Gossner, and others, now by Plath. 
Die Missionsharfe (Giitersloh, 1866). G. Warneck, in der "Allgem. Missionszeit- 

schrift.!' Giitersl., 1874 ff. 
H. Zschokke, Darstellung der gegenw. Ausbreitung des Christenth. auf dem Erdball. 

Aarau, 1819. 
C. Blumhardt, Versuch einer allg. Missionsgesch. Basel, 1828-37. 3 vols. 
J. H. Brauer, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Heidenbekehrung. Altona, 1835 ff. The 

same: das Missionswesen der evang. Kirche. Hamb., 1851. 
B. St. Steger, die prot. Missionen. Hof, 1838-50. 3 small vols. New ed., Halle, 1857. 
F. Liicke, Missionsstudien. Gott., 1841. 

*Handbiichl. der Missionsgesch. und Mi ssionsgeographie. 3d ed. Calw, 1863. 
W. Hoffmann, Missionsstunden. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1848. Neue Samml., 1851. Eilf 

Jahre in der Mission. Stuttg., 1853. 
J. Wiggers, Gesch. der evang. Mission. Hamb., 1845 f. 2 vols. 
K. C. G. Schmidt, kurzgef. Lebensbeschreibungen der merkwiirdigsten evang. Mis- 

Bionare. Lpz., 1836 ff. 8 vols. 

» ScMeiermacher, § 154. » IMd. 191 Anna. 



SEPARATE BRANCHES OF HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 357 

R. Vormbaum, evang. Missionsgeschichte in Biographien. Elberf,, 1849-60. 4 vols. 

(Vol. 1 in 2d ed., 1859-61.) 
Alb. Ostertag, iibersichtliche Gesch. der protest. Missionen von der Reform, bis zur 

Gegenwart. Gotha, 1858. 

F. Fabri, die Entstehung des Heidenthums und die Aufgabe der Heidenmission. Bar- 

men, 1859. 
Fr. Hoffmann, Missionsgeschichten, with Preface by W. Hoffmann. 6 vols. Potsd., 
1857-61. 

G. E. Burkhardt, kleine Missionsbibliothek. Bielef., 1858-62. 4 vols, and Register. 
Cli. H. Kalkar, Gesch. der christl. Mission unter d. Heiden. German by A. Michelsen, 

1st part. Giitersl., 1860. 

Henrion, allg. Geschichte der Missionen. From the French by Wittmann. Schaffh., 
1847 ff. 3 vols. (Compare also the single missionary accounts of Buchanan, 
Heber, Weitbrecht, Leupolt on India ; Gutzlaff on China ; Gobat on Abyssinia ; 
Gerlach und Wangemann (Gesch. der Berl. M.-gesellsch. Berl., 1872-77. 4 vols.) 
on South America ; Ellis and Krohn on the South Sea Islands ; Wegener on the 
Friendly Islands, and the biographies of special missionaries. 

Wallmann, Leiden und Freuden rheinischer Missionare. 2d ed. Halle, 1862. 

Von Besser, John Williams, der Apostel der Siidsee. 3d ed. 1863. 

Roman Catholic : 
f Wittmann, die Herrlichkeit der Kirche in ihren Missionen. Augsb., 1841. 

On the Catholic Missions in China : 
Hue, le Christianisme en Chine, en Tartarie, et en Thibet. Par., 1857. 2 vols. 

On Missions in India : 
Franz Xavier, ein weltgeschichtliches Missionsbild. Wiesb., 1869. 

On Protestant Missions in India : 
Lechler. See above. 

English and American Literature. 
Missions in General. 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Memorial volume of First 

Fifty Years. Boston, 1861. 
R. Anderson, Foreign Missions: their Relations and Claims. N. Y., 1869. 

History of the Missions of the American Board. 4 vols. Boston, 1870-74. 

A. R. Bonar, Incidents of Missionary Enterprise. Edinb., 1842. 

W. B. Boyce, Statistics of Protestant Missionary Societies. 1871-73. Lond., 1874. 

Miss C. L. Brightwell, Romance of Modern Missions. Lond., 1870. 

H. K. Carroll, The World of Missions : the Societies, Fields, Agencies, and Successes 

of Protestant Missions. N. Y., 1881. 
J. 0. Choules, The Origin and History of Missions. 2 vols. Boston, 1842. 
T. Christlieb, Protestant Foreign Missions. Translated by David Allen Read. N. Y., 

1880. 
Mrs. L. H. Daggett, Historical Sketches of Woman's Missionary Societies. Boston, 

1879. 
F. S. Dobbins, A Foreign Missionary Manual: Geographical, Synoptical, Statistical. 

and Biographical. Phila., 1881. 
D. Dorchester, The Problem of Religious Progress. N. Y., 1881. 
H. M. Field, From Egypt to Japan. N. Y., 1881. 
W. Gammell, A History of American Baptist Missions in Asia, Africa, Europe, and 

North America. 6th ed. Boston, 1850. 



358 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

General Conference, Proceedings of, on Foreign Missions, held in Mildmay Park, 

London, 18*78. Lond., 1879. 
Mrs. J. T. Gracey, Woman's Medical Work in Foreign Lands. Dansville, N. Y., 1881. 
J. Holmes, Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren to 1817. 

Lond., 1827. 

E. Hoole, The Year Book of Missions. Lond., 1847. 

R. C. Houghton, The Women of the Orient. Cin., 1877. 

Jubilee, The Missionary: an Account of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the American 
Baptist Missionary Union, at Philadelphia, 1864. N. Y., 1865. 

Bishop C. Kingsley, Round the World. 2 vols. Cin., 1868. 

J. Kingsmill, Missions and Missionaries. Historically Viewed from their Commence- 
ment. Lond., 1853. 

J. C. Lowrie, Missionary Papers. N. Y., 1881. 

— — A Manual of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United 
States of America. N. Y., 1868. 

G. F. Maclear, A History of Christian Missions during the Middle Ages. Camb., 1863. 

Bishop Marvin, To the East by the Way of the West. Nashville, 1879. 

C. Merivale, Conversion of the West. 5 vols. N. Y., 1879. 

The Conversion of the Roman Empire. N. Y., 1865. 

The Conversion of the Northern Nations. N. Y., 1866, 

Missions, Conference on, held in 1860 at Liverpool. Lond., 1860. 

F. Max Miiller, On Missions, a Lecture delivered in Westminster Abbey. N. Y., 1874. 
H. Newcomb, A Cyclopaedia of Missions : containing a Comprehensive View of Mis- 
sionary Operations throughout the World. N. Y., 1854. 

J. M. Reid, Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
2 vols. N. Y., 1879. 

J. H. Seelye, Christian Missions. N. Y., 1876. 

F. Smith, The Origin and History of Missions, Compiled and Arranged from Authentic 
Documents. 2 vols. Boston, 1842. 

S. F. Smith, Missionary Sketches : a Concise History of the Work of the American 
Baptist Union. Boston, 1879. 

Bishop E. Thomson, Our Oriental Missions. 2 vols. Cin., 1871. 

W. Warren, These for Those: Our Indebtedness to Missions. Portland, 1876. 

Mrs. M. S. Wheeler, The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church. N. Y., 1881. 

For full Literature on the special mission fields, see Hurst's Bibliotheca Theologica, 
pp. 179-188. 

SECTION XV. 
THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 

J. A. Ernesti, Prol. de theologiae historicae et dogmaticae conjungendae necessitate, Lips., 1857, 
and in the Opusc. theol., Lips., 1792 ; L. Wachler, De theologia ex historia dogmatum emen- 
danda, Rintel, 1795 ; De Wette, Religion u. Theologie, section 2, pp. 167-193 ; Ch. Fr. Illgen, 
Werth d. Christl. Dogmengeschichte, Leips., 1817 ; Augusti, Werth der Dogmengesch. in The- 
olog. Blatter ii, p. 11 sqq. ; W. K. L. Ziegler, Ideen iiber d. Begriflf u. d. Behandl. d. Dogmen- 
gesch. in Gabler's Neuest. theol. Journal, 1798, ii, p. 325 sqq. ; Thomasius, Aufgabe u. Behand- 
lung der Dogmengesh. in Earless' Zeitschr, fiir Protestantismus 3, 2; *Tb. Kliefoth, Einleit. in 
d. Dogmengesch. Ludwigslust, 1839 ; F. Dortenbach, Methode d. Dogmengesch. in Stud. u. Krit., 
1852, No. 4, pp. 757-822 ; Kling, in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 450 sqq. ; Ritschl, Methode der altem 
Dogmengeschichte (Jahrbb. fiir Deutsche Theologie, 1871, 2). 

The History of Doctrines is a scientific representation of the 
gradual unfolding, establishing, and settling of the Christian faith 



THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 359 

into a definite body of doctrines, the distribution of the same 
into its particular elements, and the transformations History of doc- 
and changes through which it passed under the influ- tnnes denned. 
ence of different and progressive forms of culture. It forms the 
bridge between Historical and Systematic Theology, and employs 
Church history in the character of an auxiliary. 

Christianity presented itself at the beginning with a doctrine, 
but not with a system of dogmatics. Its dogmas were compressed 
in the glad tidings of a salvation which had appeared to men, and 
its religious conceptions connected themselves with the figurative 
and popular phraseology of the time. The need of dogmatic devel- 
opment was only gradually felt. The tendency toward such devel- 
opment, which inheres in Christianity, was already apparent in its 
earliest adherents. The reflection and dialectics of Paul unfolded 
themselves side by side with the contemplation of John," both being 
strictly within the bounds of the religious sphere. But the neces- 
sity of defending Christianity against other modes of thought, and 
of guarding against the influence of the foreign principles of Ju- 
daism and Ethnicism, led by degrees to those definitions of doc- 
trine which the Church accepted as its common symbol, individual ten- 
Individual tendencies come into view, however, beside ^encies. 
the inclination toward a common form of doctrine. Different states 
of mind within the Church affected the mode in w^hich its teaching 
was understood, and thus began the formation of a body of dog- 
mas, conditioned by the circumstances of the time, and struggling 
into definite shape by the force of its own inherent nature. It is 
the task of the history of doctrines to follow out the The task of doc- 
process by which such formation of doctrine took place, '^^^^ history. 
, to ascertain its internal laws, to compare what has come into being 
with the original from which it sprang, and trace it back to the 
idea, as well as to ascertain the measure of truth it may contain in 
the midst of the erroneous elements in which it is involved. This 
is a task that can certainly be fully performed by him only who 
has apprehended the significance of the doctrine in its profoundest 
meaning, so that it would seem that the history of doctrines could 
only be successfully treated where it follows upon dogmatics. It 
should again be remembered, however, that no branch of any sci- 
ence can be completely developed without involving the others in 
the process. Moreover, while it is certain that the his- ^giation of one 
tory of doctrines, in its scientific perfection, presumes science to oth- 
acquaintance with dogmatics, it is equally certain that ^^* 
he alone is able to apprehend a doctrine in its vital relations 
who has cast a preliminary glance over its historical progress. 



360 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Without this it would be to him only a rigid hieroglyph, a dead 
statute/ 

The principal thing, in connexion with the problem which the 
Problem of his- ^^^^^^7 ^^ doctrines is expected to solve, is to furnish 
tory and reve- an account of the relation between what has come his- 
lation. torically into being and what was originally revealed. 

This must neither be regarded as, from the standpoint of a false 
biblical positivism, a mere degeneration, or a running off into ordi- 
nances of simply human origin; or, from the standpoint of specula- 
tive narrowness, as an unconditional advance from the mere concep- 
tion to the pure idea. Attention must be equally bestowed upon 
the divinely intended and natural development of the truth con- 
tained in the Scriptural germ, and the divinely permitted, and like- 
wise natural, aberrations from the truth, which are conditioned by 
the very fact of such development. 

The history of doctrines has to do neither with evolution simply 
Province of doc- i^or with corruption alone, but with both; and its work 
trinai history, jg^ substantially, to determine the relation sustained by 
the one to the other. It deals with the positive acceptance of doc- 
trine by the Church and with the petrifying influence of tradi- 
tional beliefs, with agreements upon dogmas reached by the scien- 
tific process and with the insipid character they assumed in the 
course of rationalistic manipulations, with the transfiguration re- 
ceived at the hands of a true speculation and the volatilizing effects 
of idealistic processes, and, finally, with the pregnant interpretations 
of presaging minds and the obscurities entailed by a pseudo-mysti- 

' The primary meaning of Soyfia is statute, decree, in the outward and positive sense. 
Comp. the " decree that went out from Caesar Augustus," Luke ii, 1, and also Dan. 
ii, 13; vi, 8; Esther iii, 9; in the LXX, and 2 Mace, x, 8, in the Apocrypha. The 
term (hyfiara is also applied in the New Testament (Eph. ii, 15 ; Col. ii, 14) to the 
Jewish ordinances from which Christ has delivered us ; for it is to be presumed that 
the better class of exegetes are agreed that the teachings of Christianity are not so 
designated in those passages. Christian doctrine is never designated by the term 
doyfia in the New Testament {evayyeTiLov, KTjpvyiia^ Tioyo^ or 6(56f tov Qeov being 
Used instead) ; in Acts xv, 22 and 26, where it occurs, the reference is to conclusions 
reached with regard to a practical question. By the Stoics, however, the word is used 
in the sense of doctrine (or principle), e. g., by Marc. Aurel. in Libro ad se ipsum, 
ii, 13 ; and similarly the Latins employ the words decretum, placitum (Cicero, Acad. 
QujBst. iv, 9 ; Senec. Epp., 94, 95). This usage was afterward followed by the Church 
fathers. Comp. the citations in Suicer, Thesaurus^ s. v. Soyfia, and Hagenbach, Hist. 
Doct., § 1, note 1. But they too employ it in the sense of a firm, established princi- 
ple (to Oelov duyfj,a), and at others to designate a temporary subjective opinion. The 
History of Doctrines may not, however, be made simply a record of passing opinions, 
although it must take cognizance of them as elements of temporary importance. 
Comp. J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogmatik, p. 2; Herzog, Encykl. iii, 433. 



THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 361 

cal mode of treatment. The work of the history of doctrines is 
properly performed only when all such elements are rightly appre- 
hended and appreciated.^ This task should not be rendered more 
difficult by the carrying of unnecessary ballast of any kind. For 
this reason much that requires notice in the treatment of Church 
history may here be presumed as falling within that department.' 

SECTION XVI. 
GENERAL AND SPECIAL HISTORY. 

The unfolding and demonstrating of the dogmatic spirit that 
runs through the whole will be continually apparent in the defining 
of particular dogmas, which again, in turn, determine the doc- 
trinal spirit of an age. For this reason the general and the special 
history of doctrines is found to be interwoven in such a way as not 
to admit of their being totally separated, but to require that, in their 
treatment, regard be had to the relations they sustain to each other. 

Christian doctrine is, in its root, a unit (rd Oelov doyfia), and the 
various formulations of particular doctrines are merely christian doc- 
members into which the organism may be divided. A ^^^^ ^ ^^^• 
living recognition of this fact leads to the ignoring of the distinc- 
tion between general and particular; and many late writers have, 
accordingly, rejected the division into general and special history 
of doctrines. It is certain that the method which presents the 
general history in one series, or volume, and the special in another, 
without establishing any living relations between the two sections, 
must be set aside.' For the former thus becomes merely an ex- 
panded chapter from ecclesiastical history — a history of the Church 
teaching, and also, in part, a history of dogmatics — while the latter 
is reduced to the character of a historical supplement to dogmatics, 

^ It would not be proper, for instance, to formulate in advance a general idea of 
rationalism, mysticism, etc., and then seek to adapt the different features as observed 
to such preconceived scheme. Every such tendency must be explained in conformity 
with its historical aspects and relations ; comp. Klieforth, p. 319. 

' Hase says : " The distinction between the History of Doctrines as a special sci- 
ence, and as a part of Church history, is merely formal in its character. For if the 
difference of extent, which is determined by external considerations, be left out of the 
question, the two deal simply with different poles of the same axis. The former 
treats the dogma as it develops itself in the form of definite conceptions, while Church 
history discusses the dogma in its relation to outward events." Church History 
(Blumenthal and Wing's ed.), p. 12. Similarly Kliefoth, p. 324: ''The whole of 
Church history is to be regarded as introductory to the History of Doctrines." Con- 
cerning its relation to other historical departments (e. g., the history of heresies), comp. 
Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 6. 

* This is the chief fault of arrangement in Augusti and Baumgarten-Crusius. 



363 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

a historia dogmatis. This difficulty can be avoided only by an 
Elastic treat- elastic treatment of the general history, so as to allow 
aT^*Histo7y ^^ *^ extend partially into the Special, or by arranging 
necessary. the matter according to periods, and giving the prece- 
dence in each period to the general history. Thus the dogmatic 
principle governs the period, and the special history is made to 
follow. In this case the general history of doctrines takes on the 
character of an introduction.^ We consider the latter to be the 
more suitable plan in a methodological point of view, though, for 
purposes of artistic treatment, the former is even still more favour- 
able. The arrangement of the particular doctrines, moreover, 
should not be unconditionally governed by a firm and previously 
Arrangement Constructed dogmatical system, but solely by the dog- 
dog'iSSScha^r- i^atic character that predominates in the periods to 
acter. which they respectively belong.^ For every period has 

a keytone, derived from some doctrine of preponderating influence, 
which underlies and runs through the whole of its development, 
and gives to the period its dogmatic character.^ This principle 
leads to a division into periods of corresponding character. 

* At this point we coincide with Kliefoth, p. 334 sq. : " When the entire mass of 
dogmatic phenomena has been classified by periods, it becomes requisite to describe 
the internal progress of the periods, and to determine the historical point within the 
period that each particular dogmatic phenomenon has occupied. Not until this has 
been done can the historical relations of every such phenomenon be thoroughly un- 
derstood." It is, of course, evident that external events, e. g., the progress of a con- 
troversy, the holding of councils, the publication of decrees, etc, cannot be entirely 
disregarded, since they afford the necessary points of connexion. But " the writer on 
the History of Doctrines will need to include only so much as may be necessary to 
constitute the thread between the different knots in the course of dogmatic develop- 
ment, or as may be otherwise needed for illustrating the history of the dogma upon 
which he is engaged." Kliefoth, p. 346 ; also p. 367 sq. 

^ The inadmissible character of the "local" method was already noticed by de 
Wette (Rel. u. Theol., p. 179). Comp. also Kliefoth, p. 370, and Meier's method of 
treating the History of Doctrines. Baur correctly observes (Dogmengesch., p. 14) : 
" The general element which must be prefixed to the history of each period as an in- 
troductory feature can consist only in the determining of the general point of view 
under which each period must be regarded, and in the assigning of its rightful place 
to the period as a definite element in the process of historical development in general. 

^ Hase says, " That certain particular doctrines form epochal points in one century, 
while certain others fix the attention in another, is not the result of accidental causes 
merely, but is an interest grounded in necessity ; and any dogma can attain to epoch- 
al importance but once in the course of its history." — Eosenkranz, p. 248. " History 
embraces only what has truly lived at some time, and has thereby become immortal, 
as constituting a point at which the rays of the Christian mind were refracted ; for it 
is a history of the living, and not of the dead, even as God is the God of the living 
only." — Church History, p. xii. 



DIVISION OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 363 

SECTION XVII. 

DIVISION OF DOCTEINAL HISTORY. 
Comp. Hagenbach, article in Stud. u. Krit., 1828, No. 4, and Kliefoth, 1. c, p. 56. 

The division of the history of doctrines into periods is governed 
by a different principle from that which applies in con- p-^gj^j^ q^ ^j^ 
nexion vrith Church history in general. The epochs trinai history 
which appear important to the Church, considered as a ^^ ° ^^"° 
whole, are here secondary to those which give a different direction 
to doctrine. It follows, therefore, that the division is to be con- 
formed to the dogmatic spirit which prevails in, and animates, any 
given time. 

It has been remarked, that the periods in ecclesiastical do not al- 
ways coincide with those of secular history, because elements that 
exert a decisive influence in the one department are not equally im- 
portant in the other. A similar observation will apply to the rela- 
tion sustained by the history of doctrines to that of the Church. 
For, while the histoiy of doctrine is involved in that of the Church 
and its constitution, it is yet possible that "great changes may 
come to pass in the field of the one, while all continues unchanged 
in the other, and that a particular time may be important as the 
point of an unfolding in the one while it is altogether unimportant 
in the other." ^ It is, of course, difficult to discover the true turn- 
ing points at which the circles of doctrine separate. Difficulty of 
and the knots at which they run into each other. The gin^ni^gg^of 
determining of such points is itself dependent on the cbange. 
fixing of the nature of the dogma. The inquirer who regards the 
speculative side of the dogma as the regulative feature will mark 
out a different division from him who, before all else, goes back to 
the religious disposition of which the dogma is simply the intelligi- 
ble, but inadequate, expression, and who seeks to ascertain what 
practical influence was exerted by the dogma upon an ecclesiastical 
period. In a similar way the material aspect, which is the prepon- 
derance of certain doctrines — or the formal element — which is the- 
practical conditions under which the formation of a doctrine was 
brought to pass — may become the determining influence with differ- 
ent minds. 

The division we advocate, for instance, into Apolo- ,r * • , 

/ _ ' ^ ^ Matenal and 

getical. Polemical, Scholastico-Systematic, Symbolical formal meth- 

and Confessional, Philosophically Critical, and Specula- ° ^* 

tive Periods, is predominantly formal, while Kliefoth has proposed a 

^ Schleiermacher, § 166. 



364 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

division according to material conditions, based, at the same time, 
in the formal way, on national characteristics, and has ingeniously 
subdivided the several periods into stages of growth, of settling in 
symbolic form, and of decline. His first period is the Grecian, in 
the course of which both the objective doctrines of God and of 
Christ (Theology and Christology) were developed (Origen, Athan- 
KUefoth's meth- asius, and the Cappadocians). The second is the Ro- 
^^' man Catholic (Augustine and the Scholastics), to which 

the development of Anthropology belongs. The third is the Ger- 
manico-Protestant (after the Reformation), which moves within 
the field of Soteriology (Justification, Repentance, Sanctification). 
The fourth (the present), finally, has for its task to attain to a 
correct recognition of the Church, and thereby to a sound escha- 
tology, based on the development of the Church considered as the 
kingdom of God. 

Baur divides the whole of the history of doctrines, in strict ac- 
cordance with his settled Hegelian philosophy, into 

Baur's division. , , . . , • t ,, mi • i /. i • . 

three principal periods: " ihe period of the ancient 

Church is the period of self -producing dogma and of the Christian 
religious consciousness — the substantiality of the dogma, which at- 
tains to objectivity in the dogma, and knows itself to be identical 
with it. The period of the Middle Ages and of Scholasticism is 
that in which that consciousness returns from the objectivity of the 
dogma to its own subjectivity, and contrasts itself with the dogma 
under the influence of rational reflection " (as though this influence 
had not been operative at any former time!). " The period since the 
Reformation is that of absolute self-consciousness, which is no 
longer bound to the dogma, (?) and has assumed a place above 
it " (?). This is not the proper place for exploding this division in 
its details, nor yet for extensively noticing other attempts.^ What 
has been remarked may suffice to indicate the necessity for adopt- 
ing a principle of division which is drawn from the movements of 
the life of the science itself. 

* Miinscher, for example, has adopted seven periods, and Lentz eight. Klee re- 
gards the division into periods as being wholly superfluous. J. P. Lange agees, upon 
the whole, with the arrangement we have adopted (Christl. Dogmatik, p. 65). Giese- 
ler and Neander have retained the periods of Church history in the History of Doc- 
trines as well. 



MODE OF TREATMENT. 365 

SECTION XVIII. 
MODE OF TREATMENT. 

The only proper mode of treating the history of doctrines is 

that which, emanating from the true nature of the doff- „ ^ .^ ^ ^ 

. . ° . , ° Best method of 

ma, brings to distinct consciousness both what is change- doctrinal ms- 
able in the statements of doctrine and what is permanent ^^^^* 
in the midst of the changes, and gives rise to such mutability itself. 
Only such a treatment, moreover, will warrant the expectation of 
realizing the practical advantage of preserving the history of doc- 
trines from yielding to the authority of a rigid narrowness of the 
traditional type, and from being dominated by a mania for novelty 
and condemning what is old. For the historical sense is the neces- 
sary base of a theological character. 

The remarks, in a preceding section, relating to a true pragma- 
tism in the treatment of Church history, are applicable at this point 
as well. The form assumed by particular doctrines may, indeed, 
not unfrequently be explained by a reference to different and exter- 
nal causes, such as political conditions and events, the scientific cul- 
ture of a period, or even conditions of climate, and other surround- 
ings. But, while seeking such explanations, the dynamical principle, 

which works from within outwardly upon the material, „^ 

. ^ The dynamic 

should not be forgotten, since the triumph of any chief principle im- 
tendency over others, which cannot be altogether acci- p^^^"^*- 
dental, must, in the end, be judged by that principle.^ This twofold 
and self-complementary mode of viewing the history will guard 
against two errors which lie near at hand. On the one hand, the 
recognition of what is changeable in received conceptions of doc- 
trine, and the connected observation that much which ^^ .. ^ 
' . . . , Necessity of 

once was held to be indispensable to a correct faith is no recoprnizing 
longer so regarded by even very orthodox scholars, while ^^^^^®^' 
other things which are now stubbornly maintained in many quar- 
ters were formerly regarded more mildly, or with indifference, will 
preserve the mind from being bound by the unworthy fetters of 
any system whose influence tends to confine inquiry from the out- 
set within narrowing limits, and will infuse a noble confidence in 
truth, which is not alarmed for the safety of the Church with the 
springing up of every breeze. 

But, on the other hand, even greater Attention will be fixed upon 
the one thing needful, which, whatever may have been the form of 
doctrine, has always asserted itself, and has always demonstrated, 

* Comp. Rosenkranz, p. 248, and Hagenbach in Coburger Theol. Annalen, article 
Ueber den Sieg der Orthodoxie iiber die Heterodoxie, 1832, voL 4, No. 1. 



866 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

however frequent may have been its temporary obscurations, that 
it is the permanent element which is destined to abide. It will ap- 
pear, moreover, especially when the periods have been properly 
arranged, and with evidential force, that every period was specially 
A central truth determined and guided by some particular truth; that, 
for every age. go to speak, it had its own polar star, by which it shaped 
its course, and which shone for it with a brightness such as, with a 
change of constellation, it could not possess for any other age. 
But God continually brings up new stars, with the object that all 
should guide to the One who is the salvation of the world. It is, 
therefore, a sign of crudeness, and of a want of genuine enlighten- 
ment, when the mind finds it impossible to so far enter into former 
modes of thought as to discover that the productions of the human 
mind, when engaged upon the very noblest work that could com- 
mand its attention, are more than mere abortions of unreason and 
superstition.' The "absurdities of Scholasticism," which have so 
often been made matter for sport, are certainly as nothing when 
compared with the absurdity with which the schoolmen have been 
judged by the people, " whom they could not have used as copy- 
ists" (Semler).' 

HISTORY. 
Comp. Baur, Dogmensgeschichte, § 6. 
The history of doctrines, in its clearly defined outlines, is a new 
science. Materials for it have, however, been furnished from the 
beginning. A rich mine for discoveries exists already in ecclesi- 
astico-historical and polemico-dogmatical works of the Church 
fathers, especially Irenseus, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius. Down 
to our own time, also, works on Church history contain material for 
the history of doctrines. While connected in this way with Church 
history on the one hand, the history of doctrines stands similarly 
related to dogmatics on the other. We have only to bear in mind 
the great dogmatical works of Chemnitz, Hutter, Quenstedt, J. 
Gerhard, and others. Works preliminary to the history of doc- 

^ Rosenkranz, ubi supra : " While it cannot be denied that arbitrariness and acci- 
dent form an element in the History of Doctrines, as in every thing that is human, it 
is also true that the play of subjectivity, its dabbling in opinions, forms a feature that 
destroys and subordinates itself, as being unimportant, to the real movement. The 
estimate of the History of Doctrines which finds in it merely a lumber-room of human 
follies and silly opinions, is itself a silly opinion, which has no perception of the yearn- 
ing of the mind to know its own inner nature, and no conception of the secret alli- 
ance which binds all the actions of the mind into a general whole." Comp. Kliefoth, 
p. 208 sq. ; Baur, Dogmengesch. § 3, and (with reference to the unhistorical disposi- 
tion of Rationalism) pp. 42, 43. 

* Comp. Mohler, Kleine Schriften i, p. 131 sqq. 



MODE OF TREATMENT. 367 

trines proper were furnished by the Roman Catholic theologians: 
Petavius (1644-50, 1700), Thomassin (1684-89), Dumesnil (1730), 
and by the Protestant Forbesius a Corse (1645 sqq.). It is only 
since the days of Semler and Ernesti that a separate treatment was 
thought of (Ernesti, ubi supra, and Semler's Introduction to Baum- 
garten's System of Doctrine, Halle, 1759 sq.). At first, the attention 
was merely directed to the accumulation of material, and this was 
followed with the critical treatment of doctrines, for the expressed 
purpose of " enlarging the range of vision for incipient theologians 
or theological students in general " (Semler). The positive method 
of treatment was soon added, and the history of doctrines was 
made to serve in defence of dogma in the interests of Apologetics 
(Augusti). The higher view, which has regard equally to the crit- 
ical and the dogmatical elements, and which dialectically mediates 
the contrasts between the positive and the speculative, is a fruitage 
of the recent science. 

LITERATURE OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 
1. Textbooks and Manuals of History of Doctrines.^ 

W. Miinscher, Handbuch der christl. Dogmengeschichte. Marb., vols. 1-3, 1797- 

1802. (3d ed., 1817 f.) Vol. 4, 1809. Amer. ed., translated by Murdock. New 

Haven, 1830. 
* Lehrbuch der christl. Dogmengeschichte (Marb., 1811). 3d ed., with Ap- 
pendices from original sources, by Dan. v. Colin. Cassel, 1832-34. 
J. Ch. W. Augusti, Lehrbuch der christl. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1805. 4th ed., 1835. 
L. Bertholdt, Handbuch der Dogmengesch., pub. by J. G. V. Engelhardt. Erl., 1822 f. 

2 vols. 
F. A. Ruperti, Geschichte der Dogmen, etc. Berl., 1831. 
L. F. 0. Baumgarten-Crusius, Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte. Jena, 

1832. 

* Compendium der christl. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1840-46. 5 vols, 

C. G. H. Lentz, Geschichte der christlichen Dogmen in pragmatischer Entwicklung. 

Helmst., 1834 f. 2 vols. 
f H. Klee, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. Mainz, 1837 f. 2 vols. 
J. G. V. Engelhardt, Dogmengeschichte. Neust., 1839. 2 vols. 
*F. K. Meier, Lehrb. der Dogmengesch. Giess., 1840. 2d ed. by G. Baur, 1854. 
K. R. Hagenbach, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. Lpz., 1840 f. 2 vols. 4th ed., 

1857, in 1 vol. 5th ed., 1867. Eng. and Amer. ed. by H. B. Smith. N. Y., 1861, 

1862. 
F. C. Baur, Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte. Stuttg., 1847. 2d ed., I 

Tiib., 1858. 3d ed., Lpz., 1867. 

* Yorlesungen iiber christl. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1865-67. 3 vols. 

K. Beck, christl. Dogmengesch. in gedr. Uebersicht. Weim., 1848. 2d ed., 1864. 
Ph. Marheineke, christl. Dogmengesch,, published by Matthies und Vatke. Berl., 

1849. (Vol. 4 der theolog. Vorlesungen.) 

* Older works by Gaab, Lange, Wundemann, Miinter. Comp. also the Literature on History 
and Doctrines. 



368 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

L. Noack, die christliche Dogmengeschichte nach ihrem organischen Entwickelungs- 

gange. Erl., 1853. 2d ed., 1856. 
*J. C. L. Gieseler, Dogmengeschichte. Pub. from remains by E. K. Redepenning. 

Bonn, 1855. (The supplementary 6th vol. of Church History.) 
*A. Neander, christl. Dogmengesch. Pub. by J. L. Jacobi. Berl., 1857. 2 vols. 

Eng. ed., translated by J. E. Ryland. Lond., 1858. 
H. Schmid, Lehrb. der Dogmengesch. 1859. 3d ed., 18'7'7. 

iK. A. Kahnis, der Kirchenglaube, historisch-genetisch dargestellt (Vol. 2 der Dog- 
' matik). Lpz., 1864. 2d ed., 1875. 

Fr. Nitzsch, Grundriss der christlichen Dogmengeschichte. 1st part. Berl., 1870. 
J. Bach, die Dogmengesch. des Mittelalters vom christolog. Standpunkt. Wien, 

1873-76. 2 parts. 
G. Frank, Gesch. der protest. Theol. Lpz., 1862-75. 3 parts (to 1817). 
G. Thomasius, die christl. Dogmengesch. Erl., 1874-76. 2 vols. 

F. Lichtenberger, hist, der idees religieuses en Allemagne depuis le millieu du 18. 

siecle. Vol. 1. Par., 1874. 
J. F. Astie, la theologie allemande contemporaine. Basel, 1874. 

2. Tables. 

K. R. Hagenbach, tabellarische Uebersicht der Dogmengeschichte bis auf die Refor- 
mation. Basel, 1828. 4, 

K. Vorlander, tabellarisch-iibersichtliche Darstellung der Dogmengesch. nach Nean- 
ders dogmengeschichtl. Vorlesungen. 1. (oder apologetische) und 2. (oder polem- 
ische) Periode. Hamb., 1835-37. 3. (Uebergangs-) u. 4. (scholastische) Periode. 
1855. Fol. 

Lange (s. Tabellen der Kirchengeschichte) 

8. Monographs on History op Doctrines. 
a. On the Apostolic Fathers and the Clementines} 

A. Hilgenfeld, die apostolischen Vater. Untersuchungen Uber Inhalt u. Ursprung der 
unter ihren Namen erhaltenen Schriften. Halle, 1853.'^ 

J. H. B. Liibkert, die Theologie der apostol. Vater in iibersichtl. Darstellung, in (Ill- 
gen-) Niedners Zeitschrift fiir die histor. Theologie. Jahrg., 1854. Heft 4. 

A. Schliemann, die Clementin. Recognitionen, eine Ueberarbeitung der Clementinen. 
Kiel, 1843. 

die Clementinen nebst den verwandten Schriften u. der Ebionitismus. Hamb., 

1844. 

A. Hilgenfeld, die clementin. Recognitionen und Homilien nach ihrem Ursprung und 
Inhalt dargestellt. Jena, 1848. 

G. Uhlhorn, die Homilien und Recognitionen des Clemens Romanus nach ihrem Ur- 

sprung u. Inhalt dargestellt. Gott., 1854. 
J. Lehmann, die Clementinischen Schriften mit besonderer Riicksicht auf ihr literar- 

isches Verhaltniss. Gotha, 1869. 

(Here belong also: D. v. Colin, Art. "Clementinen" in Ersch und Grubers En- 
cykl. 1st sec, vol. 18, p. 36 ff. und D. Schenkel, de Clementinis, in dess. de eccl. 
Corinthia primaeva. Basel, 1838.) 

* Here belongs also the literature of Church histories by Baur, Matter, Mohler, Neander, 
Schwegler, where we find much doctrinal history interwoven. 

2 Comp. the Rec. von Lipsius In Gersdorf Repert. 1854. Vol. HI, p. 65 fl. 



MODE OF TREATMENT. 3C9 

b. On Special History of Doctrines} 

F. Delitzsch, die Gotteslehre des Thorn, v. Aquino, krit. dargest. Lpz., 1870. 

F. C. Baur, die christl. Lehre von der Versohnung. Tiib., 1838. ^ 
die christl. Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer 

geschichtlichen Entwickelung. Tiib., 1841-42. 3 vols. 

G. A. Meier, die Lehre von der Trinitat in ihrer histor. Entwicklung. Hamb., 1844. 

2 vols. 
K. A. Kahnis, die Lehre vom heil. Geist. Part 1. Halle, 1847. 

E. W. MoUer, Geschichte der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirehe bis auf Origenes. 

Halle, 1860. 
*J. A. Corner, Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lehre von der Person Christi von den 

altesten Zeiten bis auf die neueste. Stuttg., 1839. 2d ed., Berl., 1846-56. Eng. 

ed., translated by Alexander and Simon. Edinb., 1862-64. 
K. Biihr, die Lehre der Kirehe von dem Tode Jesu. Sulzb., 1832. 
A. Ritschl, die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung. 1st vol., 

Geschichte der Lehre. Bonn, 1870. Eng. ed., translated by J. S. Black. Edinb., 

1872. 
Chr. E. Luthardt, die Lehre vom freien Willen und seinem Verhaltniss zur Gnade, in 

ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung dargestellt. Lpz., 1863. 
A. F. 0. Miinchmeyer, Das Dogma von der sichtbaren und unsichtbaren Kirehe. 

Gott., 1854. 
J. W. F. Hofling, das Sacrament der Taufe, etc., dogmatisch, historisch, liturgisch 

dargestellt. Erl., 1846-48. 2 vols. 2d ed., 1859. 
A. Ebrard, das Dogma vom heil. Abendmahl und seine Geschichte. Frankf., 1845 f. 

2 vols. 
K. A. Kahnis, die Lehre vom Abendmahl. Lpz., 1851. 
J, W. F. Hofling, die Lehre der altesten Kirehe vom Opfer im Leben und Cultus der 

Christen. Erl, 1851. 
A. W. Dieckhoff, die evang. Abendmahlslehre im Reformationszeitalter 1st 

vol. Gott., .1854. 
L. J. Riickert, das Abendmahl, sein Wesen und seine Geschichte in der alten Kirehe. 

Lpz., 1856. 
H. Schmid, der Kampf der luther. Kirehe um Luthers Lehre vom Abendmahl im 

Reformationszeitalter, Lpz., 1867. 
(Corodi) kritische Gesch. des Chiliasmus. Lpz., 1781 ff. 2d ed., ZUr., 1794. 

4 vols. 

F. H. Hesse, der terministische Streit. Giess., 1877. 

H. J. Holtzmann, Kanon und Tradition, ein Beitrag zur neuern Dogmengeschichte 
und Symbolik. Ludwigsb., 1859. 

G. Teichmiiller, Gesch. des Begriffs der Parusie. Halle, 1873. 



W. R. Alger, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life. New ed. New York, 

1878. 
C. F. Cornwallis, Christian Doctrine in the Twelfth Century. Lond., 1850. 
J- Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine. 3 vols. Lond., 

1864-66. 
W. G. T. Shedd, A History of Christian Doctrines. 2 vols. N. Y., 1869. 

1 See below the monographs on Patristics and Dogmatics. 

24 



370 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XIX. 

PATEISTICS AND SYMBOLICS. 

An exact acquaintance with the lives and works of individuals 
who rose to eminence above their contemporaries as teachers of the 
Church (Patristics), and whose efforts prompted the development 
of dogma, is included, though not wholly absorbed, in the circle of 
studies belonging to the history of doctrines. But inasmuch as the 
dogma is not the concern of individuals merely, having become the 
possession of the Church, nor an ecclesiastical branch, because it is 
the expression of the common faith, the teachings of ecclesiastical 
confessions (Symbolics) likewise form an integral part of the history 
of doctrines. 

SECTION XX. 
PATEISTICS. 

1. Herzog, Real-Encyklopaedle. 2. M'Clintock and Strong, Cyclopaedia. 
The material usually comprehended under the name of patristics 
(patrology) is difficult to unite into an independent science with 
scientific limitations, because, 

1. The term Church father itself designates a vacillating idea, 
whose only stability rests on empirical foundations. 

2. The material of patristics is partly resolved in that of literary 
history and partly in that of ecclesiastico-historical monographs, 
while only the remainder is reserved for the use of the history of 
doctrines. 

Patres ecclesiae^ is the name given to men who by their intel- 
lectual energy promoted the life of the Church, especially in the 
eai'lier staares of its development. The additional name 

Church fathers . . 

of patres apostolici is applied to such of them as stood 
nearest the apostles, the fathers of the first century, such as Bar- 
nabas, Hermas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias. 
The usage is, however, very variable. The Roman Catholic Church 
distinguishes between Church fathers, Church teachers, and Church 
writers. The latter class includes those who are not honoured as 
fathers, or whose orthodoxy is suspected — e. g., Origen — while 
Church teachers are those whose orthodoxy is acknowledged, and 
who have, in addition, exercised a determining and shaping influ- 
ence upon the dogma. These are Athanasius, Basil the Great, 

^ Corresponding to the Heb. 3i<. The pupils of the rabbins were termed their 

T 

sons. Comp. Schoettgen, Horae Hebr. et Talm., i, p. 745, on Gal. iv, 19; Clem. Alex. 
Strom., i, 317 ; avriKa Traripac "^ovq Karrj^r/cjavTac (pa/xEv; Basil the Great in Constitut. 
Monast., c 20; Chrysost. Horn., 11 and 48, vol. v; Suiceri, Thesaur., ii, p. 637 b. 



PATRISTICS. 371 

Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the East; and Jerome, 
Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory the Great in the West. Thomas 
Aquinas and Bonaventura are also included with them. The bound- 
aries of patristics are indefinite also as respects time. Limits of Pa- 
Protestants close the series of Church fathers with the tristics in time. 
6th century (Gregory the Great), Roman Catholics with the 13th. 
The scholastic divines, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and others, 
however, are preferably termed doctor es ecdesiae, their activity be- 
ing, in point of fact, chiefly limited to teaching ; while, in the case 
of the fathers of the early centuries, the government of the Church, 
and also the characteristics of their personality, claim attention as 
well. This may be seen in the life of Cyprian, and in the much 
later illustration in Bernard of Clairvaux. 

The Church fathers are not only ecclesiastical lights, luminaria, 
but also, in many instances, ecclesiastical princes, pri- other terms for 
mates, and saints, sancti patres. This constitutes the church fathers. 
reason why patristics is interwoven with different branches of the 
history of the Church. If it be chiefly regarded with reference to 
its biographical element — the lives of the fathers, to which some 
apply the distinctive name of Patrology ' — it will coincide with 
ecclesiastico-historical monography. If attention be directed only 
toward the writings left by the fathers, it will become a branch of 
the history of literature.^ Thus patristics will constitute an ele- 
ment in the history of doctrines only in so far as the object is to 
comprehend the teachings of an ecclesiastical personage in connex- 
ion with the modes of thought which prevailed in his time, and to 
assign to it a suitable place in the dogmatical development as a 
whole. The difference prevails, however, that in the former case 
the person himself becomes, monographically, the central object of 
the inquiry, while the history of doctrines is more especially con- 
cerned with the opinion of the individual as related to the develop- 
ment of doctrine at large. The history of doctrines is, for in- 
stance, less concerned to know how Augustine attained to his con- 
victions than how the Church came to adopt his views as its own.^ 

» Danz, p. 322. 

^ This may likewise be treated as a distinct branch which, however, will be simply 
a collateral branch of the history of Christian culture in general. We assigned to it 
a separate place in our first edition (and also in the History of Missions), and Pelt 
also accords it separate treatment " only because of its special importance for theo- 
logians, and because it is the customary method," and without assigning to it a place 
in the organism of theological sciences (§ 5*7). It is probably better for the purposes 
of encyclopaedia to narrow down the framework, for which reason we give it no sepa- 
rate paragraph. 

' Comp. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 5. 



372 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

In all such cases it is difficult to understand why patristics should 
be erected into an independent study. In a scientific aspect it is 
immaterial whether the life of Augustine or that of Spener be 
under discussion — both of them are comprehended under the idea 
of monography. Bibliographical investigations, in relation to the 
various editions of Lactantius, have the same scientific character as 
though they were concerned with the letters of Luther or Calixtus. 
It follows, that the contribution to the history of doctrines ren- 
ReiationofPa ^^^^^ ^J patristics is not different in substance from 
tristics to doc- that furnished by every monograph in which doctrinal 
IS ory. j^ig^Qj-y jg involved. For, while we must be concerned 
to know the doctrinal system of an Athanasius or Augustine, it is 
equally important that Anselm, Luther, Quenstedt, Bengel, Schleier- 
macher, and Rothe be made to contribute toward the common work. 
The only qualification to which weight attaches is, that the possi- 
bility of pre-eminent service decreases with the progress of time.^ 
Real productiveness is greater in proportion as the development is 
near the point of origin. But it would, nevertheless, be arbitary, 
and an evidence of mechanical views, if the attempt were made to 
confine such productiveness " altogether to the age of the so-called 
Church fathers." 

Remarks of a somewhat similar character will apply to the ap- 
The term pellation "classic." In neither case is it possible to 
"classic." draw a clearly defined line, although certain eminences 
will be presented to every eye as decidedly and energetically prom- 
inent; and, as in that instance, the attention of students is to be 
turned toward the classical, so patristical studies are to be recom- 
mended here, in order that familiarity with ecclesiastical modes of 
thought and language may be acquired at an early stage. To at- 
tempt the reading of all the Church fathers would be far too great 
a task for the student, to offset which the treatment of Church 
history should include an outline of patristics. Certain of the fa- 
thers may, in addition, be described in monographs, and the more 
important of their works be read, in part or as a whole, as patristic 
selections, under the direction of the teacher. For this purpose we 
may particularly recommend, in addition to the Apostolical Fathers, 
the Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologists (Justin Martyr, Athen- 
agoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Minucius Felix, and some portion 
Best works of of Tertullian), the Alexandrians (Clement and Origen^ 
the fathers. ^^ least in extracts or summaries), Athanasius, Basil the 
Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa (in a similar way), 
some of Chrysostom's Homilies and the work De Sacerdotio, and 

* Schleiermacher, § 25L 



PATRISTICS. 373 

Augustine's Confessions, De Doctrina Christiana, Enchiridion ad 
Laurentium, and De civitate Dei.' 

THE HISTORY OF PATRISTICS. 

The necessity of collecting the material of patristics could not 
arise before an ecclesiastical literature had been formed. Jerome 
(died 420) composed Illustrious Men, or Ecclesiastical Writeis, 
and was followed by Gennadius (490), Isidore of Seville (in 
the 7th century), Ildefonsus of Toledo (in the 8th), and by Hono- 
rius Augustodunensis, Sigebertus Gemblacensis, Henr. Gaudavensis, 
Joh. Trithemius, and Aubertus Mirseus (between the 12th and 16th 
centuries). All are found in J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca eccles., 
Hamb., 1718. The Benedictine monks, more accurately the Con- 
gregatio St. Mauri, have distinguished themselves by their editions 
of the Church fathers ; and a number of theologians in the Anglican 
Church have likewise performed meritorious work in this direction. 
In later times patristical studies were promoted in the Roman 
Catholic Church by Robert Bellarmine (in the 17th century), Caspar 
Oudin, Ellies du Pin, le Nourry, Tillemont, Ceillier, Lumper, Spren- 
ger, Mohler, and others ; and, in the Protestant, by Scultetus, Nol- 
ten, Oelrichs, Cave, Schoenemann, and J. G. Walch. The earlier 
works were more particularly confined to the bibliographical de- 
partment, while in modern times the method of monographical 
discussion has been elevated into an art. 

^ R. Eothe, writing while yet a student, says, *' I am convinced that no person can 
become a thorough and skilful theologian who has not made a serious and life-long 
task of the study of the Church fathers, and who has not derived adequate and spir- 
itual strength from their sanctified spirit and their genuinely religious application of 
a solid learning. But for this the longest life will ever be too brief, so that there can 
be no thought of completing the work while at the university " (C. Nippold i, p. 98). 
Certain mediaeval writers — Scholastics and Mystics — have equal claim to be made the 
object of careful study, especially Anselm, Cur Deus homo, and pre-eminently the 
Reformers. The history of the Reformation, for instance, may be most attractively 
followed along the thread of the letters of Luther (published by de Wette), Zwingle 
(by Schuler and Schulthess), and Calvin (Strasburg ed., by Strauss, Baum, and Cunitz). 
Every student should have also read, in addition to the more important of Luther's 
writings (the Address to Christian Nobles of the German Nation, and that on the 
Babylonian Captivity), the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Calvin's Institutes. In 
a word, the entire history of Christian literature should be made to pass in living 
forms before the eye of the theologian. This, however, is nothing more than the 
practical realization of the idea of thorough study of the field of Church history in 
general. 



374 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

PATRISTIC LITERATURE. 

German and French. 
1. Best Editions of Collected Works of the Fathers. 

Magna bibliotheca vett. patrum et antiqu. scriptorum ecclesiast., ed. Margarin de la 
Eigne. Par., 1575. Most complete, Par., 1654. 17 vols. fol. 

Maxima bibliotheca vett. patrum, etc. Lugd., 1677. 27 vols. fol. (The Greek fathers 
only in Latin translations. Especially important because of introduction of medi- 
aeval theologians.) • 

A. Gallandii, bibliotheca vett. patrum antiquorumque scriptt. ecclesiast. Venet., 
1765-88. 14 vols. fol. (Gives the smaller writings of the Church fathers in the 
most complete collection. However, it remains unfinished.) 

f M. Permaneder, Biblioth. patristica. Landsh., 1841-44. 2 vols. New ed., 1850. 
(Vol. I, entitled : Patrologia generalis s. encyclopaedia patristica.) 

f A. B. Cailleau et M. N. S. Guillon, collectio selecta ss. eccl. patrum. Par., 1829 ss. 
. 148 vols. 

f J. P. Migne, patrologiae cursus completus s. bibl. universalis ss. patr. scriptorumque 
eccl. Par., 1844 ss. (Latin fathers to 13th century; Greek, to 9th, and still con- 
tinued.) ^ 

theologiae cursus completus. Yol. I, Par., 1879. (Expected to be in 

28 vols.) 

f A. ReifPerscheid, Biblioth. patrum latin, italica. (Catalogue of MSS. of Latin Church 
fathers in the Italian libraries.) Vienna, 1865 ff. 

f Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum ed. consilio et impensis Academiae 
literarum Caesariae Vindobonensis. 1866 sqq. (Vol. I, Sulpic. Severus. II, Minu- 
cius Felix. Ill, Cyprian. IV, [1875] Arnobius.) 

Horoy, medii aevi biblioth. patristica. Vol. I. (Honor. III.) Par., 1879. (Expected 
to be in 100 vols.) 

2. Extracts and Chrestomathies. 

C. F. Rosier, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater in Ueberss. und Ausziigen aus ihren fiir- 

nehmsten, besonders dogm. Schriften, sammt dem Original der Hauptstellen und 

nothigen Anmerkungen. Lpz., 1776-86. 10 vols. 
J. Ch. W. Augusti, chrestomathia patristica. Lips., 1812. 2 vols. 
H. J. Royaards, chrestomathia patristica. Part I. Traj. 1831.2 
*L. de Sinner, novus ss. patrum graec. sec. iv. delectus. Par., 1842, 
Homiliarium patristicum, edd. L. Pelt, H. Rheinwald, C. Vogt. BeroL, 1829-32. 

Vol. I, fasc. 1-4.' 
J. C. Orelli, selecta patrum eccl. capita ad exegesin sacr. pertinentia. Tur., 1820-24. 

4 specc. 
Fragmenta selecta ex scriptis patrum eccl. latinae, edd. J. Hagen et A. Listov. 

Hafn., 1850. 

» The collections of Oberthiir (1780 fl.), Gersdorf (for Latin fathers, 1838 fl.), and Rlchter (for 
Greek fathers, 1826 ff.), remain unfinished. 

2 The collection of Olshausen, see Literature of Church History. 

3 At the same time also German ; Homiliensammlung aus den ersten 6 Jahrh. Berl., 1829 ff. 
Comp. the Predigten auf alle Sonn- und Festage aus den Schriften der K. Vater (Lpz., 1838 f. 
2 vols.), published in German translation by J. C. W. Augusti, and also his Auswahl von Casual- 
reden der beriihmtesten Homileten der griech. und lat. Kirche aus dem 4. und 5. Jahrh. Lpz., 
1840. 



PATRISTICS. 375 

Bibliotheca patrum graecorum dogmatica, cur. J. C. Thilo. Lips., 1853 f. 2 vols. 

Vol. I, S. Athanasii ; Vol. II. (cur. J. D. H. Goldhorn,) Basilii et Gregorii Xazian- 

zeni opp. dogmatica selecta. Ace. appendix Eunomii apologeticum et confes- 

sionem et Amphilogii epist. synodalem continens. 
F. Oehler, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater, eine Auswahl aus deren Werken. Urschrift 

mit deutscher Uebersetzung. Lpz., 1858 ff. 
f H. Hurter, patrum ss. opuscula selecta. Innsbr., 1868 ff. (thus far 39 vols.). 
V. Thalhofer, Biblioth. der Kirchenvater. Auswahl der vorziigl. patrist. Werke in 

deutscher TJebers. Kempten, 1869 ff. (thus far 322 vols.).i 

3. Editions of Patristic Writings for the Use of Students.^ 

Patrum apostolicorum opera recogn. * f C. J. Hefele (Tiib., 1839; 5th ed., by F. X, 
Funk, 1878); other editions, by Eeithmayr (Miinch., 1844), on Barn, and Clemens, 
by E. von Muralt (Zilr., 1847), on Clemens, Ign., and Polyk., by Jacobson (Oxford, 
4th ed., 1863).^ 

Patrum apostolicor. opera, ed. A. R. Dressel; accedit Hermae Pastor ex fragra. 
graecis Lipsiensibus auctore C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1857. *Gebhardt, Harnack, 
and Zahn undertook a new ed. of Dressel's ed. Lpz., 1875-77. 3 fasc. (Briefe 
des Clemens in 2d ed., 1876, Br. des Barnabas, 1878; minor edition of the whole 
work. Lpz., 1877. 

Bibliotheca patrum ecclesiasticorum selectissima, cur. B. Lindner. Fasc. I-IV. Lips., 
1857-61. 

Novum testam. extra canonem receptum ed. A. Hilgenfeld. Lips., 1866. 

dementis Eomani epistolae ed., Lightfoot (Lond., 1869), Laurent (Lips., 1870), 
Tischendorf (Lips., 1873), Hilgenfeld (Lips., 1876). The complete MS. of the 
Clementine Epistles found by Bryennius in Constantinople, in 1873, was published 
by the discoverer (Constantinople, 1875). The hitherto wanting portions of it 
were published by Lightfoot (Lond., 1877) as appendix to his edition of 1869, and 
by Gebhardt and Harnack (Lpz., 1876). 

J. G. Miiller, Erklar. des Barnabasbriefes. Lpz., 1869. 

Barnabae epistula ed. A. Hilgenfeld. 2d ed., Lips., 1877. 

dementis Rom. quae feruntur homiliae, pub. by A. Schwegler. Stuttg., 1847. More 
complete by A. R. Dressel, Gott., 1853; P. de Lagarde, Lpz., 1865.* 

Constitutiones apostolicae, pub. by W. Ueltzen. Schwerin, 1853 ; P. de Lagarde. 
Lpz., 1862.5 

Ignatius, by W. Cureton: Corpus Ignatianum. Lond, (Berl.), 1849, 

Ignatii, quae feruntur epistolae, ed, H. Petermann, Lips., 1849.^ 

* Also the rich collections of early Christian hymns by Aid. Manutius, G, Fabricius, Bjorn, 
Gehser, and others. For more minute details see Winer, I, p. 879 f . 

2 Of the larger, and, for the most part, magnificent editions, we may mention chiefly those of 
Cotelerius, of the Apostolic fathers, Maran's ed. of Justin, Massuet's ed, of Irenaeus, Rigoetius' 
ed, of Tertullian and Cyprian, Potter's ed. of Clemens Alexandrinus, de la Rue's ed, of Origen, 
Montfaucon's ed. of Athanasius and Chrysostom, Petavius' ed. of Epiphany, Yallarsi's ed. of 
Hieronymus, and the Benedictine ed. of Augustine. 

3 After the large edition of J. B. Cotelerius (Par. 1672) and J. Clericus (Arast., 1698. 2d ed., 
1724., 2 vols. fol.). Also editions by Ittig (Lpz., 1669), Frey (Bas., 1742), Rusel (Lond., 1746), 
Hornemann (Hafn., 1828). On the Apostolic fathers see literature on History of Doctrines. See 
also : F. A. Karker, die Schriften der apostolischen Vater. Breslau, 1^7. 

4 See also C. E. Francke, die Lehren des Clemens von Rom. in Guericke's und Rudelb. Zeit- 
schrift 1841. III. 

^ Likewise O. Krahhe, iiber Ursprung u. Inhalt der apostol. Constitutionen. Hamb., 1829. 
+J. S. V. Drey, neue Untersuchungen iiber die Constitutt, u. Kanones der Apostel, Tiib., 1832. 

^ Also tbe works of Arndt, Dusterdieck, Bunsen, Baur, Denzinger, Hefele, Uhlhom, Lipsius, 
Merx, Hilgenfeld, and others. 



376 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

Justini Martyris 0pp. ed. J. C. Th. Otto. Jena, 1842 ff. 3 vols. 3d ed., 1875 ff. 

(Vols. 1-5 des Corpus apologetarum christian, saec. secundi ; vol. 6 contains Tati- 

ani oratio ad Graecos ; vol. 7, Athenagorae opera ; vol. 8, Theophili ad Autoly- 

cum 11. III.; vol. 9, [1872], Hermias, Melito.) 
Justini apologiae ed. f J. G. Braunius. 2d ed., Bonn, 1860. 
Epistola ad Diognetum, by J. C. Th. Otto. 2d ed., 1852.^ 
Irenaeus, by A. Stieien. Lpz., 1848-53, 2 vols, in 4 parts ; by Harvey. Camb., 

1857. 2 vols. 
Minucius Felix, by Liibkert. Lpz., 1836; by E. de Muralt. Ziir., 1836; by H. Holden. 

Camb., 1853. 
Arnobius, by Orelli (Lpz., 1816 f.), Hildebrand (1844), Oehler 1846 (in Gersdorf's 

bibl. patrr. latin. Vol. 12), Reifferschied (1875). 
Eusebius, hist, eccles., by Heinichen (Lips., 1827 f. 3 vols. 2d ed., 1868 f.), Schweg- 

ler, (Tilb., 1852), Dindorf (Lpz., 1871). 
Cyprian, by Goldhorn in Gersdorf's Bibliothek, vols, ii, iii (Lpz., 1838 f.), by Krabinger 

(Tiib., 1853), and G. Hartel (Vindob., 1869 f. 2 vols.). 
Tertullian, collected works by F. Oehler, in larger (Lips., 1853 f. 3 vols.) and smaller 

editions (Lips., 1854). 
Lactantius, by Bllnemann (Lips., 1739; 0. F. Fritzsche (Lips., 1842 fp. Vols. 9, 10 

of Gersdorf's biblioth. patrr.) 
Clemens Alexandrinus, by R. Klotz (Lpz., 1831 ff. 4 vols.), W. Dindorf (Oxford, 

1868 f. 4 vols.). 
Origenes nspl apxuv, by E. R. Redepenning (Lpz., 1836); works by Lommatzsch 

(Berl., 1831-48. 25 vols.), from the edition of de la Rue. 
Augustinus, Confessiones (with Preface by Neander, Berl., 1823 ; by Bruder, Lpz., 

1837), by Pusey (Oxon., 1838; from this edition also pub. and elucidated by K. v. 

Raumer. Stuttg., 1856. 2d ed., Glitersl., 1876); de civitate Dei: Lpz., 1825, and 

by J. Strange, Koln, 1850. 2 vols. ; de doctrina christ. u. enchiridion, by Bruder 

(Lpz., 1838). 
Chrysostomus de sacerdotio, by Bengel (Stuttg., 1725, and Lpz., 1825), by Leo (Lpz., 

1834); single Homilies by Bauermeister (Gott., 1816), Becher (Lpz., 1839), and 

others. 
Basil the Great, Address to Christian Young Men on the Right Use of Heathen Au- 
thors. Greek Text with German Annotations, by G. Lothholtz. Jena, 1857. 

4. Introductory Writings. 
J. C. Walch, bibliotheca patristica literariis adnotatt. instr. Jen., 1770. New ed. 

emendatior et mult, auctior adorn, a J. T. L. Danz, 1834, 
C. T. G. Schoenemann, bibliotheca histor.-liter. patr. latinorum a Tertulliano usque ad 

Gregor, M, et Isidor. Hispal. Lips., 1792-94. 2 vols. 
H. J. Pestalozzi, Grundlinien der Geschichte der kirchl. Literatur der ersten 6. Jahrh, 

Gott., 1811, 
f V. A, Winter, krit. Gesch. der altesten Zeugen od. Patrologie. Miinch., 1814. 
J. G. V. Engelhardt, Literar. Leitfaden zu Vorles. ii. d. Patristik. Erl., 1823. 
f F. W. Goldwitzer, Bibliographie der Kirchenvater u. Kirchenlehrer vom 1. bis zum 

13, Jahi'h. Landsh., 1828. The same, Patrologie verbunden mit Patristik. Niirnb,, 

1834. 2 parts. 
J. T. L. Danz, initia doctrinae patristicae. Jena, 1839. 

» Comp. the work of Otto, Jena, 1845, and W. A. Hollenberg, Berl., 1853 ; also the review of 
Otto in Gersdorf's Kepert. for 1854. 1st vol., p. 263 ff. J. F. Overbeck, iiber den pseudojus- 
tinischen Brief an Diognet. Basel, 1873, 4., and the replies of Hilgenfeld and Keim. 



PATRISTICS. 377 

*f J. A. Mohler, Patrologie od. christl. Literargesch. 1st vol. (1-3 Jahrh.); pub. by 

F. X. Reithmayr. Regensb., 1839. 
J. Fessler, institutiones patrologicae. Vol. 1 in 2 parts. Oenip., 1850. 
J. C. F. Bahr, Gesch. der rom. Literatur. (Suppl. I. : Die christl. Dichter u. Geschichts- 

schreiber. II. : Die christlich-romische Theologie. III. : Die romische Liter, im 

karol. Zeitalter.) Karlsr., 1836-40. 
f J. W. Eberl, Leitfaden zum Stud, der Patrologie. Augsb., 1854. 
F. C. Magon, Hdb. der Patrol, u. kirchl. Lit.-gesch. Regensb., 1864. 
f J. Alzog, Grundriss der Patrologie. Freib., 1866. 3d ed., 18'76. 
f Jos. Schwane, Dogmengeschichte der patristischen Zeit. Miinster, 1866. 

5. Patristic MonograpJis.^ 
C. Skworzow, patrolog. Untersuchungen. Ueber Urspr. der problemat. Schriften der 

apostol. Viiter. Lpz., 18*75 
Ueber das Papias-Fragment bei Euseb. hist. eccl. 3, 39: W. Weiffenbach (Giesz., 

1874) ; reply by L. Leimbach (Gotha, 1875), and to this again by Weiffenbach 

(Berl., 1878). 
V. V. Strauss, Polykarpus. Heidlb., 1860. 2d ed., 1875. 

E. Gaab, der Hirte des Hernias. Basel, 1867. 

Th. Zahn, der Hirte des Hermas untersucht. Gotha, 1868. The same, Ignatius v. 
Antiochien. Gotha, 1873. 

F. G. Goltz, Clemens von Rom. Eine Gesch. aus dem apost. Zeitalter. Berl., 1851. 
C. J. Bunsen, Ignatius von Antiochien und seine Zeit. Hamb., 1847. 

J. Riggenbach, der sogenannte Brief des Barnabas. (Program.) Basel, 1874.^ 

O. Braunsberg, der Ap. Barnabas. Mainz, 1876. 

J. C. T. Otto, de Justini Mart., scriptis et doctrina. Jena, 1841. 

K. Semisch, Justin der Martyrer, Bresl., 1840-42. 2 vols. 

die apostol. Denkwiirdigkeiten des M. Justinus. Hamb., 1848. 

F. Overbeck, iiber den pseudojustin. Brief an Diognet. Basel, 1872, 
H. Meier, de Minucio Felice. Tigur., 1824. 

A. Ebert, Tertullians Verhaltniss zu Minucius Felix. Lpz., 1868. 

H A. Daniel, Tatianus der Apologet. Halle, 1837. 

Th. A. Clarisse, de Athenagorae vita et scriptis, etc. Lugd., 1819. 

L. Duncker, des hi. Irenaus Christologie. Gott., 1843. 

H. Ziegler, Irenaus, der Bischof von Lyon. Ber-l., 1871. 

C. J. Bunsen, Hippolytus und seine Zeit. Lpz., 1852 f. 2 vols.^ Lond., 4 vols., 1852. 

G. Volkmar, Hippolytus und die romischen Zeitgenossen. Zur., 1855. 

A Neander, Antignostikus, Geist des Tertullian. Berl., 1825. 2d ed., 1849. 

K. Hesselberg, Tertullians Lehre, etc. 1st part : Leben u. Schriften. Dorp, 1848. 

A. Hauck, Tertullians Leben u. Schriften. Erl., 1877. 

F. R. Eylert, Clemens von Alex, als Philosoph u. Dichter. Lpz., 1832. 
H. Reinkens, de Clemente Alexandr. Vratisl., 1851. 

G. Thomasius, Origines. Niimb., 1837. 

E. R. Redepenning, Origenes. Eine DarsteUung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre. 
Bonn, 1841-46. 2 parts.* 

' Comp. the monographs on Church History. 

2 See above, the writings of Hilgenfeld on the Apostolic fathers in general. 

5 Comp. also L. F. W. Seinecke, iiber Leben und Schriften des Bischofs Hippolytus, in Illgens 
Zeitschr. fur histor. Theol., 1842, 1843, p. 48 ff., and + J. J. DoUinger, Hippolytus und Kallistus. 
Regensb., 1853. 

* Also the monographs of Matter and Guericke on the Alexandrian School. 



378 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

r. W. Rettberg, Cyprianus dargest. nach seinem Leben und Wirken. Gott.^ 1831. 

B. Feehtrup, der hi. Cyprian. Sein Leben u. s. Lehre. Vol. L Miinst., 18*78. 
V. Hely, Euscbe de Cesaree. Par., 1811. 

F. A. Scheutz, Zenonis episc, Veron. doctrina christ. Lips., 1854. 

f J. A. Mohler, Athanasius d. Gr. u. die Kirche s. Zeit. Mainz, 1827. 2d ed., 1844. 

•j- L. Atzberger, die Logoslehre des hi. Athanasius. Miinch., 1880. 

* K. Ullmann, Gregor von Nazianz. Darmst., 1825. 

Benoit, St. Grggoire de Nazianze. Par., 1876. 

J. Rupp, Gregors von Nyssa Leben und Meinungen. Lpz., 1834. 

K. R. W. Klose, Basilius der Gr., nach s. Leben u. s. Lehre dargestellt. Stralsund, 

1835. On the same, A. Bayle. Avign., 1878. 
H. Weiss, die grossen Cappadozier, Basilius, Gregor von Nazianz und Gregor v. Nyssa. 

Braunsberg, 1872. 
*A. Neander, der heil. Joh. Chrysostomus u. die Kirche bes. des Orients in dessen 

Zeitalter. Berl., 1821 f. 2 vols. 4th ed., 1858. 
Th. Forster, Chrysostomus in sein. Verhaltniss zur antiochen. Schule. Gotha, 1869. 
f H. Reinkens, Hilarius von Poitiers. Schaffh., 1864. 
H. A. Niemeyer, de Isidori Pelus. vita, scriptis et doctrina. Hal., 1825. 
f F. Lauchert and A. Knoll, Hieronymus, sein Leben und seine Zeit, etc. ; from the 

French of CoUombet. Rottw., 1846. 2 vols. 
0. Zockler, Hieronymus, sein Leben und Wirken. Gotha, 1865. 
Thierry, St. Jerome. 3d ed. Par., 1876. 
f F. A. G. Kloth, d. hi. Kirchenlehrer Aur. Augustinus. Aachen, 1840. 2 vols. 

C. Bindemann, der heil. Augustinus. Berl. u. Lpz. (Greifsw.), 1844-69. 3 vols. 
Poujoulat, hist, de St. Augustin. 3 vols. Par., 1843. 3d ed., 1852. German, by 

F. Hurter. Schaffh., 1845 fP. 2 vols. 

G. F. Wiggers, pragm. Darstellung des Augustinismus, Pelagianismus und Semipelagi- 
anismus. Berl. u. Hamb., 1821. 33. 2 vols. 

A. Dorner, Augustinus. Sein theol. System u. seine religionsphilos. Anschauung. 

Berl., 1873. 
G. Waitz, iiber das Leben und die Lehre des Ulfilas. Hannov., 1840. 
W. A. Arendt, Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit. Mainz, 1835. 

E. Perthel, Leo's I. Leben und Lehren. Jena, 1843. 
G. F. Wiggers, de Gregorio Magno. Rost., 1839. 

G. J. Th. Lau, Gregor I. nach s. Leben und s. Lehre. Lpz., 1845. 

G. Pfahler, Gregor der Grosse und seine Zeit. Frankf., 1852. 

G. Maggio, prolegom. alia storia di Gregorio il Grande e de suoi tempi. Prato, 1879. 

F. H. G. Grundlehner, Joh. Damascenus. Utr., 1877. 
J. Langen, Joh. von Damascus. Gotha, 1879. 

f J. Hergenrother, Photius, Patriarch v. Constant. Regensb., 1867-69. 3 vols. 

6. History of the Literature of the Church and Theology {including the Later Period). 
Ch. W. Fliigge, Versuch einer Gesch. der theolog. Wissenschaften. Halle, 1796-98. 

3 vols. Einleit. dazu, Halle, 1799. 
C. F. Staudlin, Geschichte der theolog. Wissenschaften seit der Verbreitung der alten 
Literatur. Gott., 1810 f. 2 vols.* 

» On the knowledge of theological books : J. G. Walch, blWlotheca theol. selecta. Jena, 
1757-65. 4 vols. J. A. Nosselt, Anwelsung zur Kenntnlss der hasten allgem. Biicher in alien 
Theilen der Theologle. Lpz., 1779. 4th ed., 1780. Continued by Simon. Lpz., 1813. D. G. Nie- 
meyer, Bibliothek fur Prediger und Freunde der Theolog. Liter. Halle, 1782-84. 3 vols. Newly 
revised and continued by A. H. Niemeyer and H. B. Wagnitz. Halle, 1796-1812. 4 vols. W. D. 



PATRISTICS. 379 

English and American Literature. 

Ante-Nicene Christian Library, edited by Roberts and Donaldson. 24 vols. Edinb., 

1864-72. 
Augustine, The Confessions of, edited by W. G. T. Shedd. And., 1860. 
J. Bennett, The Theology of the Early Christian Church, exhibited in Quotations 

from the Writers of the First Three Centuries, Lond., 1852. 
R. Blakey, Lives of the Primitive Fathers. Lond., 1842. 

J. J. Blunt, Lectures on the Right Use of the Early Fathers. 3d ed. Lond., 1869. 
W. J. Bolton, The Evidences of Christianity, as exhibited in the Writings of its 

Apologists down to Augustine. N. Y., 1854. 
E. Burton, Testimonials of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ. Lond., 

1829. 
Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine of the Trinity, and of 

the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. Lond., 1831. 
H. Cary, Testimonies of the Fathers of the First Four Centuries to the Doctrine and 

Disciphne of the Church of England. Lond,, 1835. 
J. Daille, A Treatise on the Right Use of the Fathers in the Decision of Controversies 

existing at this Day in Religion. 2d ed. Lond., 1843. 
J. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death 

of the Apostles to the Nicene Council. 3 vols. Lond., 1864. 
Douglass, Series of Christian Greek and Latin Writers. Edited by F. A. March. 

5 vols. N. Y., 1874-80. 
Eusebius, History of the Martyrs in Palestine. Edited and translated by W. Cureton. 

Lond., 1861. 
J. Harrison, Whose are the Fathers ? Lond., 1867. 
Ignatii, Romani S. Polycarpi, Patrum Apostolicorum, quse supersunt. Accedunt S. 

Ignatii et S. Polycarpi Martyria. 2 vols, Lond., 1863. 
G. A. Jackson, The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists of the Second Century. 

N. Y., 1879, 

Fuhrmann, Handbuch der tbeol. Liter. Lpz., 1818-21. 2 vols. Fortsetz. Vol. I. Iserl., 183G. 
* Gr. B. Winer, Handb. der theol. Liter, hauptsachlicb der protest, Lpz., 1820 ff, 3d ed., 1837-40, 
und Erganzungsheft, 1842, Deegen, Jahrbiichlein der deutschen theolog. Literatur (since 1811), 
Essen, 1819-29. 7 small vols. Continued by * E. Ziramermann and others, 1832-35. 3 small vols. 
W. Haucb, theol. Jahresbericht. Wiesb., 1866-77, E, A. Zuchold, Bibliotheca theologica (1830- 
62), Gott,, 1864. 2 vols. + Reusch, theolog. Literaturblatt (Bonn, 186.5-77) ; Ruprecht, (now W. 
Maidener), Bibliotheca theolog. Oder System, geordnete Uebersicht aller auf d. Geb. der evan- 
gel. Theol, in Deutschl, neu erschien. Biicher. Gott., 1848 ff, (annually 2 Nos,), Every No. of 
Schiirer's theol, Literztg, (Lpz., 1876 ff,), and more recently Luthardt's allgem, ev,-luth. Kirchen- 
zeitimg, furnish a very complete account of the latest literature. Comp. also the Universal 
Book Lexica of Kayser (begins with 1750 and is continued now in quadrennial periods), and 
others ; the Hinrichs' Biicherverzeichnisse (2 Nos, yearly) ; Engelmann's Fachkataloge, the 
Uebersichten of Baldamus and Haupt (Prot. and Cath. separately, 1865-69 ; 1870-74), and many 
others. 



380 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XXL 

SYMBOLICS. 

Symbolics, in a broad sense, designates the science of the origin, 
Definition of nature, and contents of all the public confessions in 
symboucs. which the Church has laid down a summary of its teach- 
ing, and which it has erected at certain times and under certain 
forms as the standard of its faith. In a more limited sense, the 
term is used to denote a knowledge of the distinctive teachings 
which, especially since the Reformation, separate the different di- 
visions of the Church from each other in doctrinal matters, the con- 
trast between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, and the minor 
differences therewith connected. Symbolics forms an integral part 
of the history of doctrines, or coincides with comparative dog- 
matics, or polemics, in proportion as the purely historical or the 
dogmatico-polemical interest predominates in the stating and dis- 
cussing of such opposing standards. It is probably best to regard 
it as a historical science connected with the history of doctrines, 
but as also, under this form, a necessary aid and point of transition 
to dogmatics. 

I,v[ij3o/iov (a token, mark*) denotes, in ecclesiastical usage, a for- 
mula preserved by tradition or in writing, by which all who belong 
to the same ecclesiastical party may recognize each other. The 
symbol is the common shibboleth, the ecclesiastical standard, about 
which the community is gathered. The use of such symbols, of 
which the so-called Apostles' Creed was the earliest, is derived 

^. , ^ , , from the ritual of baptism. Its first office, therefore. 
First and later ... • . . . . . 

office of sym- was to distinguish the Christian, as belonging to a dif- 

°^' ferent religious society, from the Jew and the heathen; 

and it was afterward employed to distinguish orthodox Catholic 

' Comp. Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles., s. v., and Creuzer, Symbolik Mone's ed., § 16, p. 13). 
IiVfiPoXov signifies what is formed by the joining together of two parts ; e. g., the 
term av/i^oAa was applied to the two halves of the tablets which served as pledges of 
a contracted hospitality {tesserce hospitalitatis). It was afterward employed to desig- 
nate all unions ; and, subsequently, everything that in the progress of time came to 
take the place of the coarse tokens of earlier times, a pledge in general. Thus we 
find it applied to the ring, which was given instead of ordinary contributions toward 
a common feast, and later to the pledge for subsequent redemption, which was in use 
in matters of exchange ; also to the tessera militarise the parole ; in brief, to any 
token, any sign, by which those belonging together, the initiated, might recognize 
each other. Its derivation from aw/z/JdA/leii', for the purpose of proving that each of 
the apostles contributed one article to the Apostles' Creed, is absurd. Nor is art 
symbolism to be taken into account in this connexion. This has its place, but in a 
different theological department (Liturgies), although but little has been done as yet 
toward its thorough scientific development. Comp. the section on Archaeology. 



SYMBOLICS. 381 

Christians from heretics. The bvaovatog of the Nicene symbol 
served in this way to discriminate the adherents of the Athanasian 
(orthodox) faith from tlie Arians. 

The Nicene, the so-called Athanasian — the Symb. Quicumque of 
later date — and the so-called Apostolic Creed, form the three 
principal symbols of the Church. But when the adherents of the 
purified doctrines separated from the Roman Catholic Church, in 
the time of the Reformation, they laid down the doctrines held by 
them in common, first apologetically, and then polemically, in sepa- 
rate symbolical writings, the Lutherans and the Reformed party 
each constructing their own, because of deviations from the truth 
that had taken place — each, however, holding fast to the three 
leading symbols of the early Church. The differences existing with- 
in the above-mentioned parties, together with the controversies that 
agitated the Protestant Church as a whole, gave rise to still further 
symbolical divergencies. It was also desired to erect barriers 
against all intermixture with non-Catholic bodies (Anabaptists, 
Anti-Trinitarians, Anti-Scriptuarians, etc.), with whom the Reform- 
ers wished to have nothing in common. 

The following are the Lutheran symbols, brought together in 
1580 in the Book of Concord: The Conf. Augustana, Lutheran sym- 
1530, the Apology, 1531, the Articles of Smalcald, 1537, ^o^^- 
and the- Formula Concordiae, 1579, to which must be added the 
two Catechisms of Luther, 1528 and 1529. The Reformed Con- 
fessions are less sharply distinguished from other theological pro- 
ductions, and less generally received. The more prominent are 
the Swiss (Conf. Bas. i; Helv. i or Bas. ii, and Plelv. ii), Gallic, 
Belgic, Anglican (xxxix Articles), Scottish, and American, and the 
Anhalt, Brandenbergian, and Heidelberg Catechisms. To these must 
be added the Arininian Confession, by the Remonstrants of Hol- 
land. It consisted of 26 chapters, and appeared first in 1622.^ 

The Roman Catholics, on their part, now saw themselves com- 
pelled to present more clearly what was distinctive in their teach- 
ing. This was done in the Prof essio fidei Tridentina and the Cate- 
chismus Romanus. The smaller sects and ecclesiastical parties 
likewise reduced to writing the points at which they diverged from 
the general belief; e. r/., the Anabaptists (Mennonites), Socinians, 
Quakers, and others, although such writings have, in some instances, 
simply the authority of private productions. The Socinian Catechis- 
mus Racoviensis might deserve to be considered a symbolical book 
more than any of the others. The idea of confessional writings can- 
not be entertained in connexion with the Quakers, who make their 

^ Comp. Winer (Pope's ed.), Creeds of Christendom, p. 28. 



383 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

religious life altogether independent of the letter, even that of the 
Bible/ 

The task of Historical Theology embraces even the origin and 
fortunes of these books. To whatever extent symbolics is primar- 
ily engaged upon this external history, it will coincide with the his- 
tory of ecclesiastical literature. Or, it might, if not in too detailed 
a form, be incorporated with Church history, which is necessarily 
obliged to take notice of the origin of movements of great import- 
ance. But the task of symbolics is more extensive. What has 
Scope of sym- been thus far noted partakes more of the nature of in- 
boUcs. troduction, analogous to the introduction to the books 

of the Bible. To this must be added exegetical investigation, in- 
asmuch as the meaning of these confessional writings is to be ascer- 
tained, construed, and explained. But as exegesis leads immedi- 
ately into Biblical dogmatics as its resultant, so symbolics does 
not rest satisfied with having explained each particular confession, 
but passes on to construct, in harmony with the definitions of the 
several symbolical writings, a system of Roman Catholicism, of 
Protestantism, of Anabaptism, Socinianism, Quakerism, and the 
rest. Finally, it proceeds to compare these ecclesiastical systems 
with the general principles upon which they are based, or with each 
other, by an examination of particular doctrines which they receive. 
In the latter function it becomes Comparative dogmatics.^- When 
it goes to the length of taking part directly in favour of some mode 
of belief, and of defending it, in opposition to other beliefs — e. g., 
the views of Protestantism against those of Roman Catholicism — 
it becomes Polemics. 

Symbolics thus provides the weapons for polemics, and is its his- 
Reiation of torical base. It is related to the history of doctrines 
symbolics to ^g ^g ^^^ ^^-^^^ ^^ ^]^g trunk of the tree, or the eddy to 
history of doc- , • i t t 

trines. the Stream. The history of doctrines is obliged to pass 

through the field of symbolics, and even becomes symbolics to some 
extent. In the history of doctrines we have made a distinction 
between the general and the special. Symbolics may similarly 
be treated in a general way by discussing principles, noting oppo- 
site ideas at large; for example, those of Roman Catholicism and 

* The term symbolics is not, therefore, thoroughly appropriate, and can only denote, 
in instances where no symbols exist, that " the statements are conformed to the most 
classical and generally acknowledged mode of presenting any particular faith." — 
Schleiermacher, § 249, note. 

'^ Schleiermacher, § 98, distinguishes between Comparative Dogmatics and Symbol- 
ics, but is not wholly decided to recognize either as a science which could well exist 
independently. 



SYMBOLICS. 383 

of Protestantism, or it may trace the particular differences in sepa- 
rate doctrines. The two methods must be combined. It has been 
justly observed, however, with reference to the conflict of princi- 
ples, that the task of symbolics has not been fully accomplished 
when it has brought into view the existing dogmatic contrasts, since 
the differences between the several confessions extend also into the 
domains of ethics, politics, and social life. 

The symbolics of to-day will, accordingly, need to be expanded 

into a science that shall not onlv embrace the dogmatic ^ ^ , . 

^ Symbolicsa 

vital tendencies of Roman Catholicism and Protestant- broad science 
ism, and, further, those of Lutlieranism and Calvinism, ^^^^y- 
of Episcopacy and Puritanism, of the Orthodox and the Schismatic 
in Protestantism, but also the moral, political, artistic, and scientific 
factors, bringing the whole together for purposes of comparison, 
and pointing out how every such confessional feature stands con- 
nected with the fundamental dogmatic principle upon which the 
confession rests.^ The material for such a science, which would be 
highly interesting as bearing upon the history of culture as well, 
but for which the term " symbolics " would no longer be an ade- 
quate designation, must be sought in the history of the Reforma- 
tion, and of later times, down to the present. 

HISTORY. 

Symbolics, in the broad sense, was already cultivated, in part, in 
the antiquity of the Church, inasmuch as certain teach- origin of mod- 
ers in the Church — like Augustine, On Faith and Sym- em symbols. 
bol, A.D. 393 — explained the ecclesiastical symbols. But a "defi- 
nite recognition of ecclesiastical contrasts was begotten by the Ref- 
ormation " (Pelt, p. 444). Symbols, strictly speaking, first orig- 
inated in the Lutheran Church, though the term confessio, which 
was preferred by the Reformed, was also in use (Confessio Augus- 
tana). Upon the basis of this symbolism polemics unfolded itself, 
Chemnitz, Examen concilii Trid, being on the one side, and Bel- 
larmine, De controversiis fidei, on the other; and, likewise, between 
Lutherans and the Reformed party, Hospinian, Concordia discors, 
1607, and Hutter, Concordia concors, 1614. The need of Historical 
Introductions to the symbolical books was not felt, however, prior 
to the middle of the 17th century. 

This method of discussing simply the history of the The pragmatic 
books was supplemented in the 18th century by the °iethod. 
pragmatic method, the foundation for which was laid by Planck, 

^ Pelt applies to this the name "Science of Confessional Principles, or Science of 
the Principles of the Separate Churches," pp. 375 and 444. 



384 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

and which was developed by Marheineke and Winer, the former 
giving more attention to the general discussion, the latter to the 
treatment of particular questions (locis). Koellner followed in the 
footsteps of both these writers with his large work, while Guericke 
again departed from the position of impartial investigation, and 
pressed symbolism into the service of his Lutheran proclivities. A 
presentation of symbolics, from the Roman Catholic point of view, 
by Mohler (1832), naturally aroused a lively interest for this sub- 
ject, and called forth a number of works in opposition (by Nitzsch 
and others), particularly the Symbolics by Baur (1834), and a con- 
tinued interchange of further writings. This science, which had 
for a time occupied the position of quiet objectivity, was thus trans- 
ferred again to the ground of polemics, and called for a renewed 
treatment in harmony with its principles. 

The opposition between the Lutheran and the Reformed views, 
Opposition be- which had at one time sunk into indifference, and had 
arT^and^iTe- subsequently been compromised by the establishment of 
formed. the " Union," or, at least, had been reduced to its merely 

relative importance, has also come into the foreground of late, and 
been carried to excess. Science has gained thereby, inasmuch as 
the differences connected with the principles of the Reformers, 
which had formerly been overlooked, were now more sharply appre- 
hended and more definitely stated. It is to be regretted, however, 
that the passions and the narrow spirit of the disputants have often 
perverted the actual points of view, and caused a confusion from 
which we can hope to be delivered, through God's mercy, only by a 
cautious theology enlisted in the service of truth and not of a 
party. 

SYMBOLICAL LITERATURE. 

Latin, German, and French. 

1. Later Editions of Collections of Symbolical Books. 

H. A. Hahn, Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen 

Kirche. Breslau, 1842. 2d ed., by G. L. Hahn, IS?*?. 
C. P. Caspari, ungedruckte, unbeachtete u. wenig beachtete Quellen zur Gesch. de? 

Taufsymbols u. der Glaubensregl. Christiania (Lpz.), 1866-79. 4 parts. 
H. Heppe, die Bekenntnisschriften der altprotest. Kirche Deutschlands. Cassel, 1855. 

(Comp. by the same: der Text der Bergischen Concordienformel verglichen mil 

dem Text der Schwab. Concordie, etc. Marb., 1858. 2d ed.,1860.) 

a. Of the Lutheran Church.^ 
Libri syrabolici eccl. evang. rec, J. A. H. Tittmann. Misn., 181'7-2'7. 
*Libri symbolici eccl. evang. s. Concordia, rec, C. A. Hase. Lips., 1827. 3d ed., 1845. 
Libri symbol, eccl. Luther, ad editt. princ, etc., ed. H. A. G. Meyer. Getting., 1830. 

» For single editions of the Augsburg Confession, and monographs on the same, especially 
since the centennial year, 1830, see Winer, Hdb. der Theol. Lit. I, 333 fE. 



SYMBOLICS. 385 

Libri symbolici eccl. Lutheranae, ed. F. Francke. Ed. ster. Lips., 1846 f. 

Die symbol. Biicher der evangel.-luther. Kirche. German and Latin by J. T. Muller. 

Stuttg., 1848. 4th ed., GiitersL, 1876. 
Concordia. LI. symbol, eccl. evang. ad ed. Lips. (a. 1584), Berol., 185Y. 

b. Of the Eeformed Church.^ 
Corpus librr. symbol., qui in eccl. reformatorum auctoritatem publ. obtinuerunt, ed, 

J. C. W. Augusti. Elberf., 1828. 2d ed.. Lips., 1846. 
J. J. Mess, Samml. symbol. Biicher der reform. K. Xeuwied, 1828-46. 3 vols. 
H. A. Niemeyer, collectio confessionum in ecclesiis reformatis publicatorum. Lips., 

1840. Appendix : Puritanorum 11. symb. (ib. eod.) 
Die Bekenntnissschriften der evangel. -reform. Kirche mit Einleit. und Anmerkungen, 

by E. G. A. Bockel. Lpz., 184Y. 
*Die Bekenntnissschriften der reform. Kirchen Deutschlands, pub. by H. Heppe, 

Elberf., 1860. (Schriften zur reform. Theol., vol. i.) 
F. "W. Bodemann, Sammlung der wichtigsten Bekenntnissschr. der evang. reform. 

Kirche mit geschtl. Einl. u. Anmerkungen. 2d ed. Gott., 1867. 

Single editions of the Helvetic Confession (II) by Kindler (1825), 0. F. Fritzsche 

(1839)", Bohl(1866). 

c. Of the Roman Catholic Church. 
Libri symb. eccl. rom. catholicae, ed. J. T. L. Danz. Weim., 1836. 
Libri symbolici eccl. catholicae conjunx. et notis, etc., instruxit F. W. Streitwolf et 

R. E. Klener. Gott., 1836-38. 2 vols. 
Sacrosancti et oecumenici Cone. Trid. canones et decreta, ed. "W. Smets (Latin and 

German). Bielef. 5th ed., 1859. Other editions by Bisping (Itfiinst., 1846), 

Wesselack (German and Latin, from the Roman ed. of 1845. 3d ed., Regensb.. 

1860). 
Canones et decreta Cone. Trid. (from the German ed. of 1834); acced. declarationes, 

etc., ex bullario Romano, etc. Edd, A. L. Richter et Fr. Schulte. Lips., 1853. 

d. Of the Greek Church. 
E. J. Kimmel, libri symbolici ecclesiae orientalis. Jena, 1843. Comp. J. G. Pitzipios, 
I'eglise orientale. Rome (Lpz.), 1855. 

e. Of the Smaller Religious Bodies. 
Unitarian Conference : Bibliotheca fratrum Polonor. Irenop^ 1656, 6 vols. f. Con- 

fessio fidei christ. (by J. Schlichting), 1642. The larger and smaller Cate- 

chismus Racoviensis. Rac, 1305. Also an ed. of the larger by Oeder. Lpz., 1739. 
Quakers: R. Barclay, Theologiae vere christianae apologia. Amst., 1676. The same, 

Catechismus et fidei conf. Roterod., 1676 u. o. 
Mennoniten: H. de Rys u. L. Gerritst, korte belydenlsse des geloofs, etc., about 1580. 

H. Schyn, historiae Mennonitarum. Amst., 1729. 
Swedenborgians : Swedenborgs gottl. Offenbarungen, translated by J. Tafel (Tiib., 

1823 ff. 7 vols.). Also numerous Avritings by Tafel himself. 

2. Introductory Writings. 
J. G. Walch, Introductio in libr. symbolic, eccl. Lutheranae. Jena, 1732. 

1 Earlier Editions : Harmonla confess. Gen., 1581. 4. and Corpus et Syntagma confl. fidei. 
Gen., 1612, 1654. For further details on all tbe symbols of the Swiss Reformed Church, see 
Hagenhach's krit. Gesch. der ersten Easier Confession (Bas., 182T), and particularly in Eschar, 
the Encykl. of Ersch and Gruber. sec. II, vol. v, p. 223 jff. On the terms " Lutheran " and "Re- 
formed," comp. H. Heppe, Ursprung u. Gesch. der Bezeichnxmgen "reformirte" und "luther- 
ische" Kirche. Gotha, 1859. 
25 



386 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

J. S. Semler, Apparatus ad libr. symbolicos eccl. Lutheranae. Halle, 17Y5. 

J. A. Einesti, praelectt. in libr. symbol, eccl. Luther, a. 1*752 et 77. Vol. 1, pub. by 
J. M. Redling. Berl, 1878. 

Writings on the apostolic Symbolum: Rudelbach (Lpz., 1844), J. Stockmeyer (Ziir., 
1845), Viguie (Nimes, 1864), Nicolas (Par., 1867), Coquerel (Par., 1869), Krawutz- 
ky (Bresl., 1872), Semisch (Berl., 1872), Zockler (Giitersl., 1872), Mucke (1873), 
Werther (Rathenow, 1875), Swainson (Lond., 1875); above all Caspari (No. 1) 
and Zezschwitz' Katechetik (Lpz., 1863 fE.). 

3. Comparative and Critical Representations of Ecclesiastical Systems. 
(Comp. also the Literature on Polemics and Irenics.) 

* J. G. Plank, Gesch. der Enstehung, der Veranderungen und der Bildung unsers 

pi'otestant. Lehrbegriffs, von Anfang der Reform, bis zu der Einfiihr. der Concor- 
dienformel. Lpz., 1781-1800. 6 vols. Vols. 1-3. 2d ed. 1791-98. 

Abriss einer histor. u. vergleich. Darstell. der dogmat. Systeme unserer verschied. 

christl. Hauptparthien, etc. Gott., 1796. 3d ed., 1822. 

* G. B, Winer, comparative Darstell. des Lehrbegriffs der verschied. christl. Kirchen- 

parteien, nebst vollstand. Belegen aus den symbol. Schriften derselben. Lpz., 

1824. 4. 3d ed. by E. Preuss. Berl., 1866. English ed. by Pope. Edinb., 1873. 
f J. A. Mohler, Symbolik oder Darstell. der dogm. Gegensatze der Katholiken u. Pro- 

testanten, nach ihren offentl. Bekenntnissschriften. Mainz., 1832. 7th ed., 1864.* 

Enghsh translation. N. Y., 1844. 
H. E. F. Guericke, allgemeine christliche Symbolik, von luth.-kirchl. Standpunkte. 

Lpz., 1839. 3d ed., 1860 f. 
Max. Gobel, die rehg. Eigenthiimlichk. der luth. und d. reform. K. Bonn, 1837. 
A. G. Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutherthum u. Union, eine histor.-dogm. Apologia der 

luther. K. u. ihres Lehrbegriffs. Lpz., ]839. 
f B. J. Hilgers, symbolische Theologie oder die Lehrgegensatze des Katholicismus und 

Protestantismus dargest. und gewiirdigt. Bonn., 1841. 
f J. Buehmann, Populasymbolik od. vergleich. Darstell. der Glaubensgegensatze, 

zwischen Katholiken u. Protestanten. 3d ed. Mainz, 1850, 2 vols. 
H. W. J. Thiersch, Vorlesungen iiber Katholicismus und Protestantismus. Erl., 1845. 

2 parts. 2d ed., 1848. 
*Dan. Schenkel, das Wesen des Protestantismus, aus den Quellen des Reformations- 

zeitalters dargest. Schaffh., 1846-52. 3 vols. 2d ed., 1862. 2 parts. 
Ch. H. Weisse, die Christologie Luthers, etc. 2d ed. Lpz., 1855. 
K. B. Hundeshagen, die Conflikte des Zwinglianismus, Lutherthums und Calvinismus 

in der Bernischen Landeskirche von 1552-58. Bern, 1842. 
Merle d'Aubigne, Luther u. Calvin, oder die luther. u. reform. K. in ihrer Verschie- 

denh; und wesentl. Einheit. German translation by Gottheil. Bayr., 1849. 
f L. Sclimid, der Geist des Katholicismus oder Grundlegung der christlichen Irenik. 

Giessen, 1848 f. 2 vols. 
F. G. Lisco, das christlich-apostol. Glaubenbekenntniss ; mit Anh. liber die Scheide- 

lehren der evangel, und rom.-kathol. Kirche. 4th ed. Berl., 1851. 
K. G. W. Theile, das allgem. -christl. und das evangel.-luther. Bekenntniss in urkundl. 

Darlegung , . . mit Erlauterungen u. Belegen aus der Bibel und den Symbolen. 

Lpz., 1862. 

' Comp. K. J. Nltzsch, protest. Beantwortung der Symbolik Mohlers In den theol. Stud. u. 
Krit., 1834 f,, auch besonders Hamb., 1835 ; und F. C. Baur, Gegensatz des Katholic. u. Protes- 
tant. (Tiib., 1834), Mohler, in reply, neue Untersuchungen, etc. (Mainz., 1834), answered by Baur 
in the "Erwiderung," etc. (Tiib., 1834). See also Evang. Kirchenztg. 1834 Nr. 82, 84. 1835 
Nr. 1, 37-40, 102-104. 1836 Nr. 8, 9, 20, 21. 



SYMBOLICS. 387 

A. Hahn, das Bekenntniss der evangel. Kirche in seinem Yerhaltniss zu dem der 
Rom. und Griechischen. Lpz., 1853. 

E. Zeller, das theolog. System Zwingli's. (Theol. Jahrbb., 1853.) Tiib., 1853. 

A. H. Baier, Symbolik der christl. Confessionen u. Religionspartheien. 1st vol. : 
Symbolik der rom.-kath. Kirche. 2 parts. Greifsw., 1853 f. 

F. K. Matthes, comparative Symbolik aller christl. Confessionen vom Standpunkt der 
evangel.-luth. Confession. Lpz., 1854. 

* A. Schweizer, die protestant. Centraldogmen in ihrer Entwicklung innerhalb der re- 

form. Kirche. Ziir., 1854-56. 2 vols. 
*M. Schneckenburger, vergleich. Darstell. des luther. u, reform. Lehrbegriffs, aus 

dessen handschriftl. Nachlass von E. Glider. Stuttg., 1855. 2 parts. 
H. Heppe, Dogmatik d. deutsch. Protestantismus im 16. Jahrh. Gotha, 185*7. 3 vols. 
Rud. Hofmann, Symbolik oder systemat. Darstell. des symbol. Lehrbegriffs der ver- 

schied. christl. Kirchen u. namhaften Secten. Lpz., 1857. 

F. H. R. Frank, die Theologie der Concordienforrael. Erl, 1862-65. 4 vols. 

* M. Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen iiber die Lehrbegriffe der kleinern protest. Kirchen- 

parteien, aus dessen handschriftl. Nachlass v. K. B. Hundeshagen. Frankf., 

1863. 
*A. Neander, Katholicismus u. Protestantismus, pub. by H. Messner. Berl., 1863. 
K. F. A. Kahnis, iiber die Principien des Protestantismus. Lpz., 1865, 

G. Plitt, Entstehungsgesch. des evangel. Lehrbegriffs bis zum Augsb. Bekenntniss. 
Erl., 1868. 

F. W. Bodemann, vergleich. Darstell. der Unterscheidungslehren der vier christl. 

Haupteconfessionen. Gott., 1842. 2d ed., 1869. 
W. Gass, Symbolik der griechischen Kirche. Berl, 1872. 
J. Delitzsch, das Lehrsystem der rom. Kirche dargest. u. beleuchtet. 1st part. Gotha, 

1875. 

F. Reiff, der Glaube der Kirchen und Kirchenparteien nach s. Geist u. innern Zusam- 

menhang. Basel, 1875. 

G. Plitt, Gruudriss der Symbolik f iir Vorlesungen. Erl., 1875. 

G. F. Oehler, Lehrb. der Symbolik, pub. by J. Delitzsch. Tub., 1876. 
K. H. G. Scheele, Teologisk Symbolik. Ups., 1877. 

English and American Literature. 

G. W. Bethune, Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. 2 vols. N". Y., 1864. 

T. P. Boultbee, An Introduction to the Theology of the Church of England, in an Ex- 
position of the Thirty-nine Articles. Lond., 1871. 

E. H. Browne, An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, Historical and Doctrinal. 
N. Y., 1870. 

G. Burnet, An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. 
Oxf., 1805. 

Doctrine (The) of the Church of England, as stated in Ecclesiastical Documents set 
forth by Authority of Church and State. Lond., 1868. 

E. S. Ffoulkes, The Athanasian Creed. Lond., 1871. 

Bishop A. P. Forbes, A Short Exposition of the Nicene Creed. Lond., 1866. 

An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles. Oxf., 1867. 

P. Hall, The Harmony of Protestant Confessions. Lond., 1841. 

C. Hardwick, A History of the Articles of Religion, with Documents, A. D. 1536- 
1615. Lond., 1859. 

W. W. Harvey, The History and Theology of the Three Creeds. 2 vols. Lond., 1854. 

C. A. Hase, Libri Symbolici Ecclesiae Evangelicse, sive Concordia. Lips., 1827. 



388 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

C. A. Heurttley, Harmonia Syrabolica; a Collection of Creeds belonging to the An- 
cient Western Church, and to the Mediaeval English Church. Oxf., 1858. 

A. A. Hodge, A Commentary on the Confession of Faith. Phila., 1869. 

R. W. Jelf, The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Lond., IS'ZS. 

C. P. Krauth, The Augsburg Confession. Phila., 1869. 

The Conservative Reformation and its Theology, as represented in the Augs- 
burg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran 
Church. Phil, 1871. 

J. R. Lumby, The History of the Creeds. Lond., 181S. 

J. Macpherson, The Westminster Confession of Faith ; with Introduction and Notes. 

■ N. Y., 188L 

J. H. Newman, Tract Number Ninety. Remarks on certain Passages in the Thirty- 
nine Articles. N. Y, 1865. 

J. Pearson, An Exposition of the Creed ; with an Appendix containing the Principal 
Greek and Latin Creeds. Lond., 1870. 

T. Rogers, Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles. Lond., 1853. 

P. Schaff, Bibliotheca Symbolica Ecclesiae Universalis. The Creeds of Christendom, 
with a History and Critical Notes. N. Y., 1879. 

The Harmony of the Reformed Confessions, as related to the Present State of Evan- 
gelical Theology. N. Y., 1877. 

S. S. Schmucker, Lutheran Manual on Scriptural Principles ; or, the Augsburg Con- 
fession, Illustrated and Sustained Chiefly by Scriptural Proofs. Phila., 1855. 

J. H. W. Stuckenberg, The History of the Augsburg Confession, from its Origin till 
the Adoption of the Formula of Concord. Phila., 1869. 



SECTION XXII. 
ARCHEOLOGY. 

While the history of doctrines, in connexion with patristics and 
symbolics, presents the history of the development of doctrine apart 
from Church history in general, making of it an object for special 
consideration, ecclesiastical archaeology deals pre-eminently with 
the history of worship. But the boundaries of this science are as 
indefinite and changeable as its name is inappropriate. 

Gieseler says: "In strictness of language everything that once 
existed in the Church, and has now become antiquated, would be- 
long to ecclesiastical archaeology. But if this principle be ad- 
mitted, it will not be easy to justify the separate treatment of 
archaeology, as if it were an independent historical science. What 
scientific reason could be assigned for attempting the historical rep- 
resentation of everything that is ancient in the Church down to the 
boundary where it touches upon what now exists, but really exclud- 
ing the latter from such representation? For it is held to be a lead- 
ing principle in historical science, that it should show how the now 
existing has been developed out of what once was." * 

1 Uebersicht d. kirchenhistor. Literatur, in Stud. u. Krit, 1831, No. 3, p. 627 sq. 



ARCHEOLOGY. 389 

The case resembles that of patristics. Arbitrary boundaries have 
been assumed, some extending archeology down to ^^ ^^^^^^ 
Gregory the Great only, while others continue it to the a history of 
time of the Reformation. But as patristics must be ^°^^ ^' 
brought down to the latest times in the form of a history of the 
literature and a history of theology, so must archaeology be carried 
onward as a history of worship. For the ancient is not entitled to 
separate treatment simply because it is old, though it will not be 
denied that, as in patristics, the first six centuries are of special im- 
portance as the constructive period, and especially so in liturgical 
features.^ By taking archaeology out of its connexion with the 
living development of the Church, and making it an incense-breath- 
ing reliquary, we degrade it as a science into a mere hunt for bric- 
a-brac, and give it an un-Protestant varnish of idle curiosity and 
favouritism. It becomes instructive and quickening Archeeoiogy 
only through its relations to the present, which is {S;eT^^o ^ t^he 
obliged, in the interests of both dogmatics and liturgies, present. 
to continually draw from the ancient sources, and renew its life at 
the original beginnings of the Church itself. Archaeology, as the 
history of worship, enters into a relation with the history of Christ- 
ian art as close as that sustained by the history of doctrines to 
historical philosophy; and, as the latter prepares the way for dog- 
matics, so does the former for liturgies. 

Certain writers, especially older ones, and Boehmer among them, 
include the history of constitution in archaeology. But it is ques- 
tionable whether a separate treatment of that branch is needed, or 
be allowed to quietly retain its place upon the tree of Church his- 
tory, with which it is intimately united.^ It would, at all events, 
be impracticable to regard the two as forming a single worship and 
science. The history of worship also sustains an inti- oiorais. 
mate relation with Christian morals, or Christian life itself, in 
the more independent forms of its manifestation. Each is 
largely involved with the other ; for example, the history of 
asceticism, of fasting, and of feasts, the Church feasts being 
likewise popular festivals. It is difficult to indicate the bounda- 
ries at this point, and the historian will be obliged to depend 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ IGS-YO; Danz, § 70; Rosenkranz, p. 221, and Guericke 
in Herzog, Eneykl. s. v. 

^ Rheinwald's definition, according to which Christian archaeology is " the repre- 
sentation of the entire life of the Church, in the course of its development and ac- 
cording to its results," is evidently too broad, since it would include the history of 
doctrines also in archaeology. Compare, for a contrary view, Boehmer, who, how- 
ever, holds to the boundary of the first six centuries. 



390 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

upon a certain tact to preserve him from wandering away into for- 
eign matters/ 

HISTORY. 

The history of archaeology depends upon the history of worship 
itself. In the same measure as the latter rose from its original sim- 
plicity to an artistic representation under various forms, has it of- 
fered material for antiquarian research. The simple collecting of the 
material from the appropriate sources, as ancient liturgies. Acts of 
Councils, and Papal decretals, was all that was undertaken at first; 
for example, in the Roman Catholic Church, by J. Bapt. Casalius 
(Christianoi-um ritus veteres, 1645), who was joined by Cardinal 
Bona (died 1694), Claude Fleury (1682), Martene (died 1739), Th. 
Maria Mamachi (1749-55), and Selvaggio (1787-90). In the Prot- 
estant Church the initiative was taken, certainly not as the result 
of accident, by the Anglicans, and first of all by Joseph Bingham 
(died 1723), in the Origines Ecclesiasticse (Antiquities of the Chris- 
tian Church, 1708-26), whose work was translated into Latin by 
J. H. Grischow, Halle ed., 1724-38, and again in 1751-61 (10 vols. 
4to). The best English edition is by Pitman, London, 1840, 9 vols. 
8vo. He was followed, among Germans, by J. A. Quenstedt (Antiqu. 
BibL et Eccles., Vit., 1699) and Hildebrand at Helmstedt (died 
1691), who published a series of dissertations. G. A. Spangenberg's 
Comp. Ant. Eccles. was published by G. Walch, Lips., 1733, and 
upon this followed S. J. Baumgarten, Simonis, and others. 

SECTION XXIIL 
STATISTICS. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 95, 232 sq. ; Hagenbacli's article on Statistics, in Herzog's Ency- 
Mopaedia ; Schem, American Ecclesiastical Year-Book, New York, 1860. Dorchester, Problem 
of Religious Progress, New York, 1881. 

All history, on arriving at the present time, expands into statis- 
tics, which has to do with conditions instead of events. Ecclesias- 
tical statistics, accordingly, deals only with ecclesiastical conditions. 
It is possible, however, to secure resting-places in the past, also, from 
which to conduct a statistical review. On the other hand, the germs 
of a further historical development lie in the conditions of the pres- 
ent. The contrast between history and statistics must, for this 
reason, be considered a flexible distinction. 

* The History of Morals must be distinguished from the History of Ethics, in the 
same way as the History of Dogmatics is distinguished from the History of Doctrines, 
the History of Liturgies from the History of Worship, and that of Ecclesiastical Ju- 
risprudence from that of Constitution. All of these are simply departments of the 
History of the Theological Sciences. 



STATISTICS. 391 

"Statistics," says ScUozer, "is history at a standstill;" but this 
is not a real pause, and what has been at this moment history must 
treated as statistics will in a few years belong to his- furnish statis- 
tory. The historical presentation itself is obliged to 
furnish statistical information respecting the age of which it treats, 
thus interrupting the progress of the narrative, and changing the 
past into the present. It is not possible, however, to furnish such 
reviews with equal facility at all times, the periods of general con- 
fusion being especially unfavourable to such inquiry, while the 
times immediately before and afterward are eminently suitable. 
This may be seen, for example, in the state of the world immedi- 
ately before the introduction of Christianity, or the condition of the 
Church before the Reformation, or in the time of Charlemagne, 
Gregory VII., or Innocent III. The most favourable point for a 
statistical review is always where an old period ends and a new one 
begins. The statistics of the present, or statistics in the proper 
sense, includes, like the history, the whole of the kingdom of God 
in its earthly manifestation — the outward state of Christianity in 
its spread; its geographical extension, or the statistics of missions; 
and the constitution, worship, customs, and teaching of the Church. 

Statistics of doctrine may either content itself with simply stat- 
ing the prevalent confessions and tendencies of belief, as is usual 
with works of this character — numerical strength of the Roman 
Catholic population of a country, of the Lutheran, and others — or 
it may draft a somewhat detailed description of the existing state 
of doctrine. For it really is what Schleiermacher calls it, though 
it is but outwardly so, " a description of the teaching accepted in 
modern times." Statistics generally deals most largely o. .• .- 
with ecclesiastical constitutions — because this element ecclesiastical 
is more easily grasped and understood than others — and ^^^ ^ ^ ^^^' 
also with the worship. The most difficult feature to include in a 
description is the life itself, with all its shadings and gradations; 
and for this work, as for the narrating of historical events, the skill 
of the artist will be required. The groupings may be arranged to 
correspond with different points of view; for example, by countries, 
confessions, forms of doctrine, constitution, worship, and their fac- 
tors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages,^ and it 
will be advisable to combine different systems in the Best source for 
execution of this work. The best source for statistics statistics. 
is, beyond que^ion, personal study and observation, which here 

^ See Pelt, p. 363 sq., and the combination proposed in that place: "Much remains 
to be accomplished by special effort in this department, with reference to both the 
material and the form. — Schleiermacher, § 245. 



393 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 

possibly may assure us to some extent, but is absolutely denied to 
us in history. Exact observation, however, is possible only when 
based on the facts of history down to the present time; and the 
testimonies of contemporaneous authorities are largely needed with 
regard to existing facts. Suitable helps, in addition to works of a 
properly statistical character, may be found in official reports, de- 
scriptions of travels, especially when written by persons who travel 
in the interests of ecclesiastical affairs, and ecclesiastical periodicals 
and newspapers. 

The student of theology will, of course, need to become ac- 
quainted with such matters. He is required to comprehend the 
time in which he lives, and to enter with all his abilities and sympa- 
thies into its progress. But the nequid nimis has its application to 
his case. In the absence of a thorough historical preparation, and of 
the historic sense, the only attainment likely to be reached will be a 
limited knowledge instead of thoroughness. For nothing is more 
dissipating and destructive of thoroughness than an exclusive read- 
ing of newspapers and journals; and the temptation to employ the 
ShaUow books reading of travels simply as a pastime is likewise an 
of travel. imminent danger. A shallow literature, of the tourist 

and journalistic type, has, unfortunately, deluged all lands, and it 
affords nothing but superficial reasonings. Beware of it! Fortu- 
nate is the youth who has a paternal friend at hand, to impart coun- 
sel and aid in interpreting the signs of the times! 

1. Statistical Textbooks. 
C. F. Staudlin, kirchliche Geographie und Statistik. Tiib., 1804. 2 vols. 
J. Ch. W. Augusti, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Statistik der evangel. Kirche. Lpz., 

1837-38. 
J. Wiggers, kirchl. Statistik oder DarstelluDg der gesammten christl. kirche nach 

ihrem gegenwart. aussern und inneren Zustande. Hamb., 1842 f, 2 vols. 
J, E. Th. Wiltsch, Handb. der kirchl. Geographie und Statistik von den Zeiten der 

Apostel bis zu dem Anfang des 16, Jahrh. Berl., 1846. 2 vols. 
St. J. Neher, kirchl. Geogr. u. Stat. Regensb., 1864. 
A. de Mestral, tableau de I'eglise chret. au 18. siecle. Laus., 18Y0. 

C. J. Bottscher, Germania sacra. Ein topograph. Fiihrer durch die Kirchen- u. Schul- 

gesch. deutscher Lande. Lpz., 18*74 f. 

Statistics of the Catholic Church: 
f Statistisches Jahrb. der Kirche, oder gegenwart. Bestand des gesammten kathol- 

Erdkreises, by P. Karl. Regensb., 1860. 
f J. Silbernagl, Verfassung u. gegenwart. Bestand sammtl. Kirchen des Orients. 
Landsh., 1865. 

Protestant Church of the Present Time : 

D. Schenkel, die gegenwartige Lage der protestant. Kirche in Preussen u. Deutsch- 
land. Mannh., 1867. 

H. Kritzler, die deutsche evangelische Kirche in der Gegenwart. Gotha, 1869. 



STATISTICS. 393 

2. Ecclesiastical Travels. 

A. H. Niemeyer, Beobachtungen auf Reisen in und ausser Deutschland. Halle, 1820- 
26. 5 vols. 

F. F. Fleck, wissensehaftliche Reise durch das siidliche Deutschland, Italien, Sicilien, 
u. Frankreich. Lpz., 1835-38. 2 vols, in 5 parts. 

Th. Fliedner, Collektenreise nach Holland und England, nebst einer ausfiihrl. Dar- 
stellung des Kirchen-, Schul-, Armen- und Gefangnisswesens beider Lander. 
Essen, 1831. 2 vols. (Only embraces Holland.) 

Th. F. Kniewel, Reiseskizzen, vornehmlich aus dem Heerlager der Kirche ; gesammelt 
auf einer Reise in England, Frankreich, Belgien, Schweiz, Oberitalien, Deutsch- 
land im Jahr 1842. Lpz., 1844. 2 vols. 



394 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER III 

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 



SECTION L 



Comp. Schleiermacher, § 19^; von der Goltz, Der Weg zum Systeme der dogmatischen The- 
ologie, in Jahrbb. fiir deutsche Theologie iv, p. 679 sqq. 

Henry B. Smith, Analysis and Proof Texts of Julius Miiller's System of Theology (translation 
of) in Amer. Presb. and Theol. Review. New York, 1865. The same author's Introduction to 
Ciiristian Theology, (edited by W. S. Karr), New York, 1883. 

Systematic Theology is the scientific and connected presentation 
of Christian doctrine in its relation to both faith and morals. For- 
merly it was regarded and treated as a single science of Christian 
teaching. But latterly, since the time of Danseus and Calixtus, it 
has been divided into two distinct branches. These, however, 
should be regarded as simply different sides of that same life which 
manifests itself in faith and morals, and whose various qualities are 
in constant relation with each other. 

We have observed, in a former connexion, that Christianity was 
Christianity not, at the outset, an organized and self -inclusive body 
vetopln^o^a ^^ doctrines. But this does not necessitate the con- 
system, elusion that Christianity was not destined to unfold into 
a system of doctrine at some future time. The pre-requisites for 
such a consummation existed from the first, and a sound develop- 
ment of its teaching could only lead to the analysis of its contents, 
and to their comprehension under a single idea. A relative dis- 
tinction may be established between the several doctrinal concep- 
tions of John, Paul, and other apostles. But the respective systems 
are simply members of the great organism of the developed Christ- 
ian teaching as a whole. There is no cessation in the develop- 
ment of doctrine. Where an apparent pause is observed, there is 
danger of stagnation and petrifaction. But there are single stages 
in the history, at which the dogmatic consciousness of the Church 
appears in a more assured light, and where the unfolding arrives at 
a relative conclusion. These are the times of symbols and of the 
greatest dogmatical writings, in which the belief of an entire age, 
or at least of an ecclesiastical party, or a school, is reflected. 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 395 

It thus becomes proper to speak of Lutheran, Reformed, or Ro- 
man Catholic dogmatics, whose results may be brought Ecclesiastical 
into the light of objective history. Such objective de- Dogmatics. 
scription has also been denominated Ecclesiastical Dogmatics, in 
distinction from Biblical Dogmatics. But neither the latter nor the 
former is dogmatics in the strictest sense.* Both are merely intro- 
ductory in their character; and ecclesiastical dogmatics results 
from symbolism, and is a further historical basis for dogmatics 
proper, just as biblical dogmatics results from biblical exegesis, and 
is the basis for the history of doctrines. The object object of dog- 
of dogmatics proper is not simply to record historical ^^^ics. 
matter, but also to express the conviction entertained by the writer 
who presents the system to our notice in word and print.^ 

It is, therefore, for adequate reasons that systematic theology is 
taken from the soil of history, into which it has struck its roots, 
and is made a separate branch of study,^ the very centre of the the- 
ological sanctuary and the heart of theological life. It takes the 
exegetical and historical material, and out of it constructs for the 

* Dogmatics should always be ecclesiastical ; that is, be linked to the Church to 
which it owes its birth. But we understand by ecclesiastical what has been ecclesias- 
tically fixed and authorized, the symbolically statutory, or, as it has been termed, the 
socially established. See J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogm., i. The attempt has been 
made, of late, to limit the term dogmatics to this statutory, symbolical, and tradi- 
tional branch, while the German phrase " Glaubenslehre " — System of the Faith — has 
been applied, as alone appropriate, to what we would characterize as dogmatics 
proper. This is done, for example, by Alex. Schweizer, who, in his Christliche Glau- 
benslehre, follows in the track of Rothe. But it is impossible to understand, in view 
of the elastic meaning of the word doyfia, why the term dogmas may not be used with 
reference to the theology of the present day. This usage is further recommended by 
the ease with which the adjective "dogmatic," and the verb "to dogmatize," may be 
formed from the noun. Comp. Krauss on 1 Cor. xv, pp. v and vi. Von der Goltz 
(ubi supra, p. 688) likewise declares that he is unable to attach the importance to the 
difference between dogmatics and the term advanced by Schweizer which that writer 
urges, and continues : " The mere stating of the doctrines held by the fathers is no 
dogmatics, but a cross section taken from the history of doctrines." 

2 Qualified, of course, by the feature that such personal conviction claims to have 
discovered the true expression of ideas that now live in the Church, and have earned 
the right to make themselves heard. Only upon this ground does the work deserve 
the name of dogmatics. The mere statement of subjective views, sometimes having 
no reference to the Church, and even designed to antagonize the Church, and break 
down its teaching, reducing it to a mere zero, deserves to pass by any other name 
rather than that of dogmatics, or a system of the faith. 

^ Liicke, Stud. u. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 775 : "I am of the opinion that the scientific 
interest which gives birth to systematic theology is predominantly unlike the histor- 
ical, even though it include the critical element. It is simply the systematic, and 
not merely the subordinate, interest, in an orderly arrangement of a given historical 
material, but at the same time a desire to state scientifically the doctrines of Christian 



396 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

present time that doctrine which, in its turn, yields the governing 
principles for practical theology. In this work it may also appro- 
priate to itself the name of theology, Kar'' e^oxrjv. 

Christian doctrine is not, however, simply a doctrine of the faith, 
Ethical charac- ^^ *^^ Sense that the faith is merely turned in the direc- 
ter of Christian tion of religions perception and apprehension. But it 
is, to an equal extent, ethical doctrine, or, more pre- 
cisely, a doctrine of the life. Disposition and the life are embraced 
as one under Christianity. It preaches both faith and repentance, 
— a change of disposition — and its thoroughly practical character 
even causes the regeneration of the soul to be of primary import- 
ance, while thought upon it, or reflection, has but a derived value. 
Christianity is, first of all, a religion, and not a theology. While 
it has been observed that religion, in its essence, is neither a form 
of knowledge nor of action, though it necessarily leads to both, it 
follows that the doctrinal system of a religion will need to develop in 
the two directions of knowing and doing. This is generally con- 
ceded with reference to the practical department. It would not be 
desired that either the doctrinal or the moral element should be 
wanting in a catechism of Christian teaching. The same is true of 
those sermons in which the two factors of doctrine and ethics are 
presented in combination. These, as in the case of Wesley and 
Dwight, are justly regarded as superior to homiletical literature 
in general. 

The question is, however, whether the same rule shall apply in 

„ - . the scientific field as well. 'At the first, while the sci- 

Predommance , , ' 

of the dogmat- ence itself was being developed out of the practical ele- 
ic in eres . inents at hand, the two features were interwoven with 
each other. We see an illustration of this in Augustine's Chris- 
tian Doctrine. The dogmatic interest, however, has, upon the 
whole, always overbalanced the ethical in religious controversies. 
The Reformation seemed to spring primarily from moral, not di- 
rectly doctrinal, causes. But a change of relations soon took place, 
which resulted in the attaching of greater weight to the definition 
of doctrinal points. It might be said that attention was, with en- 
tire propriety, directed chiefly to the settling of the truths belong- 
ing to the faith, since works spring from faith. But the faulty 

faith and action with absolute truthfulness, in such a way that all doubt and opposi- 
tion, and all want of congruity in Christian thought, may be removed. This is wholly 
unlike the historical object." Lange, p. 49 : " The importance of dogmatics is ma- 
terially obscured when it is treated, as it was by Schleiermacher, simply as a branch 
of historical theology. The immediate object of historical theology is to make 
dogmatics possible, but not to absorb it." 



SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 397 

principle consisted in this fact, that the faith was too little appre- 
hended from the dynamical, and too greatly from the merely theo- 
retical, side, the apprehending of the faith being confounded with 
tendencies of belief, and the understanding of the faith with its 
power. In this way Christian ethics long failed to receive just 
treatment. It was a mere tenant on the premises of dogmatics, 
sparingly introduced in connexion with the teaching of the divine 
law; and a practical application {usus practicus) was appended to 
the several dogmas as occasion might require. It is not caiixtus sepa- 
strange, therefore, that Caiixtus should fall upon the from^dogmat- 
idea of emancipating ethics from dogmatics, and assign- ics. 
ing to it a separate field. ^ 

But the idea of emancipation should never have been entertained. 
Christian ethics must ever be grounded, and at home, in Christian 
dogmatics, if it is not to renounce the Christian character, and de- 
generate into a general or philosophical morality. The latter 
event actually came to pass ; and there was even a time when moral- 
ity spread itself over the practical field so broadly that dogmatics 
was shrivelled into a narrow extract. The separation of the two 
became an error as soon as it extended to principles, and assumed 
an internal independence of ethics from dogmatics. In this regard 
the recalling to mind of their original unity and connexion has been 
of advantage. It is a different question, however, whether their 

fusion into a sino-le science must be the result. Science ^.^ 

° . . . Difference be- 

must often separate elements which are combined in tweendogmat- 
life, and theology may distinguish between dogmatics i^^ and ethics. 
and ethics with the same propriety as philosophy discriminates be- 
tween the philosophy of religion and ethics. The one has to do 
with things to be believed, the other with things to be done. The 
one moves upon the ground of conception and recognition, the 
other upon that of modes of disposition and conduct based upon 
such recognition. In other words, "Dogmatics represents life in 
its transcendent relations to God, the eternal basis of its being; 
ethics according to its immanent relation to the world of man. 
Dogmatics regards it in its specifically ecclesiastical character, 
ethics in its general human character. Dogmatics describes the 
organ, ethics indicates the tasks that await its energy. Dogmatics 
teaches how man derives his Christian life from God, ethics how he 
is to give proof of it in the world of men, by human methods and 
in that exercise of incarnated power which we call virtue."^ The 

^ The Reformed theologian Danaeus attempted this even earlier than Caiixtus. Comp. 
Nitzsch, ubi supra. 

^ Lange, ubi supra^ pp. 46, 47. 



398 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

reference of the one to the other should, therefore, never be for- 
gotten, and a really Christian dogmatics will always guide into 
morality, while Christian ethics will point back to dogmatics. 

It may be noted, moreover, that Schleiermacher already deemed 
it "desirable that the undivided treatment should be employed 
from time to time,"* and this desire has been responded to in recent 
times by two theologians, Nitzsch and Beck, although in diverse 
ways.^ The method has also been tried, finally, by Rothe, of in- 
cluding the substance of the doctrines of belief in ethics as being, 
in eifect, the determining influence of the latter, and of regarding 
only the historical residuum as dogmatics.^ But it is not to be sup- 
posed that the usage has been thereby settled for all time. 

^ Schleiermacher, § 231. J. C. v. Hofrnann allows no other excuse for the sepa- 
ration of dogmatics from ethics than that of convenience. " Both branches have 
been at times considered historical, and at other times systematic, or dogmatics 
has been assigned to historical theology, while a special treatment has been demanded 
for ethics. The writer who distinguishes between the science of the kingdom of God 
in itself and the science of its actualization in man, or who designates dogmatics a 
history of the dealings of the redeeming God in their development, and ethics a his- 
tory of development in the men redeemed by him, will be compelled to treat the same 
material twice, wholly or in part, and this without any appreciable profit, but simply 
from different points of view. For it is impossible to describe God's dealings with 
man without discussing at the same time man's action toward God, or to describe the 
attitude of the Christian without preceding the description with a direct or implied 
reference to the attitude of God, to which the former corresponds. If the relation 
sustained by God be presumed, it is admitted that ethics is simply the part of a 
greater whole. If it be stated, ethics is thereby made such a part, nothing remains 
but the admission that Christian ethics, as the science relating to Christian conduct — 
not that of men in general — toward God, is indeed a separable, but not for that rea- 
son an independent, part of the one body of teachings which has its origin in the 
publication of that relation existing between God and man which has been established 
through the mediation of Christ." — Schriftbeweis i, pp. 14, 15. 

^Mtzsch, System der Lehre fur akadem. Vorlesungen. Bonn, 1829, 6th ed., 1851. 
Tob. Beck, Einl. in d. System der christl. Lehre, oder propsedentische Entwicklung der 
christl., Lehrwissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1838. Die christl. Lehrwissenschaft nach den 
bibl. IJrkunden, Stuttgart, 1840. 

3 Theol. Ethik i, p. 38. In opposition see Lange, supra, p. 49, and Julius Miiller in 
Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 439, and also Dorner in ibid., iv, p. 18Y: "Dogmatics and 
ethics are as certainly separate departments as God and man are really different from 
each other. . . . Dogmatics is engaged upon the being, thoughts, and actions of God, 
which . . . have for their object an ethical world ; Christian ethics has to do with the 
good that comes into actual being in the form of man's free-will, and under the actual- 
ized purpose of the love of God." Comp. also Schenkel's Dogmatik i, p. 13. 



DOGMATICS. 399 

SECTION II. 

DOGMATICS. 

Baumgarten-Cruslus, Einleitung in das Studium der Dogmatik, Lpz., 1820; F. Fischer, zur 
Einleltung in die Dogmatik der evangelisch-protestantischen Kirche, Tiib., 1828 ; Mynster, uber 
den Begrifl der christlichen Dogmatik (theol. Stud. u. Krit., Jahrg., 1831, No. 3) ; Rust, Rede 
iiber christliclie Dogmatik, Frankf., 1830 ; Kling, iiber die Gestalt der evangel. Dogmatik (Tiib., 
theol. Zeitschrift, 1834, 4) ; F. H. Th. Alihn, Einl. in das Studium der Dogmatik nach den Er- 
gebnissen der neuesten wissenschaftl. Forschungen, Lpz., 1837; Beck a. a. O. J. P. Lange, 
christl. Dogmatik, 1st part, Heidelb., 1849 ; Th. A. Liebner, introductio in dogmaticam christi- 
anam, Lips., 1854 ; J. Miiller, in Herzog's Realencykl. Ill, p. 433 f. ; Rothe, Begrifl der evangel- 
ischen Dogmatik (Zur Dogmatik I.) ; Wiedermann, christl. Dogmatik. Einl., p. 1-20 ; Von der 
Goltz, ubi supra, and his Dogmatik, mentioned below. 

The best English and American treatment of Introductory Systematic Theology is found at 
the beginnings of the works, and not in separate volumes. For the older works, see Lowndes, 
The British Librarian, pp. 682-814. Hodge and Van Oosterzee, of later writers, furnish the best 
introductory discussion. 

Christian Dogmatics forms the central point of all theology. The 
reason is, that the results obtained by exegetical and historical in- 
quiry, in so far as they touch upon the Christian faith, are wrought 
over, and impressed upon, the consciousness of the present time, 
and are combined into that scientific whole from which the princi- 
ples underlying ethics and practical theology are to be deduced. 
Dogmatics is neither a mere philosophy of religion nor a mere his- 
tory of doctrines, but a science including both historical Dogmatics de- 
and philosophical elements. It is the science which ^^^d. 
presents to our notice the material obtained by exegesis and history 
in an organized and systematic form, representing the sum of the 
truths of the Christian faith in organic connexion with the facts of 
the religious consciousness. It, therefore, demands preparatory 
training in exegesis and history, as well as in philosophy. 

What has been said of systematic theology in general applies 
more especially to dogmatics, as constituting the centre of gravity 
in this matter. For ethics, which is connected with it, depends 
upon it in the last analysis. Hence Augusti is justified in the re- 
mark, that the old and generally adopted usage, which conceives 
dogmatics and theology as being synonymes, is evidence of the 
high importance which has always been attached to this first of all 
the departments of theology.^ It is, to use Lange's expression, " in 
a specific sense the theology of the Church." But there is, never- 
theless, no universal agreement respecting the extent and import- 
ance of this science, some regarding it as being simply historical in 
its nature, and others making it merely philosophical or specula- 
tive. Again, they who admit that it combines within itself both 
historical and philosophical elements, yet differ greatly with regard 
to the relations sustained by the one to the other. 
* System der christl. Dogmatik, § 1. 



400 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

The reducing of dogmatics to a mere historical science may grow 

out of various fundamental views. Those make a great mistake 

who regard the system of doctrines as completed once for all, for 

they confine doarmatics within the boundaries of the 

Dogmatics a "^ . . " . , « ^^^ i^x^v^ 

progressive sci- past. This is precisely the view of the sceptic, Avho 
®^^^' seeks to degrade it into a mere old history, whose high- 

est usefulness consists in its walking behind, and bearing the train, 
very easily dispensed with, of the wisdom of our own time. There 
was no lack of opinions of the latter sort during the last century, 
and a number of dogmatical works dating from the present century, 
such as those of Bretschneider and Wegscheider, are filled with un- 
modified historical matter. Tzschirner took the ground of simple 
statement, without entering upon any direct discussion. 

There is, however, still another historical view of dogmatics, 
which at least grows out of a living apprehension of history, and 
therefore demands intellectual mediation between the past and the 
present. This view is represented by Herder,^ and especially by 
Schleiermacher, who, in point of fact, steps out from the past alto- 
Schieiermacii- gather, and makes of dogmatics, as he would of statis- 
er's definition tics, a science of the present as historically conditioned, 
maics. ^[j^QQ -j^Q conceives it to be "the science of the combina- 
tion of doctrine which prevails in a Christian ecclesiastical com- 
munity at a given time." ^ 

^ Von Religion, Lehrmeinungen und Gebranchen, § 3Y: "Dogmatics, even on the 
conception which underlies its name, is simply a history of doctrines. How beneficial 
is it to carry forward every dogma to its limits, philologically, historically, philosophi- 
cally!" Though Rohr, in his Brief e lib. Rationalismus, announced the expectation 
that the time will come when our dogmatics shall appear only in the chai-acter of a 
history of doctrines, and appealed for justification to the progress made by the spirit 
of inquiry among theologians since Socinus and Herbert of Cherbury, there seemed to 
be but little hope that the prophecy would be fulfilled. A certificate of death has, 
however, been issued in behalf of dogmatics from a different quarter, and in a differ- 
ent connexion, it being characterized as the " science of Church doctrines," in dis- 
tinction from doctrines of the faith. (Page 39.) Schweizer says: "The dogmatics of 
former times has been superseded by the doctrinal system of the evangehcal Protes- 
tant faith, which, having been contained in the former in a very subordinate and re- 
stricted character, has thrown off its dogmatic fetters, and become the system of faith 
in each separate state of development in the Evangelical Church." But this language 
is connected with the tisus linguce referred to above. The wild cry, " No more dog- 
matics ! " which has been uttered in certain writings of a partisan character, can only 
impose upon persons who have no sympathy with anything that has been historically 
developed. We are able, on the other hand, to agree with Biedermaun, who asserts (p. 
17) that " the science of mere ecclesiastical doctrines must be overcome by a true science 
of the Protestant faith." Upon this point he remarks, however, that this cannot be ac- 
complished by simply declaring that dogmatics is such a science of traditional doctrine. 

2 Darstellung, §§ 97, 196 sqq. ; Der christliche Glaube, vol. i, p. 1. 



DOGMATICS. 401 

With reference to this definition, the question has been properly 
asked, what is to be understood by "prevalent"? Schleiermacher 
responds, " That form of doctrine is prevalent which is employed 
in public transactions as representing the common piety," ^ or that 
" which is officially asserted and made known, without calling forth 
official contradiction."^ Upon this point he is obliged to concede, 
however, that "the boundaries must be extended or narrowed as 
time and circumstances may require." Since this definition requires 
that not what was formerly accepted should be pre- obections t 
sented, but what now prevails, it removes dogmatics scbieiermacb- 
to some extent from the strictly historical field. But 
Schleiermacher proceeds further still. He demands that dogmatics 
should not state the views of others simply, but also the personal 
views of the writer, and even ascribes to it a kind of sagacity that 
will detect the truth, since he defines its task to be the " purif jdng 
and perfecting of the doctrine."^ Further, he insists upon the appli- 
cation of critical processes, which, of course, applies also to history. 
He thereby elevates dogmatics into a science which is directed to- 
ward the future, and which teaches, to an equal degree, what 
must be accepted in the future, and what is authoritative now, 
or has been so in the past. By this method dogmatics is evi- 
dently lifted out from the framework of historical theology, and 
it is for this very reason that adherents of the school of Schleier- 
macher, and some other writers as well, have raised objections 
that are not wholly unfounded against its incorporation with that 
branch.* 

' Der christl. Glanbe, vol. i, p. 1. 

' Darstellung, § 16, note. 

2 Christl. Glaube, vol. i, p. 130. Schleiermacher speaks with especial clearness in 
opposition to a mere empirically historical view respecting dogmatics and ethics, p. 9 : 
"We may, at all events, insist that every representation of Christian doctrine is his- 
torical, but it may not on that account cease to be systematic; and, on the other 
hand, while every one is systematic, it must be not only systematic, but in every in- 
stance also historical and systematic." 

•* Comp. the extract from Liicke, p. 721 of MS. Von der Goltz says, in a similar 
spirit: "If the designation of dogmatics as a historical department is designed to 
specify simply that it is not merely a speculative construction of Christianity, but that 
it is the positive truth of the Christian faith as the common possession of the Church, 
with its internal combinations wrought into intelligible form, there can be no objec- 
tion to the idea. But the designation 'historical' is nevertheless misleading. Its 
originator, Schleiermacher, adds to it the feature that systematic theology is only to 
present the historically given matter, without laying claim to the right of presenting 
authoritative truth. This is an error. Dogmatics has always striven to report not 
only what the Church teaches, or has taught, but what it should teach. Dogmatics 
aims to furnish authoritatively what constitutes the normal statement of the truth in 
26 



403 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

It does not follow that the historical character of dogmatics is 
thereby denied. This is in any case to be retained, unless dog- 
matics is to become equivalent to the philosophy of religion. The 
material of dogmatics is certainly historical, but it is required to 

^ ^. , pass through the philosophical process of reflection. 
Dogmatics to -"^ _ ® . . 

pass through Dogmatics has to do not simply witli the abstract relig- 
re ection. -^^^ consciousness, but with the consciousness of the 

Church, and with revelations addressed by God to man which have 
been historically transmitted. It is only necessary that the divine, 
in so far as it may be apprehended by the human mind, be cognized 
with human certainty, and be received into the scientific conscious- 
ness of the present. In this way scientific knowledge and syste- 
matic philosophical thought will interpenetrate each other in the 
treatment of the system of belief. *'A reference of religion in it- 
self to religion, as it appears in Christianity and in the manifestation 
of the latter through the evangelical Church, is established," as 
Hase correctly shows.' In his later editions he presents the idea 
with greater definiteness, " of the relation of the Christian religion 
in itself to the religious spirit." ^ Schenkel likewise holds that, 

the domain of Christian belief. This is in harmony with the proper meaning of the 
word dogma ; for dogma is an established term, attested by the Church, to designate 
a truth belonging to the Christian faith." 

^ Evangel. Dogmatik, I, § 2. The definition of De Wette (Dogm., I, § 60) may be 
made to agree with that of Hase : " The representing of Christianity as related to the 
cultui^e of an age is dogmatics." Other definitions are very obscure, e. g., those of 
Reinhard, Wegscheider, and Tzschirner, that of the latter being: "Dogmatics is the 
science of the Christian belief, or the scientific presentation of the doctrine of God 
and divine things contained in Christianity." Biedermann teaches, that dogmatics is 
both a positive and a speculative science (but observe, not a " mixture of both " ! ), 
while Rothe terms speculative dogmatics a " wooden iron." It is evident that much 
confusion respecting the scientific nomenclature still prevails upon this point. 

^ The 5th ed., for instance, says, " Dogmatics is the systematic presentation of the 
Christian religion in so far as it has taken definite shape in the form of dogmas, and 
as it stands related to the religious spirit." Comp. § 11 (in the older editions): "As 
philosophical dogmatics, when not connected with historical references, is a mere ab- 
straction, so the historical presentation of biblical, ecclesiastical, and comparative- 
symbolical dogmatics can only become actual science by its union with philosophical 
dogmatics — a science which embraces the consciousness of Christianity in its primitive 
form, the self-consciousness of the Church, and a comprehension of the different 
forms in which the Christian spirit, affected by human errors, has found expression. 
While each of these is, in its own way, important, it is yet but an isolated view of 
Christianity, for whose complete recognition dogmatics is required, which apprehends 
the Christian faith in the whole of its development, and teaches how to become ac- 
quainted with the nature of the religious spirit." The recent Protestantism of France, 
contrasting with the former abstract view of dogmatics, likewise recognizes the co- 
operation of various factors in it — the religious, the historical, and the scientific. 
Comp. the pamphlet, M. Scherer, ses disciples et ses adversaries, Par., 1854, p. 3. 



DOGMATICS. 403 

" Christian dogmatics is the scientifically connected presentation of 
the saving truths of Christianity, as founded upon personal convic- 
tions, and as historically conditioned in the form of the common 
consciousness of Christians."^ It follows that a genuine dogmatist 
must receive into himself all the stages of theological culture, and 
not only control the entire field of theological knowledge intellec- 
tually, but also demonstrate with his personal character that he 
represents the Church in his teaching, and that the consciousness 
of Christians generally finds a living and concrete illustration in 
his own — the highest duty assigned to the theologian ! He must 
be firmly grounded on the basis of the word of God in Necessity of a 
the Scriptures, but have at the same time taken into pure and weii 

^ ' J? J • endowed per- 

himself the entire progress of the history ot doctrines, sonai chara<v 

have wrought out all contrasts, have reduced every ^^' 
thing to clearness and certainty in his own consciousness, and be 
able to render to himself an account of the internal and external 
character of every doctrine. The human spirit, with its capacities 
for religion, and its needs and strivings, must, as well as the Scrip- 
tures, with their profound teachings, be open to his eyes. He must 
be acquainted with the present and with the past, and he must 
make use of both to carry fqrward the development for future 
times and the preparation for new developments ;** " following the 
age, but not subservient to it." ^ 

SECTION in. 

APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION^ TO DOGMATICS. 

Schleiermacher, § 33-42. Comp. the article by Heubner, in Ersch und Gruber's Encyklop., 
vol. 4 ; Schmid, uber christl. Apologetik, in the antagonistic serial on Theol. und Philos., 1829 ; 
* Lechler, iiber den Begriff der Apologetik, ein histor, Beitrag zur Bestimmung der Ausgabe, 
Methode und Stellung dieser Wissenschaft, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1839 ; Hanell, die Apologetik 
als die Wissenschaft von dem der Kirche und der Theologie gemeinsamen Grunde, in the Stud. 
u. Krit., 1843 ; J. Eirzel, uber die christl. Apologetik, (Vortrag an die Ziiricher Syhode,) Zurich, 
1843 ; Kienlen, die Stellung der Apologetik und der Polemik in der theologischen Encyklop., 
(Stud. u. Krit., 1846.) See Hagenbach's article in Herzog's Realencykl., I. 

Hetherington, Apologetics of the Christian Faith, N. Y., 1867. 

The presentation of the Christian faith presumes the truth of 
that faith as a whole, or regards the fact of Christianity as a divine 
fact. It is the ofiice of science, however, to justify that presump- 
tion to the religious sense. Hence, apologetical investigation must 

* Christliche Dogmatik, p. 1. 

^ Hase distinguishes five functions of the dogmatist : first, the philosophical unfold- 
ing of the religious belief ; second, historico-critical apprehension ; third, systematic 
arrangement; fourth, ascertaining and estimating its religious value; fifth, organic 
further development of the Christian system. 

^ Kling, ubi supra, p. 11. 



404 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

precede the purely dogmatical. In its formal aspect, apologetics, 
Apologetics like dogmatics, is a pliilosophical and historical science, 
dogmatirS ^^^ ^^^ proofs are drawn both from within and with- 
ence. out — from reason and conscience, and from history. 

With regard to its contents, the relation it sustains toward dog- 
matics is that of elemental and constitutive to the systematically 
developed, or of the keynote to its scale. It is, accordingly, pos- 
sible to separate the tw^o branches from each other, yet not abso- 
lutely, but only relatively. 

Schleiermacher, who assigns dogmatics to the department of his- 
Apoiogetics and torical theology, has, nevertheless, erected a separate 
tionTdogmit department of philosophical theology, and given it the 
^^^' fii*st place. It is subdivided into apologetics and po- 

lemics. Hence these branches thus come to occupy the position of 
outposts, though in a somewhat lost and isolated state, being 'far 
removed from the main body of theological forces, and separated 
by the interposition of other , departments, such as exegesis and 
Church history; we, therefore, consider it advisable to call in these 
outposts and incorporate them with the main body. They are cer- 
tainly included in dogmatics, and constitute the organs through 
whose exercise it makes itself understood by outside observers. 
The life of dogmatics beats in them; they constitute the two poles 
at which the electric flash that passes through dogmatics is dis- 
charged both positively and negatively. At every step taken by 
the system of Christian belief it is obliged to defend its just claim 
to be so regarded against the attacks of unbelief, and it is also 
obliged to assert its determinate character as a particular form of 
belief, as the Protestant, in distinction from other similar beliefs, 
such as the Roman Catholic.^ Dogmatics itself thus adopts the 
apologetical mode of procedure at one time, and the polemical at 
another, in its teaching, provided the latter has a living aim. It 
becomes apologetic when it purposes to bring into prominence, in 
connexion with the statement of every doctrine, the underlying 

* The apologetic or the polemical interest will predominate at different times. The 
latter was uppermost in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; while dogmatics, 
without a persistently apologetic character, is inconceivable at the present day, though 
the newly awakened strife of confessions has considerably repressed quiet and un- 
prejudiced apologetic expositions. IJllmann, in his Preface to the 6th German edi- 
tion of his Sinlessness of Jesus, p. v, justly complains that " many contemporaries, 
even of the younger class, are so involved in the formulas of ready finished doctrines, 
whether framed in the interests of belief or unbelief, as to reject every attempt to 
establish the faith at the outset ; in the one case because they will not think of an 
authentication that must be constantly renewed, in the other because they refuse to 
know the faith itself." 



APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 405 

principle of Christianity as radically different from every other 
religion, and thus to fasten the conviction that Christianity, as a 
whole, is true and divine by opening up to view each separate ele- 
ment. It is polemical in so far as it rejects all that is improper or 
that obscures, defaces, or works injury to the dogma, and as it pro- 
tects the view held by the Church against the non-ecclesiastical and 
pseudo-churchly ideas which may exist. 

This does not forbid the separate treatment of apologetics and 
polemics.^ The former, especially, has established its right to such 
treatment. But it must not be allowed to remove to a distance 
from dogmatics. On the contrary, " while defending the ground " 
of the latter,'^ it must go before it and prepare the way, as the Bap- 
tist before Christ, either by way of introduction to dog- ^ ^^^^ ^. ^ ^ 
matics, or independently. It will in either case act in introduction to 
the service of dogmatics, and with reference to its needs, ^^s^^^^^^- 
The leading place at the head of dogmatics must, accordingly, be 
given to apologetics, though not the first place in the entire course 
of theological study, as Schleiermacher decides. It may be said, 
indeed, that exegesis and ecclesiastical history also cannot be re- 
garded as sciences belonging to Christian theology in their inmost 
nature, unless a previous understanding of the nature of Christian- 
ity in general be secured. But such an understanding is attainable 
only upon the ground of history — unless it is to be based on the 
air — so that we again are forced to the conclusion that Remote begin- 
no department has an absolute beginning. Certain parfmenS^^rn 
apologetical assumptions must be necessarily taken for theology. 
granted in the study of exegesis and Church history, though with 
the understanding that they are to receive thorough investigation 
in the proper place. This procedure approves itself as correct on 
the grounds of methodology also. An apologetical course at the 
very beginning of theological study would, assuredly, be of little 
service to the student whose interest for apologetics needs to be 
awakened, and who for that end requires exegetical and historical 
studies, particularly the life of Jesus and the history of the king- 

' Sack, in his Poleraik, has conceived the distinction on this wise : " Dogmatics is 
Christian doctrine as adapted to Christian thinkers, implying friendhness on their 
part ; apologetics is Christian doctrine in a form adapted to heathen thinkers, and 
presumes hostility on their part ; and polemics adapts the doctrine to the state of 
heretical Christian thinkers, proceeding on the supposition of dissatisfaction on their 
part." These different functions frequently run into each other, however. What 
dogmatics, for instance, does not afford evidence of such dissatisfaction in this age, 
which is dissatisfied in so many regards? 

2 Zyro, in Stud, u Krit., IBS'?, 3. 



406 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

dom of God. But after the theologian has arrived at dogmatics 
he can no longer dispense with apologetics as a science which deals 
with the principles of the former. 

No absolute reply can be given to the question whether a sepa- 
Apoiogetics in ^^^^ chair should be devoted to its service, or whether 
the schools. it should be taught in connexion with dogmatics. De- 
partments should not be multiplied unnecessarily, and experience 
has probably demonstrated that, while, in the field of authorship, 
special apologetical works are much to be desired, since they call 
forth a thorough discussion of the vital question upon whose solu- 
tion the whole of dogmatics depends, the Apologetica in schools 
come to occupy a somewhat isolated position when not connected 
with some other department.^ In former days apologetics was con- 
nected with introduction to the books of the Bible, because the dem- 
onstration of the genuineness of such writings, and the discussion 
of revelation and inspiration, were held to constitute the substance 
of its task. But it has been correctly shown, in more recent times, 
that it is not the particular features, but rather the Christian relig- 
Entire Chris- ion, in the whole of its manifestations, that must consti- 
S'^^apo^iol tiite the object upon which the line of apologetical 
getics. proof is directed.^ The latter will proceed upon a two- 

fold basis and become a " demonstration of the Spirit and of power " 
(1 Cor. ii, 4). This was formerly restricted to the ground of merely 
prophecy and miracles. But we would prefer to say that the 
demonstration of the Spirit lies in the inward justifying of Chris- 
tianity to the Spirit, in that it demonstrates itself as religion, while 
the demonstration of the power consists in its being apprehended 
as a definite historical fact, as an effective actualization of religion, 
as that religion which is endorsed by the world's historical expe- 
rience. 

The task of apologetics may, accordingly, be, with Lechler,^ con- 
The task of sidered as a twofold one, viz.: (1) To show that Chris- 
apoiogetics. tianity is a religion, and (2) That it is the true religion, 
or unmodified religion.* It thus connects itself on the one hand 

^ Noesselt already decided against the separate treatment of apologetics, and also 
Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part i, p. 376, and Literar. Anzeiger, 1831. But compare 
Nitzsch Protest. Beantwortung von Strauss' Philo. Dogmatik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1842, 
No. 3. Are not lectures on apologetics generally delivered as an introduction to dog- 
matics at the present time ? 

^ Lechler, uhi supra. 

' Ibid., p. 605. 

* " The Christian religion forms the subject, and absolute religion the predicate ; 
while apologetics itself forms the copula ; for it is simply the scientific process through 
which Christianity is shown to be the absolute religion." — Ibid., p. 608. 



APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 407 

with the philosophy of religion, and on the other with the results 
obtained by exegesis and Church history. It forms this connexion 
with the former because its office is to determine the nature of re- 
ligion in general, while apologetics applies this general notion of 
religion to Christianity, and shows its concrete realization in this 
form; with the latter, because the entire development of the divine 
wisdom in revelation, and, first of all, the manifestation of Christ 
and the existence of the Church, form the basis upon which their 
evidences rest. In other words, the demonstration of the absolute 
pur[)Ose of Christianity to become the religion for all peoples and 
times, the religion for the individual and the race, is in scientific 
form precisely what the popular definition seeks to express when it 
declares it to be the task of apologetics to prove the truth and di- 
vine character of Christianity. 

This has too often been understood to mean that the divine ele- 
ment is merely another predicate superadded to the Divinity and 
truth, and its existence has, from the standpoint of the yoivecTiif each 
older supernaturalism, been looked for exclusively in other. 
the extraordinary features of revelation, its inspiration, prophecies, 
and miracles;^ whereas the divinity is already involved in the 
truth, and the truth in the divinity. This is not intended to signify 
that the divine element in Christianity consists simply in its gener- 
ally acknowledged moral truths and its abstract correspondence 
with the laws of reason, though even this is something, and aifords 
a field of apologetic effort even to the rationalist; but that the truth 
of Christianity is of a peculiar kind, having been born with Chris- 
tianity, and therefore revealed; for what "eye hath not seen nor 
ear heard, and what hath not entered into the heart of man . . . 
God hath prepared for them that love him, and hath revealed it 
unto us by his Spirit" (1 Cor. ii, 9, 10). Bat this specifically pecul- 
iar divine truth is certainly required to establish and approve itself 
to the inner consciousness as involving the human element also, 
that is, as a truth for man.^ For this reason it must first render 
the negative proof that it contains nothing which conflicts with the 

' The erection of such entrenchments, without any direct connexion with the con- 
tents of the Gospel, caused that " hateful ditch " concerning which Lessing declared 
that he could not pass over it. Comp. Hirzel, p. 22 sqq. The divine nature of 
Christianity does not appear in the absence of natural factors in the development of 
human affairs. If this were so Christ and Christianity would, of course, be fables, and 
not the subject of history. It manifests itself through the renewing might of the 
Spirit in the living consciousness of believers." — Bunsen, Hippolytus i (Pref.). 

2 u Were the eye unlike the sun 

How could it bear His light?'* — Goethe, 



408 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

nature and the mission of man, and hence that contradicts the abso- 
lute reason, but that its definiteness constitutes at the same time a 
reasonable character.* 

SECTION IV. 
THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 

The necessity of defending Christianity in general — the faith and 
morals of Christendom — against attack, was apparent at an early 
day. The earliest form of apologetics was the juridical, in the 
character of a defence against unjust charges before the tribunals 
of heathen authority. This form of necessary resistance was soon 
joined with theological apologetics in the stricter sense, so that the 
defensive element soon became the offensive, and apologetics took 
The neid of ^^ ^ polemical character. The earliest Christian apolo- 
eariiest apoio- gists represented heathenism in its emptiness, Judaism 
ge ics. ^^ ^^g insufficiency, and Christianity in its greatness and 

unique character. The first apologies, by Aristides and Quadratus, 
and also those by Melito of Sardis, Miltiades, and Claudius Apolli- 
naris, are either lost or exist only in the fragments we find in Euse- 
bius. The oldest in our possession are the two apologies by Justin 
Martyr, about the middle of the second century, and those of Tatian, 
Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and Hermas. The Alexan- 
ciement and drian divines, Clement and Origen, defended Christian- 
origen. [ij — ^he former against the Greeks generally in his Ad- 

monitory Treatise, and the latter against the attacks of Celsus, in 
which undertaking they, like their predecessors, made ample use of 
Grecian philosophy. In the African Church, Tertullian became the 
attorney of Christianity through the publication of his writings — 
The Apologist, Against the Gentiles, and Against the Jews. He 

^ The term " apologetical " may, however, " be applied in instances where it is being 
demonstrated that the decisive feature cannot be properly introduced into the demon- 
stration at this point. It follows that an apologetical significance is to be ascribed 
to the little work by Lavater entitled "Nathanael, or the Certain but Unprovable 
Divinity of Christianity." Hirzel says: "Apologetics can only remove hinderances 
from the way of the thinking reason, in part, and in part bring an already existent 
belief into harmony or into a clearly apprehended relation with the entire sum of 
knowledge and of life." " No syllogistic method of proving the truth of Christianity 
is incontrovertible. But no human ingenuity has as yet succeeded in putting to 
shame the demonstration of the Spirit and of power." — Schenkel, Der ethische Char- 
akter des Christenthums, in Prot. Monatsbl., IBS'?, p. 115. Melanchthon, too, remarks 
concerning the truths of Christianity : " Geometrica pingi et oculis subjici possunt ; 
haec vero, de quibus hie dicimus, non ita pingi et oculis subjici possunt, sed attenta 
consideratione paulatim magis intelligentur." — Loci Communes (in Bretschneider, 
Corpus Reform, xxi, p. 646). 



THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 409 

was subsequently joined by Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Arnobius 
(about A. D. 303), and Lactantius (died about 325). 

The fathers of the second period, though directing their efforts 
more especially upon internal affairs, likewise continued the work 
of apologetics; for example, Athanasius, in his Treatise against the 
Greeks, Cyril of Alexandria (died 444), who wrote the books 
against Julian, and still other writers. 

After ancient heathenism had been overcome it was necessary to 
defend Christianity against the continued attacks of the Jews, and, 
after the appearance of Mohammed, against the followers of Islam. 
A number of apologetical works of this character originated during 
the Middle Ages. We may mention those by Agobard, of Lyons, 
in his Insolence of the Jews, 822; by Abelard, in his Dialogue be- 
tween the Philosopher, the Jew, and the Christian; and by Thomas 
Aquinas, in his Truth of the Catholic Faith against the Gentiles. 

A kind of uncertainty respecting the foundations of Christianity 
began, moreover, to manifest itself within the pale of conflict be- 
the Church itself. Philosophy and Christianity came p^;^-'anfchX 
injo conflict, and in this way the apologetic writers tianity. 
came to regard internal conditions, especially after the restoration 
of the sciences in the fifteenth century. The truths of Christianity 
were protected against philosophical scepticism by Marsilius Ficinus 
in his Christian Religion and Piety of Faith (0pp. Par., 1641, tom. i, 
pp. 1-73), and against the intellectual scepticism by Savonarola in 
his Triumph of the Cross. 

The period of the Reformation was more particularly engaged in 
prosecuting the conflicts that arose within the Church; but the 
claims of apologetics soon afterward came again into notice. In 
1627 Grotius composed the work. Truth of the Christian Religion,* 
primarily for mariners who came into contact with non-Christian 
peoples, in order to furnish them with a cable that should save them 
from Mohammedanism and heathenism. But the work was suited to 
the learned class rather than the unlearned, and has long Grotius and 
maintained its reputation among them. The Arminian Limborcn. 
Limborch subsequently walked in the path of Grotius, in his Truth 
of the Christian Religion. He had for his object the defeat of the 
Spanish Jew, Orobio, and the Portuguese deistical Jew, Acosta. The 
rise of freethinkers of England furnished the impulse for apologet- 
ical authorship in that country, where it was even promoted by the 
institution of prizes. Mention must be made of Locke (1695-1733), 
Samuel Clarke (1704), Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel 
History (1764-67, iv), Addison, in his Evidences of the Christian 

* Frequently edited. A good edition is Le Clerc and Madan's, Lond., 1814. 



410 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Religion, Stackhouse, in his Worth of the Christian Religion, and 
Butler, in his Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion. 

In the Roman Catholic Church of France, Pascal, in his Thoughts 
(1668), and Astie (1857), and Havet, have defended Christianity 
against the objections raised by sceptical thinkers. The same work 
was performed in the Reformed Church by Abbadie (died in Ire- 
land, 1727), Jacquelot (died 1725), and G. A. Turretin (died 1687), 
in his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Relio^ion. 

The German apologists of the last century largely followed the 
German apoio- English at the first; but the Wolfenbtittel Fragments, 
^®^- since 1777, were chiefly influential in calling forth apol- 

ogetical works. A measure of uncertainty was soon apparent, how- 
ever, in the fact that people were not agreed with reference to the 
condition of the defence itself. What should have been maintained 
was often given up, and other matters were insisted on which 
might have been conceded, or which, at least, in the form in which 
they had been held, were untenable.* The apologists' were divided 
into two camps — that of the strictly orthodox, and that of the lati- 
tudinarians. The prominent names at this point are Lilienthal, 
The Good Cause of Revelation (Konigsb., 1750-78, in 16 vols.), 
Euler,'^ Haller, A. F. W. Sack, Jerusalem, Noesselt, Less, Spalding, 
and Klenker. Chateaubriand defended the genius of Christianity 
and proved its greatness by the history of its martyrs (The Genius 
of Christianity; or, the Beauty of the Christian Religion, Par., 1802), 
from the position occupied by modern culture in France, and from 
that of sesthetical Roman Catholicism as well. The progress of 
development in theology in Germany gave rise to the conflict be- 
tween Rationalism and Supernaturalism, by which means apolo- 
getics was transformed into polemics. The question concerning 
principles generally was at stake. Most of the works mentioned 
above were called into being by practical and temporary conditions 
rather than by scientific considerations. This is true in recent 
times also of Stirm; but the attempt to establish apologetics upon 
a strictly scientific basis was now made by Karl Sack, at Bonn, who 
was inspired thereto by Schleiermacher. The same effort was made 

^ Lessing says, with reference to the apologetical literature of his day, " It often 
appeared to me as if the gentlemen had exchanged their weapons, like those which 
are presented in the fable of Death and Love. The more forcibly one attempted to 
prove Christianity to me the more did I become inclined to doubt. The more reck- 
lessly and triumphantly another sought to tread it under foot the more assuredly was 
I conscious of maintaining it, at least in my heart." See C. Schwarz, Lessing als 
Theolog, Halle, 1854, p. 35. 

2 Comp. Hagenbach, Leonhard Euler, als Apologet des Christenthums, Basle, 1851, 4. 



THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 411 

in the Roman Catholic Church by Drey (comp. Pelt, p. 398 sq.). 
Apologetics thus came to be clearly distinguished from * , ^■ 
apology ; but it has not yet succeeded in attaining to an yet a separate 
assured position as a separate science. Nothing has ^^^®^^®- 
been gained by assigning to it a place under Practical Theology, as 
has been done in recent times, for it can only be practically applied 
after its foundations have been theoretically established. 

THE LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. 

I. Scientific Apologetics, 

J. F. Kleuker, Neue Priifung und Erklarung der vorzuglichsten Beweise fiir die Wahr- 

heit und den gottlichen Ursprung des Christenthums. Riga, l'787-94. 4 vols. 
G. S. Franke, Entwurf einer Apologetik der christl. Religion. Altona, ISl*/. 
G. J. Planck, Ueber Behandlung, Haltbarkeit und Werth des histor. Beweises fiir die 

Gottlichkeit des Christenthums. Gott., 1821, 
K, W. Stein, Die Apologetik der Offenbarung als Wissenschaft dargestellt. Lpz., 1824. 
K, H. Sack, Christl. Apologetik. Hamb., 1829. 2d ed., 1841. 
J, Ch. F. Steudel, Grundziige einer Apologetik fiir das Christenth. Tiib., 1830. 
fS, V, Drey, Apologetik als wissenschaftliche Nachweisung der Gottlichkeit des 

Christenthums in seiner Erscheinung. 1st, Philosophie der Offenbarung, Mainz, 

1838-48. 
Fz. Delitzsch, System der christlichen Apologetik. Lpz., 1869. 
Fr. G. R. Frank, System der christlichen Gewissheit. 2 vols. Erl., ISYO-^S. 

II. Practical Apologetics 

J. A. Nosselt, Yertheidigung der Wahrheit und Gottlichkeit der christlichen Religion. 

Halle, 1'769. 5th ed., 1784. 
G. Less, Beweis der Wahrheit der christlichen Religion. Bremen, 1768. 5th ed., 

Gott., 1*785. 
J. F. W. Jerusalem, Betrachtungen iiber die vornehmsten Wahrheiten der Religion. 

Braunschw., I'ZYS-Ye. 2 vols. Fortgesetzte Betrachtungen. Ibid., 1792, 1Y93. 2 vols. 
A. V. Haller, Brief e iiber die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung. Bern, 1772. 

New ed. by Auberlen, Basel, 1858.^ 
Briefe iiber einige Einwiirfe noch lebender Freigeister wider die Offenbarung. 

Bern, 1774-77. 2d ed., 1778. 3 vols. 
* Stirm, Apologie des Christenthums in Briefen, fiir gebildete Leser, A prize Essay. 

Stuttg., 1836, 2 vols. New ed., 1856. 
F. F. Fleck, Yertheidigung des Christenthums. Lpz., 1842. 
*K. Ullmaun, Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu; eine apologetische Betrachtung. 7th ed. 

Hamb., 1863. English transl. Edinb,, 1858. 
Das Wesen des Christenthums (designed also for cultured laymen). Hamb., 1845. 

4th ed., 1854, English transl. by Bleasdell. Lond., 1860. 
*A. Tholuck, Gesprache iiber die vornehmsten Glaubensfragen der Zeit. Halle, 1846. 

New unchanged ed., Gotha, 1864. 
J. W, Hanne, Yorhofe zum Glauben, oder das Wunder des Christenthums im Ein- 

klange mit Yernunft und Natur. Jena, 1850, 1851. 2 vols. 
D. Frayssinous, Defense du Christianisme. Par,, 1851—53. 2 vols. 

1 Comp. Hundeshagen in Gelzer's Monatsbl. Jime, 1858. 



412 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

K. B. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, Vortrage im Dienste der innern Mission. 

Frankl, 1853. 
J. Scheiuert, Die christliche Religion. Konigsb., 1853, 1854. 2 vols. 
Fred, de Rougemont, Christ et ses temoins, ou lettres d'un laique sur la revelation et 

I'inspiration. Par., 1856. 2 vols. 
Zur Verantwortung des christl. Glaubens. Ten lectures by K. A. Auberlen, W. G. 

Gess, S. Preiswerk, C. J. Riggenbach, E. Stahelin, Imm. Stockmeyer. Basel, 1861. 

English trausl. London, 1863. 
K. A. Auberlen, Die gottliche Offenbarung, ein apologetischer Versuch. Basel, 1861 

and 1864. 2 parts. 
W. F. Gess and C. J. Riggenbach, Apologetische Beitrage. Basel, 1863. 
M. Guizot, Meditations sur I'essence de la religion chretienne. Par., 1864. German 

by Oscar Wendel. English transl. 3 vols. Edinb., 1868-79. 
Ch. E. Luthardt, Apologetische Vortrage. Lpz., 1864. 3 parts. Eng. transl. Edinb. 
A. Diisterdieck, Apologetische Beitrage. Gott., 1865. 
C. C. G. V. Zezschwitz, Zur Apologie des Christenthums. Lpz., 1865. 
C. F. W. Held, Jesus der Christ. Sechzehn apologetische Vortrage iiber die Grund- 

lehren des Christenthums. Ziir., 1865. 
f Hettinger, Der Beweis des Christenthums. 3d ed. Freib., 1867. 2 parts. 
R. Grau, Semiten und Indogermanen, eine Apologie des Christenthums vom Stand- 

punkte der Volkerpsychologie. Stuttg., 1867. 
Theodor Christlieb, Moderne Zweifel am christl. Glauben, in Vortragen an Gebildete. 

Basel, 1868. English transl. N. Y., 1874. 

E. Krauss, Lehre von der Offenbarung. Gotha, 1868. 

Von der Goltz, Gottes Offenbarung, etc., see Lit., under ^ 59.^ 

J. F. W. Jerusalem, Betrachtungen iiber die vornehmsten Wahrheiten der Religion. 
Braunschw., 1773-76. 2 vols. Fortgesetzte Betrachtungen, Ibid., 1791-93. 2 vols. 

Apologetical Journal: 
Der Beweis des Glaubens, by 0. Zockler, R. Grau, 0. Andrea, C. Brachmann. Giit- 
tersl., 1864 ff. 

The labours of the different societies organized for the defence of Christianity also come un- 
der this head, e. g., those of the Haagen Gesellschaft, the Teylersche Stiftung, etc. The Calwer 
Puhlication Society furnishes a popular work on Apologetics in Christliche Glaubenslehre : Ein 
Zeugniss fiir und wider. Stuttg., 1854, 1856, 1858. 

The fleld of apologetics embraces also the discussions relating to the true idea of the miracle; 
on which compare Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, uM supra. J. Hirzel, Ueber das Wunder und was 
damit zusammenhangt. Ziir., 1863. + Frohschammer, Die Philosophie und das Wunder (Athe- 
naum. Vol. ii, No. 1). W. Beyschlag, Die Bedentung des Wunders im Christenthum. Berl., 
1863. Jul. Kostlin, Die Frage iiber das Wunder nach dem Stande der neuern Wissenschaf t (Jahr- 
bucher fiir deutsche Theol. IX. 2. p. 205 fl.). Nitsch, Augustin's Lehre vom Wunder. 1865. 
Fliigel, Das Wunder und die Erkennbarkeit Oottes. Lpz., 1869. Bender, Der WunderbegrifT 
des Neuen Testaments. Frankf. a. M., 1871. Lommatzsch, Schleiermacher's Lehre vom Wunder 
und vom Uebernatiirlichen im Zusammenhange seiner Theologie und rait besonderer Beriick- 
sichtigung der Reden iiber die Religion und der Predigten dargestellt. Berl., 18T2. Also the 
manuals of dogmatics and apologetics by Auberlen, Schenkel, Schweizer, Weisse, etc. Con- 
cerning the miracles of Jesus in particular, see Godet, Les miracles de J&us Christ. Neufch., 1867. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

Joseph Addison, Of the Christian Religion. Lond., et passim. 

Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays, by Several Writers. Lond., 1861. 

^ H. G. Tzschimer, Geschichte der Apologetik, oder historische Darstellung der Art, wie das 
Christenthum in jedem Zeitalter beweisen, angegriflen und vertheidigt ward ; with preface by 

F. V. Reinhard. Lpz., 1805. Vol. 1. (Unfinished.) 



THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 413 

Bampton Lectures. 102 vols. Loud., 1780-1882. 

Bremen Lectures (The); on Fundamental, Living, Religious Questions, by various 

Eminent European Divines. Translated by Rev. D. Heagle. Boston, 1871. 
T. W. Chambers, The Psalter ; a Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible. (Vedder 

Lectures for 1876.) N. Y., 1876. 
B. F. Cocker, Lectures on the Truth of the Christian Religion. Detroit, 1873. 
Joseph Cook, Boston Monday Lectures. With Preludes on Current Events. 9 vols. 

Boston, 1877-81, 
George P. Fishei', Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity. N. Y., 1866. 
James Grant, The Religious Tendencies of the Times. 2 vols. Lond., 1869. 
W. M. Hetherington, The Apologetics of the Christian Faith. N. Y., 1867. 
John Leland, The Divine Authority of the Old and New Testaments Asserted. Lond., 

1837. 
Henry P. Liddon, Some Elements of Religion. Lond., 1873. 
J. McCosh, An Examination of Mr. John Stuart Mill's Philosophy. Being a Defence 

of Fundamental Truth. N. Y., 1866. 
Pitts' Street Chapel Lectures (The). Delivered in Boston in 1858, by Clergymen of 

Six Different Denominations. Boston, 1858. 
Replies to "Essays and Reviews," by Goulborn, Rose, Heurtley, Irons, Rorison, Had- 

dan, Wordsworth. N. Y, 1862. 
Henry Rogers, Reason and Faith, and other Miscellanies. Boston, 1853. 

The Echpse of Faith ; or, a Visit to a Religious Sceptic. Lond. 

The Superhuman Origin of the Bible inferred from itself. N. Y., 1874. 

Sanderson Robbins, A Defence of the Faith. Lond., 1862. 

Philip Schaff and Napoleon Roussel, Romance of M. Renan and the Christ of the 

Gospels. N. Y, 1868. 
W. A. Scott, The Christ of the Apostles' Creed. N. Y., 1867. 
A. C. Tait (Abp.), Dangers and Safeguards of Modern Theology. Lond., 1861. 
L. T. Townsend, Credo. Boston, 1869. 

Fred. Watson, The Ante-Nicene Apologies ; their Character and Value. Camb., 1870 
R. Watson, An Apology for the Bible. Passim, et N. Y, 1837. 
R. B. Welch, Faith and Modern Thought. N. Y, 1876. 



SECTION V. 

POLEMICS AND lEENICS. 

Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 52-62; Pelt in Herzog's Encyklopaedia, vii, p. 60, and xi, p. 791. 
M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, articles Irenics and Polemical Theology, vols, iv and viil. 

While dogmatics is governed by apologetical motives on the one 
hand, its entire substance is pervaded by polemical considerations 
on the other. That is to say, it has continually to recognise confes- 
sional contrasts, as historically revealed by symbolics, and to bring 
into view what is peculiar in the confession which it professes to 
support. It thus receives the confessional stamp, without which it 
would cease to be the dogmatics of a particular Church. It has, 
moreover, to reprove what is erroneous and morbid in the Church 
itself, and to present the unimpaired rule of doctrine in opposition 
to doormatical perversions. This polemical feature does not, how- 



414 . SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

ever, exclude the irenical, whose aim it is to discover the measure 
Polemics and of truth in the keeping of opposing parties, and to point 
S-ate^^ depart- ^^^^ ^^® conditions upon which a gradual understanding, 
ments. and ultimately a true and lasting reconciliation, of ex- 

isting contrasts, may be brought about. Neither polemics or irenics 
is therefore to be regarded as a separate branch of theological study, 
but simply as a special side of the department of dogmatics. 

The older divines already distinguished between the acroamatic 
and elenchical theology. But symbolics had not yet received its 
present scientific form. If we assume that the distinctive doctrines 
have already been discussed in symbolics in so far as they are avail- 
able as historical material, there will be nothing more for the dog- 
matic theologian to do than simply to move about on this historical 
ground with freedom and security, and to know how to strike chiv- 
alrous blows for his Church. But if it is not possible that he should 
be allowed to escape such service, it is not easy to understand why 
polemics should become a distinct branch.^ Each depends for its 
life upon the other; polemics becoming empty disputation when it 
has no dogmatic basis, and simple dogmatics without polemical salt 
being an insipid hash. Dogmatics derives its confessional charac- 
ter, as Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and other types, from 
the polemical tendency it manifests, just as it is shown to be Christ- 
ian dogmatics by the apologetic exposition with which it is intro- 
duced. A dogmatics that is Christian without any qualifying fea- 
ture, to be satisfactory to both Roman Catholics and Protestants in 
a scientific point of view, is, in the present condition of affairs, 
wholly inconceivable. '^ If the attention were even confined alto- 
gether to biblical dogmatics, the latter would assume a very differ- 
ent form under Roman Catholic from that under Protestant treat- 

,. ,. V *!, nient. But, as has been shown in a former section, 
Dogmatics both ... . . 

biblical and ec- dogmatics is not simply a statement of Bible doctrine, 
ciesiasticai. -^^^ -^ assumes both that and ecclesiastical doctrines. 

The features added by the dogmatic theologian can only amount 
to a closer specification of the relation sustained by himself, or rather 
by his age — in so far as he has apprehended the latter and received 

^ " Peaceable minds are also, against their will, swept into the stream of polemics, 
and faithful adherence to denominational belief excites the feeling of resistance to the 
uninterrupted assaults upon his views in proportion to its strength." — Schenkel, Ges- 
prache, etc., i, Yonede iv. 

^ Comp. Schleiermacher, § 197, note. The task of dogmatics is, nevertheless, not 
cut short thereby, as Biedermann asserts (Dogmatik, p. 9) — the task, namely, passing 
beyond the acknowledged existence of diverse views, " of following the confessional 
branchwork down to its root, the real principle of Christianity, and of basing its judg- 
ments of confessional differences upon that foundation." 



POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 415 

it into himself — to the Bible and the Church, and thus open the way 
in which the doctrine is to move in the progress of its further 
development. But how can this be accomplished in the absence of 
confessional determinateness? Since, however, the ultimate goal of 
our efforts cannot be division, but unification, the dogmatic theo- 
logian will not be authorized to cling to the letter of the doctrines 
of his Church, as hitherto received, with a tenacity that makes all 
approximation toward other confessional views impossible. To 
defend lo the death what is untenable and merely peculiar to the 
stage of development attained by any particular age, influenced 
simply by obstinacy and party interest, is bad polemics. 

Every judicious dogmatist must be intent upon eventually com- 
promising and harmonizing such contrasts as may exist. ^ ^^^ ludicioiis 
But such harmonizing is not to be accomplished by an dogmatist a 
overhasty obliteration of differences, or by forcibly 
breaking off their points and grinding their edges, so as to reduce 
every thing to indefiniteness and imbecility. This is false irenics. 
It is necessary, on the contrary, that the contrasts be sharply appre- 
hended and followed down to their last details. This honest mode 
of procedure is less liable than any other to the danger of misrepre- 
senting the views of opponents. For the more earnest the effort 
to understand the peculiarities of even an antagonistic doctrine, the 
more will such doctrine display characteristics which afford a ground 
upon which reconciliation is possible. The understanding of a dis- 
ease is the only guide to a right selection of remedies for its cure, 
while palliatives can only harm. This has been sho^^m by the his- 
tory of the latest times in the case of two of the leading confes- 
sions of Protestantism — the Evangelical Union of the Lutheran and 
Reformed Confessions of Prussia, introduced by King Frederick 

William III., in 1817. An external union has certainly ^ ,. , 

, / Evangelical 

been established, but it could not be made effectiA^e in union of Prus- 
all quarters, because the internal differences had not ^^^' 
yet been wholly overcome; the result being that they were only 
made more prominent. The conflict, however, if it only be con- 
ducted in the interests of truth, and wdthout the intervention of 
blind passion, may, and will, result in demonstrating that the 
several evangelical modes under which Protestantism comes into 

^ It is most of all necessary that a false consequential spirit be avoided, as it consti- 
tutes a mortal principle to the sciences. A French writer has some capital remarks upon 
this point : Man is not a system which is divisible like a thread. He is not a mechan- 
ical force which prolongs itself infinitely. Fanaticism in all things is the reduction 
of intelligence by passion under the yoke of an exclusive idea. — Remusat, De la Re- 
form, et du Protestantism, p. 52 f. 



416 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

notice are equally justified in the forum of science and before the 
pious consciousness, and that each serves to complement the other, 
though neither may be absorbed into the other/ 

The reconciliation of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism ap- 
pears in a more difficult light up to this time, and the work of the 
dogmatic theologian will, for the present, be obliged to retain a 
'polemical character in this field rather than assume an irenical na- 
ture. The agreement has been carried so far, however, as to admit 
of the recognition that the differences between Roman Catholicism 
and Protestantism, which have, upon the whole, remained unchanged. 
Modification of are to be very differently defined by science from what 

lie and protes- ^^^® ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ *^^ beginning of the struggle. The re- 
tant polemics, lation between Scripture and tradition, for instance, is 
presented by the later theology of Protestantism in a form mate- 
rially modified from that of former days. The same is true of justi- 
fication and sanctification. The doctrine of the Church, also, is now, 
for the first time, approaching its thorough development and elab- 
oration. In the Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, the 
contrast between the Romish and the more independent principle is 
steadily becoming more prominent. In proportion as the purely 
evangelical element shall attain to clearness, and be distinguished 
from vague liberalism through the efforts of the nobler spirits in 
that Church, will agreement, if not unification, ujDon the common 
ground of Christianity become possible.^ 

The idea of polemics is not exhausted, however, when justice has 
been done to confessional interest. For, while every thing that 
savours of conflict is termed polemics, it is also true that every 
science has its polemical side. Apologetics is polemical in one 
point of view,^ and polemics, in the strict sense, involves an apolo- 
getical element. We see illustrations of this in Melanchthon's Apol- 
ogy and similar writings." Schleiermacher distinguishes between 
apologetics and polemics, so as to conceive the former as facing 
outwardly and the latter as turning its attention within, and then 

^ " Many Lutherans have long since become Calvinists, and many Calvinists Luther- 
ans ; it only remains necessary that the right methods of promoting and expressing 
this already existing unity be discovered."— Henry at the "Kirchentag" at Berlin 
(Verhandlungen, p. 34). 

"- An attempt of this kind, as is well known, was recently made by Doellinger, the 
best representative of Old Catholicism. 

3 " It is self-evident that no defence that should be simply defensive and not also 
offensive, and that should not especially lay positive foundations, is possible on scien- 
tific grounds.'" — Lechler, m6?' supra^ p. 597. Comp. Hirzel, ubi supra, p. 13. 

■* Schleiermacher, § 52. Each one of the parties is obliged to defend itself against 
the charge of anarchy or corruption. 



POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 417 

proceeds to regard polemics more generally as having to do with 
the repressing of morbid appearances in the Church at schieiermach- 
largre, as we call indifferentism and separation/ But ^"^'^ definition 

* ' 1 T 1 1 ^^ relations of 

it is hardly necessary to establish a separate depart- apologetics 
ment for either this work or the restraining or partial and ^^^ polemics, 
perverted tendencies in the science generally. Such morbid tend- 
encies ^ are either to be dealt with theoretically, by dogmatics and 
ethics, or combated in a practical way, in the field of clerical work 
and that of general Church activities. But, in the latter case, the 
canon by which the contest must be regulated, the dXrj^^eveLv kv 
dydnrj (Eph. iv, 15), is likewise ethical. Both polemics and irenics 
have, for this reason, a place under practical theology. In con- 
nexion with dogmatics it is better to regard them in the light of 
" applied dogmatics.'" 

SECTION VI. 
THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AXD IRE]S"ICS. 

Christianity was born for conflict. Christ said that he came not 
to bring peace, but a sword. Christian polemics, accordingly, be- 
gan with the beginning. Paul and John opposed false teachers. 
The fathers trod in their footsteps — Irenaeus, with his work against 
a false Gnosis, and Tertullian, with his work on Prescription against 
Heretics, being especially prominent as fighters of heresy. The 
entire body of Church doctrine passed through the patristic po- 
surges of conflict. Irenics sometimes went hand in lemics. 
hand with polemics; but such ill-timed attempts to promote unity 
served only to increase the intensity and confusion of the struggle. 

The separation of the Western Church from that of the East, pro- 
fessedly on account of the filioque controversy, introduced a long 
polemical contest between the two bodies, and also, since the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century, many attempts to bring about a 
reunion. Strict polemics begins with the division betw^een the 

^ Sack has carried these categories still further ; Indifferentism (divided into Natur- 
alism and Mythologism) ; Literalism (into Ergism and Orthodoxy) ; Spiritualism (into 
Rationalism and Gnosticism) ; Separatism (into Mysticism and Pietism) ; and Theoc- 
ratism (into Hierarchism and Caesaro-Papism). H. Steffensen (in Theol. Mitarbeiten, 
Kiel, 1841, pp. 3-32) leads back these morbid forms to two fundamental states, ac- 
cording as they obscure " the piety of the Church (the substantial life of the Church) 
or pious ecclesiasticism (the formal life of the Church "). 

2 The attention is, of course, not to be fixed simply upon the appearances, but, as 
Sack says, they are to be " traced back to the inward dispositions from which doc- 
trinal differences are developed, as from their root." 

^ This is done by J. P. Lange in connexion with Dogmatic Statistics and General 
Therapeutics. 
27 



418 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Churches in the Reformation, and the number of the controversial 
works called forth by circumstances during that period is legion. 

But similar works continued to issue from both camps in the 
Church in later times. In the Romish Church the Spanish Fran- 
ciscan Alphonso de Castro (died 1558 at Brussels) wrote, in the 
reign of Philip II., Against all Heresies (libri xiv, Paris, 1534); the 
Jesuit Francis Coster issued a Controversial Manual (1585); and 
Gregory de Valentia wrote on Controversial Matters of Faith in this 
Time (1591). Special prominence attaches to Bellarmine (died 
1621) and his work, Disputations on the Controversies of Christian 
Faith and also to Martin Becanus (died 1624, having been the con- 
fessor of the Emperor Ferdinand II.), the author of a Manual of 
Controversies of this Period. This Church found a skilful and 
somewhat peaceably disposed defender in Bossuet, the Bishop of 
Meaux, who wrote an Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic 
Church on Controverted Matters (Paris, 16*71). Among Lutherans 
the following deserve mention: Chemnitz, Examination of the 
Council of Trent (1565); Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), Examination of 
the Fundamental Dissent of Lutheran and Calvinistic Doctrine (Vit., 
1616) ; Conrad Schlusselburg, superintendent at Stralsund, Catalogue 
of Heretics (1597-99) ; and Abr. Calov, Synopsis of Controversies. 
Other dogmatical writers also mingled a large measure of polemics 
with the dogmatical material in their works. , 

Among Reformed theologians we may mention Hospinian, Con- 
Reformed writ- cordia Discordant (Zurich, 1 607), replied to by Hutter in 
ers. his Concord Concordant (Vit., 1614); Daniel Chamier 

(at Montauban), The Whole Catholic Army (1626); Joh. Hoorn- 
beck. Sum of Controversies (1653); Fr. Turretin, Institutes of The- 
ological Summary (1681-85); and Fr. Spanheim, the elder (died 
1649), and the younger (died 1701), in a number of works. 

The irenical tendency occasionally progressed side by side with 
the polemical, or took its place when polemical zeal had spent its 
force. Thus, ISTicolas de Cusa. wrote, in the fifteenth century, his 
Dialogue on the Peace or Concord of Faith (ed. by Semler, 1787). 
The irenical tendency was represented in the Protestant Church by 
G. Calixtus, whose efforts led to the Syncretistic controversies. An 
Introduction to Polemical Divinity was written, in 1752, by J. G. 
Walch, of Jena. 

The zeal for polemics diminished after the middle of the eight- 
eenth century, and particularly toward its close, and writings and 
maunderings were composed about unity, generally emanating from 
the position of indifferentism. The newly awakened confessional 
zeal of Protestantism in the nineteenth century, however, called 



THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 419 

forth a large number of controversial writings in the conflict 
against Ultramontanism and Jesuitism; but the purely scientific 
interest was often subordinated by the fervour of the combatants to 
the practical questions of the hour. The scientific treatment of 
polemics was even relegated to the more peaceable field of symbol- 
ics; and it is quite recently that Hase has restored polemics to 
honour as a science in the strict sense, and has again incorporated 
it with the circle of theological studies.^ The scientific status of 
irenics, on the other hand, is altogether of recent date, scientific status 
and its system is not yet developed to any considerable °^ iremcs. 
extent. It secured a foothold as a factor in the domain of practical 
life, but often served only to provide new material for polemics. 
Thus the union which was consummated in Prussia and elsewhere 
in the course of the second decade of the century, called forth a 
multitude of works and counter-works. We may mention J. Schu- 
deroff, on the General Union of the Christian Confessions (Neust., 
1829); H. Steffens, What Lutheranism is to Me (Breslau, 1831); 
Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutheranism, and the Union (Leipz., 1839); 
K. F. Graupp, Union of the German Church (Breslau, 1843) ; J. A. G. 
Woltersdorif, The Ecclesiastical Union (Stendal, 1851); and * Jul. 
Mueller, The Evangelical Union (Berlin, 1854). Of historical work 
are the following : Xitzsch, Archives of the Evangelical Union 
(Berlin, 1853); R. Stier, Unlutheran Theses (Brunsw., 1854); and 
Carl Schulz, The Union: An Inquiry into its History and Doctrine 
(Gotha, 1868). 

LITERATURE OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 

J. G. Planck, Ueber die Trennung und Wiedervereinigung der getrennten christl. 

Hauptparteien. Tiib., 1803. 
Worte des Fviedens an die katholische Kirche gegen ihre Yereinigung mit der 

protestantischen. Gott., 1809. 
Ph. Marheineke, Ueber das wahre Verhaltniss des Katholicismus und Protestantismus 

und die projectirte Kirchenvereinigung. Heidelb., 1810. 
K. H. Sack, Christl. Polemik. Hamb., 1838. , 
J. P. Lange, Die gesetzlich-kathol. Kirche als Sinnbild der freien evangelisch-kathol- 

ischen Kirche. Heidelb., 1850. 
D. Schenkel, Unionsberuf des evangelischen Protestantismus. Heidelb., 1855. 
Fr. Jul. Stahl, Die Lutherische Kirche und die Union, eine wissenschaftliche Erorter- 

ung, etc. Berl., 1859. 2d ed., 1860. 

For wider circles of readers : 

D. Schenkel, Gesprache iiber Protestantismus und Katholicismus. Heidelb., 1852, 
1853. 2 vols. 

^ It is true, indeed, that Schleiermacher already assigned to it an honorary place 
among such studies, and that Sack wrote, in A. D. 1838, a textbook of this science; 
but the example produced no lasting consequences. 



420 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOaY. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

William E. Gladstone, Rome and the Newest Fashions in Literature : an Answer to 

Reproofs and Replies. 8vo. N. Y., 1875. 
W. Archer Butler. Letters on Romanism. Lond., 1858. 
Samuel Edgar, The Variations of Popery. Revised. N. Y., 1849. 
Charles Elliott, Delineation of Romanism. 2 vols., 8vo. N. Y., 1851. 
Julius Charles Hare, The Contest with Rome. Cambridge, 1856. 
W. Howitt, History of Priestcraft. New ed. Lond., 1846. 
F. D. Maurice, The Religion of Rome, and its Influence on Modern Civilization. Lond. 

1855. 
J. Michelet, Priests, Women, and Families. Lond., 1846. 

N. Murray (Kirwan), Letters to Bishop Hughes. Revised and Enlarged ed. N.Y., 1855.' 
Napoleon Roussell, Catholic and Protestant Nations Compared in their Threefold 

Relations to Wealth, Knowledge, and Morality. Boston, 1855. 
R. W. Thompson, The Papacy and the Civil Power. N. Y., 1876. 
Richard Whately. Errors of Romanism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature. 

New ed. Lond., 1856. 
J. Blanco White, Practical and Internal Evidence Against Catholicism. Lond., 1835. 

SECTION VIL 
THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 

The method of arranging and dividing the material of dogmatics 
is, beyond all question, dependent on the underlying dogmatical 
view, since it is no small question which doctrine shall control the 
others, or what relations the various articles of the creed are to 
sustain to each other, or what is their bearing upon the entire body 
Theological ^^ Christian truth. The traditional method, by Theolog- 
Heads. {q^i Topics, or Heads, has, on that account, not only been 

variously modified, but has also been superseded to some extent by 
other modes of division, and in part combined with them. 

The question concerning the particular doctrine which is to be 
placed at the base, so to speak, the ttqcIjtov klvovv of dogmatics, 
reaches back into apologetics. What is the essential feature of 
Christianity? what is the principal subject of its teaching? what are 
fundamental articles? Upon these questions will depend the entire 
structure of the dogmatics. If it be held that the doctrine about 
Dogmatics de- Christ is less important than what he taught, and that 
Sace^of Chris- *^^ essential thing in connexion with Christianity is 
tianity. that it has thrown light upon the doctrines relating to 

God and his attributes, and also those which concern human des- 
tiny, the entire system will assume a character different from what 
it would be if it be assumed that the central point of Christianity 

^ Excellent hints for the cultivation of irenies are furnished in the work by Liicke : Ueber das 
Alter, den Verf asser, die urspriingliche Form und den wahren Sinn des kirchl. Friedensspruches : 
In necessariis unitas, in non necessariis libertas, in utrisque caritas. Gott., 1850. 



THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 421 

lies in the personality of the God-man, or in the fact of redemption, 
or in the justification of the sinner before God by faith, or, finally, 
in the mystery of the Trinity. Each of these views will necessitate 
a plan on which to dispose of the separate doctrines within the gen- 
eral structure. 

The traditional method began with God and his attributes, pro- 
gressed through the creation until it arrived at man and his sin, 
passed through these to the Redeemer and his work, and then dis- 
cussed the Church and the sacraments, until it closed with an out- 
look into the future, or the last things. This has been qy^xe Local or 
denominated the Local or Topical method, from locus Topica] Method. 
or Tonog, which corresponds to the terms caput or pars fidei, or 
articles of faith {agOgov r^jg TLorecdg).^ It is already found with 
John of Damascus and the scholastics, and it has been the usual 
method with Lutherans since Melanchthon, though the latter him- 
self had followed a different method in the first edition of his Loci 
Communes, which begins with man and his need of salvation. Dif- 
ferent principles of arrangement were attempted from time to time 
in the Reformed Church. Thus we may mention the Federal 
method (methodus foederalis) of Cocceius and Witsius in the I'Zth 
century,^ which was adopted among moderns by Augusti ; ^ and the 
division according to the Persons of the Trinity, by Melchior Ley- 
decker, in the same century,* which is followed by Marheinecke in 
his Dogmatik, Schirmer in his Biblical Dogmatics, and Rosenkranz 
in his Encyclopaedia. 

Schleiermacher's method is peculiarly founded on the contrast 
between sin and grace as constituting the turning point schieiermach- 
in the Christian conception of the world. His Dog- er's method. 
matics falls into two principal parts: 1. "The pious feeling of 
dependence, without reference to the contrast between personal in- 
ability and imparted ability ;" 2. With a substantial recognition of 
such contrast. Hase divides dogmatics into ontology and Chris- 
tology. Anthropology and theology are classed under the former 
head, and eschatology is discussed under anthropology, while the 
doctrines of the Holy Spirit, the Church, and the sacraments con- 

' See Bretschneider, Entwieklung der dograatischen Begriffe, p. 191. The proof 
texts in Scripture were also termed loci clmsici, loci probantia, dicta classica, sedes 
doctrinae^ and the science which treated proof passages was termed topics. 

^ Foedus naturae et operum and foedus gratiae with economies ante legem^ sub lege^ 
AU&post legem. Comp. Al. Schweizer, Ref. Dogm., p. 103 sqq. 

3 1. Of the state of sin; 2. Of the state of grace; 3. The facts of Christianity (which 
hobble along at quite a distance). 

^ Comp. Schweizer, ubi supra^ p. 115 sqq. 



i23 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

stitute a part of his Christ ology.' Like Schleiermacher, he places 

the Trinity, " as the sum and consummation of Christology," at the 

end. Kling argues that Christology is entitled to the first place.'^ 

He agrees with Hahn in considering the doctrine of Christ as the 

Son of God and of man, the Saviour of the world, the fundamental 

doctrine of the Christian religion, but, diverging from that scholar, 

prefers to begin with the doctrine of the person of Christ.^ 

It is more correct, however, to regard the person of Christ as 

^ . ^, forming the certre of Christian dogmatics, to which 

Clinst s person '^ . 

tiie centre of all our knowledge respecting God and man refers in a 
dogmatics. prophetic way, and from which it again proceeds, as 
having been satisfied by Christ. While the character of Christi- 
anity is the " divinely human," * it yet appears to be a more natural 
m.ethod to consider, first, God in his relations to man apart from 
the mediation of Christ, as the Creator, Lawgiver, and Judge ; next, 
man in his relations to God while unredeemed ; (a) as the creature 
and image of God, (b) as a sinner, and (c) Christ as the God -man 
and Redeemer, the latter constituting the centre from which man- 
kind as redeemed by him, as glorified in him, but also as progress- 
ing toward its consummation in him, is discussed. In this way the 
separate doctrines of salvation, or soteriology, and of the Church, 
the sacraments, and eschatology will form the completion of anthro- 
pology, on the one hand, while, on the other, the doctrine of the 
Holy Spirit, which finds its proper place at this point, in connexion 
with the exaltation of Christ and his kingly ofiice, brings the doc- 
trine of God in the Trinity to a full completion. 

There is no propriety in discussing Christ before attention has 
been directed toward God and man, but it is not, on the other 
hand, possible to finish either the doctrine of God or of man with- 
out including Christ. The whole of the doctrine of the Trinity is 
left in the condition of an uncomprehended speculative problem, if 
it be not prefaced by Christology, and eschatology comes under 
notice too far, in advance when treated, as it is by Hase, before the 
doctrine of Christ. The topical method, as a whole, may, there- 
fore, be retained, but so that each topic shall find its completion 

' Evangel. Dogmatik, 2d ed., p. 46 sqq. 

^ Gestalt der evang. Dogmatik in Tiib. Zeitschrift for 1834, No. 4. 

' Hahn's division is as follows : 1. Theology, consummated in the Son of God ; 
2. Anthropology, in the Son of man ; 3. Soteriology, in the Redeemer ; 4. The doc- 
trine of the Church, as founded, governed, and consummated by Christ, the promised 
and glorified King of truth. 

^ Comp. Ebrard's Inaugural Address, Die Gottmenschlichkeit des Christenthums, 
Ziir., 1845. 



THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 433 

in the others, and that, for that reason, it shall not be brought to 
a conclusion without bringing the others into account. Retention of 
This is the meaning which underlies the federative topical method. 
method, and, also, the arrangement of Schleiermacher. Both these 
methods seek to destroy the invariable and mechanical arrangement 
by which the articles succeed each other under regular rubrics, 
and to establish living relations among the various doctrines. We 
would not, therefore, argue in favour of the traditional method 
without modifications, as does Pelt,' though we see no reason for 
rejecting the customary terminology, such as theology, anthro- 
pology, and the rest. 

The outlines of a system of dogmatics, such as we outune of dog- 
*' ^ matical system, 

should prefer, would be as follows : 

1. God, and his relation to the world and to man as his creature. 
Natural, legal, and prophetical theology. 

2. Man, as related to God and the world, so long as they have 
not been broug-ht tosfether throuo-h the mediation of Christ. The 
doctrine of man's primeval state ; the destination of man, and 
sin. 

3. The doctrine of the personality of the God-man and his work 
for the redemption of mankind. Christology and objective soteri- 
ology — the heart of Christian dogmatics. 

4. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to God. The 
doctrine of salvation, subjective soteriology, the ordo salutis. The 
doctrine of the Holy Spirit. 

5. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to the world. 
Communion of believers, the Church, and sacraments. Hence, also, 
man's changed relation to nature — death, the resurrection, and the 
whole of eschatology. 

6. God, manifested in Christ, in his relation toward himself. The 
Christian doctrine of the Trinity in its immanent meaning. 

v. God in his relation to the world, viewed in connexion with the 
fact of redemption. 

The kernel of the whole, Christology, is thus inclosed within 
theology, and the interior connecting links will constitute the 
anthropology. 

The attributes of God need not, in this arrangement, be separ- 
ated from each other, as Schleiermacher's method requires. They 
may be placed under the first head, but would, of course, attain 
their full significance only at the end. 

A method that corresponds, in the main, to the above, and that 
commends itself to favour by its clearness, is that of Al. Schwei- 

^ Encyklopaedie, p, 502. 



424 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

zer/ It possesses the additional advantage of having taken the so- 
schweizer's called prolegomena, generally constituting a separate part, 
method. {^i which the fundamental elements are laid down, from its 
isolation, and bringing it into oi-ganic connexion with the remain- 
der of the system of belief. In this way he obtains the following 
division into three parts : 1. The laying of foundations, or the con- 
sciously realized faith of Christianity in the Evangelical Church as 
a whole; the apologetic, or better, the grounding part. 2. The 
elements contained in the pious Christian consciousness which do 
not involve the specifically peculiar character of Christianity — the 
elemental part. 3. The specifically Christian side or part. It is 
evident, of course, that the two former divisions will be more ab- 
breviated than the latter. 

SECTION VIII. 

THEOLOGY. 

Comp. Nltzsch, in Herzog, Encyklopaedie, s. v. Gott. 

Article Theology, in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. x. 

Theology is, in Christian dogmatics, used to designate the doc- 
trine relating to God, and more especially God as he has appeared 
Meaning of ^^ man. Such theology has nothing in common with 
theology. scepticism, which everywhere professes to know nothing 
about God, nor with that false dogmatism which claims to know more 
about God than he has permitted man to know. In treating his 
nature and attributes it, accordingly, has respect not to metaphysi- 
cally ontological questions as it does to religious considerations, and 
is conscious of the figurative character of the language and modes 
of reference it must employ, as well as of the real and substantial 
basis upon which such language and modes rest. 

We may appropiiate to ourselves the assertion of Feuerbach, 
that theology is, at bottom, merely anthropology, without accepting 
it in the sense of Feuerbach. In fact, his definition may even be 
employed against him. We concede that, in a certain sense, the- 
ology is anthropology, and that it must be anthropological through 
and through, if it be acknowledged, on the other hand, that anthro- 
pology is also modified by theology, or that the two are simply 
diverging members of a single body, which body is religion. The 
^ ^ ^ Bible everywhere teaches a human God, that is, a God 

God, human J ^ ^ ' / 

and superhu- for man. This is the true anthropopathy. He is a God 

°^^^' who is likewise superhuman, but whatever of the su- 

perhuman is revealed always has reference to the human element. 

^ Christliche Glaubenslehre nach Protestant. Grundsatzen, p. 86. Comp. the entire 
section, Methode der Glaubenslehre, p. 70 sqq. 



THEOLOGY. 425 

The entire Old Testament speaks of God as dwelling in the midst 
of his people; the entire New Testament describes him as mani- 
fested in Christ, and through Christ become the father of humanity. 
Even the creation of heaven and earth is narrated in a human 
method, that is, from a human point of view, and is adapted to the 
needs of man, whose home is in the earth. 

This constitutes religion, which dogmatics is to apprehend, in all 
wisdom and humility, as the religion that emanates from God, and 
is willed and ordered by him. It does not seek to comprehend God 
as he exists from eternity to eternity; it is satisfied to know that 
he is. But it desires to know every thing respecting his nature that 
he has revealed to man, and also the relation into which he has en- 
tered with man, who is modelled after the image of God. Hence, 
all sound dogmatic theologians have, from the beginning, asserted 
the incomprehensibility of God as strongly as they have incomprehensi- 
taught that, with reference to our salvation, he is com- ^^*y ^^ ^^• 
prehensible by us,^ and they have demonstrated, in the works of 
creation and redemption, the glories of his character which have 
been made known to us. Their position is at once that occupied 
by reason and the Scriptures. 

Dogmatics is not obliged to prove the existence of God. But it, 
nevertheless, takes that slender thread which runs through the 
history of the human race which inquires after God, and points out 
how the consciousness that he exists is manifested in connexion 
with the different forms of argument — the physico-theological, cos- 
raological, ontological, historical, moral, and the rest — and that the 
very fact that search for such proof is made, is, in this case, of itself 
a sufficient proof.'' It treats the attributes of God, not as coming 
upon him from without, and attaching themselves to him in an ex- 
ternal way, but as being the unfolding of his nature in behalf of 
our natural and moral consciousness. 

Here, then, is the place in which to discuss the relation of God to 
the world and the human spirit, but in an ethical and religious light, 

' Comp. the citations from the Fathers in Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 27 
(Smith's ed.). 

^ " More than one hundred demonstrations in geometry have been made of the 
Pythagorean theorem, all of which accomplish the same object. Innumerable proofs 
of the existence of God have likewise been constructed, but they failed to accomplish 
what they promised to achieve. . , . God is not a right-angled triangle, and it is not 
possible to invent either numerous or striking evidences respecting him. There is but 
one proof for God, and this he wields himself." — Kosenkranz, Encyklopaedie, p. 6. 
Hamann, already, remarks that " if he is a fool who denies God, he is a much greater 
fool who attempts to prove his existence." Comp., however, G. A. Fricke, Argumenat 
pro Dei existentia exponuntur et judicantur. Lips., 1846. 



426 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

rather than in that of pure speculation. The idea of the divine per- 
God's relation sonality is here to be investigated in its religious bear- 
to the world, ings, and anthropomorphism and anthropopathy here find 
their psychological basis and theological corrective, the language of 
the Bible and the needs of the human heart being duly recognized.^ 

The doctrines of the creation and preservation of the world, of 
Providence and the government of the world, as well as of sin 
(theodicy), all depend on theology. Here, again, dogmatics is re- 
quired to fix a clear boundary between matters which belong to 
the religious conception of the world and those which are proper- 
ly cosmical in their character. The older dogmatic theologians, 
even John of Damascus, included physics, natural history, and 
astronomy. But the more recent science has properly thrown over 
all such ballast. Still, there is constant temptation to wander off 
into foreign fields, such as geological researches with reference to 
the narrative of the creation. Theology must content itself with 
the idea of creation as such. 

The doctrines of angels and of demons are usually connected 
Angeioiogy and with that of creation, though the second one stands 
demonoiogy. more particularly related to the doctrine of the fall, 
and henca with that of sin. It is to be remembered, however, that 
the idea of angels was in existence when Christianity appeared, 
and that the latter adopted the existing views without formulating 
them into a distinct doctrine, or founding on them any material 
feature of revealed religion. Here, again, we meet the temptation 
of straying off into false metaphysics, of identifying, without quali- 
fication, the poetic with the didactic, and popular figurative notions 
with definite scientific statements, all of which are not easy to keep 
asunder in the given case. Or, we are exposed to the danger of a 
gross realism, by which the one element is mistaken for the other. 
Reiisious eie- It is, therefore, necessary to commend at this point that 

ment of a doc- .-^-Kjicious dogmatical procedure which aims, first of all, 
tnne should be J ^ r £ j ' • 

prominent. to bring the religious element oi a doctrine into promi- 
nence, and thereby naturally preserve the true medium between 
coarse literalism and superficial negation.^ 

1 Comp. § 29. " Human forms of speech, anthropomorphisms, are most frequently- 
applied to God when piety is vital and communion with him is habitual; and the 
Bible leads in this direction ; so that, in this very matter, and even in expressions that 
are at first offensive to reason and exposed to ridicule, there is reason for admiring 
the high degree of pedagogical wisdom in religious things, however great the 7iawete, 
and for observing that even the pious naivete alone has the best of the argument." — 
Hirzel, in the Kirchenfreund, 1873, No. 10, p. 154, article Zum Streit und Freiden. 

2 Comp. the article Engel, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, iv, by Boehmer. It is not 



ANTHROPOLOGY. 427 

SECTION IX. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Theoloo'ical differs from physiological anthropology in that, al- 
though it proceeds upon the basis of man's natural condition, it does 
not regard him in his relation to nature, but as he stands related to 
God. It is divided into the two leading sections of a doctrine of 
man's original state prior to the fall, and a doctrine of the fall and 
of sin, which was thereby introduced into human nature, and has 
since perpetuated itself and been actualized in the experience of 
every individual. 

Theological anthropology of a scientific character is, of course, 
impossible apart from physiological anthropology; that Theological an- 
is, apart from all acquaintance with man as naturally tJifopoiogy. 
constituted. But the latter serves merely as a natural foundation. 
The most perfect familiarity with human nature in its anatomical 
and physiological, and even in its psychological, aspects, in so far as 
psychology restricts itself to psychological limits, will not be com- 
petent to disclose to our view the religious nature of man.^ It is 

allowable, of course, to find mere accommodation in the discourses of our Lord which 
relate to the world of angels and demons, which are not only based on a religious idea, 
but also on an earnest reality. The doctrine concerning Satan, for instance, rests on 
the fact of the power of evil, which reaches down into the deepest abysses of dark- 
ness (Daub's Ischarioth). It has been wittily said by Rougemont, with reference to 
this point : Men have pretended that all the demonology of Jesus was only an accommo- 
dation to the prejudices of his people and his age. This is as much as to say that 
the battles of Alma and Inkerman are only an accommodation of Napoleon III. to the 
prejudices of the French against the Russians. What struggle has ever been more 
real, more terrible, more gigantic, than that of the Son of God and of Satan in the 
wilderness? — Christ et ses Temoins, vol. i, p. 152. But this yields no stronger 
proof for the personality of Satan than for that of death, sin, or hell, which, likewise, 
are powers that were overcome by Christ in a real sense, and not figuratively only. 
The figurative designation of the thing is here interchanged with the thing itself, 
whose reality continues unchanged. Schenkel, following in the footsteps of Schleier- 
macher, has subjected the doctrine of the devil to the light of a rigorous criticism 
(Dogmatik, i, p. 247 sqq.). On the other hand, persons are not wanting who hold 
that effects are still produced, and persons possessed, by demons at the present time. 
^The remark of Rosenkranz (Encykl., p. 83), that "theological anthropology has 
nothing to do with the physical and intellectual nature of man," is too strong. But 
it is true that " it must turn over the consideration of that nature to philosophical an- 
thropology, and fix its attention on the relation in which man stands to God." Comp. 
Harless, in preface to his Ethik (4th ed.) : '' I believe that our divines would do well 
by not restraining their interest in the field of physical research too far ; for it is only 
in the light of unjustifiable abstraction that the latter can seem to have nothing in 
common with the mind." Darwin's theory of the descent of man, tracing him back 



428 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

true that this religious nature of man may be apprehended to 
some extent by psychological inquiry, but, by this method, man 
appears only as an isolated specimen of his race ; and a penetrating 
observation of his nature is afforded only by the history of mankind 
in connexion with the revelations made by God. We, therefore, 
urge that, as in dogmatics, theology is required to be anthropolog- 
ical, so, in like manner, must anthropology be theological.^ The 
questions which relate to body and soul, or body, soul, and spirit, 
and to the origin of the latter (pre-existence, traducianism, crea- 
tionism), are in place here only in so far as one theory or an- 
other becomes necessary for the understanding of man's religious 
nature. 

The proper course of dogmatical procedure will be to apprehend 
in their real spirit the few grand indications of the Scriptures upon 
such matters as the image of God, and to so present them to our 
spirit through the medium of exegesis, history, and philosophy, as 
The high idea to enable US to grasp the more exalted idea of human- 
oi Lumanity. j^j ]3eneath the figurative language by which it is ex- 
pressed. Upon the correct apprehension of that idea depends the 
correct view of sin, whether it is to be considered a mere negation, 
or natural deficiency, or a privation, depravation, and perversion of 
human nature. These are the terms that distinguish between the 
Protestant and the Roman Catholic views. 

The history of man's fall into sin is likewise involved in great 
difiiculties when regarded as simple history. But the genesis of 
sin, as repeated daily, may, nevertheless, be demonstrated from the 
masterly and matchless narrative. It is impossible to deny that 
the consciousness of a common guilt, of which every individual par- 
takes, is profoundly religious in its nature, and attested by both 
Scripture and experience. Nowhere do psychological inquiry and 
The doctrine of the study of God's word, considered as the judge of 
sill- human thoughts, more fully complement, or rather ex- 

plain, each other than in the doctrine of sin. Does not Paul speak 
on this point (Rom. vii) with reference to his own experience, and 
from out of the depths of human nature as a whole ? The same 
holds true of Augustine and Luther. Abstract reason will, of 
course, always inchne toward Pelagianism upon such doctrines, 
since it affords a necessary corrective in many particular respects. 

to an ape, which has been so much discussed of late, will not at all disturb the scholar 
who knows how to distinguish between the domain of religion and that kind of nat- 
ural science which must often take a backward step ; but it will afford food for reflec- 
tion and for profounder thought with respect to the limitations of our knowledge. 
^ Comp. Bunsen, Hippolytus i, p. 289 sqq. 



ANTHROPOLOGY. 429 

But the mind derives no satisfaction from that course, inasmuch as 
it is continually reminded of a rupture that is more profound than 
reflection is able to perceive.^ 

SECTION X. 

CHRIS TOLOGY. 

Comp. Kling, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, s. v. ii, and article Ohristology, in M'Clintoclf and 
Strong's CyclopsBdia, vol. ii. 

Inasmuch as the religious relation subsisting between God and 
man finds its historical exemplification only, and in a peculiar man- 
ner, in the person of Jesus Christ, the God-man, Ohristology must 
constitute, not merely an essential part, but the very centre of a 
system of dogjmatics. Its task will be to conceive Jesus ^^ . ^ , 

"^ . ^ . . Chnstology the 

as sinless man, as free from error, in so far as this centre of dog- 
stands connected with sin, and, for that reason, as being ^^ ^^^' 
the' only-begotten Son of God, and God manifest in the flesh. It 
will be required to harmonize the qualities which Jesus possesses in 
common with the race, or human nature, with those which stamp 
him as unique, and exalt him above the race, and, therefore, of the 
divine nature, without, on that account, being authorized to set aside 
his real and complete humanity, or to obscure the greatness of his 
specific deity. 

The life of Jesus forms the historic basis of Ohristology. But 

the latter has to cultivate thoroughly a o^round which ^., ^ ^ 

!=> J (^ ^ ^ ^ Life of Jesus 

the former, in its character as a purely historical sci- the basis of 
ence, could not include within its territory.^ There has c^^^^^^^^^^y- 
been no lack, however, of theologians who assert that Ohristology 
is superfluous, and who thereby stab Christian dogmatics, consid- 
ered as specifically Christian, to the heart.^ Their dogmatics is 

^ Comp. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, i, p. 136. 

2 Rothe, among others, points out the necessity of apprehending the divine nature 
of Christ from the study of the picture of his human life : " To speak of recognizing and 
acknowledging the divine element in Christ without having observed it shine forth 
from what is human in him, or having caught its reflection in the mirror of his hu- 
manity, is merely to bandy idle words. ... Apart from the underlying oasis of hu- 
manity, the whole of the sacred life and work of Jesus by which redemption was 
effected becomes a magnificent phantasmagoria, an empty pageant, upon which no one 
may depend for comfort and for hope either in life or death. The unavoidable conse- 
quence, in short, is unmitigated Docetism." — In Schenkel's Zeitschrift, pp. 380, 383. 

2 Thus by Henke, in the preface to his Linaementa, p. 12 : " Ut omnis haec in 
Christum religio ad religionem Christi magis revocetur, omni opera contendendum 
est." Comp, Rohr, Briefe iiber Rationalismus, p. 36 : " What supernaturalists term 
Christology in their dogmatics does not appear in my system as an integral part at all ; 
for, while it constitutes a religion which. Jesus- taught,, it is not one whose object he 



430 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

confined altogether to theology and anthropology, and in the prog- 
ress of their works Christ appears simply as one theologian and an- 
thropologist among others, to whom an occasional appeal is made, 
but not as the '&edvT&gG)7Tog, who is himself the central feature of 
dogmatics. 

But objection against this very 'dedir&gcjTrog idea has been raised 
from many quarters. The term, it is true, is not biblical, 
term "God- and cannot be found in the Bible Dictionary. But can all 
^^^' the terms with which the attributes of God are desig- 

nated, and others with which dogmatics has been enriched, be found 
in the Bible ? The term " God-man " may, no doubt, be so under- 
stood as to involve a contradiction. If the idea proceeds on the 
assumption of an un-hutnan God and an un-divine man, who are to 
be joined together in an outward form, the one will necessarily ex- 
clude the other; in other words, the ancient "finite is not capable 
of the infinite." But it has been correctly shown that the divinely 
human character of Christianity and the divine humanity of the 
Saviour condition each other. ^ It is only necessary to remember, 
in this matter, that language of this character is developed on the 
soil of religion, and not on that of abstract speculation. The entire 
doctrine of the person of Christ may be apprehended in a very irra- 
tional way, either as describing the mechanical contact of two dis- 
similar things, the tw^o members of the Form of Concord, or as a 
mixture of divine and human elements, as we see in Apollinar- 
ism.^ In this way the one is disturbed and obscured by the other 
rather than modified and complemented by it. 

The doctrine of the Church itself has not always been free from 
Doctrine of the abstruse and confusing definitions, though it has, with 
^ro^^er\vde- correct judgment, continued to insist on the dovyxvrcjg^ 
fined. drQeTTTMg, ddLaiQeroyg, and dx(^Qt(7r(i)g. The truth upon 

this subject cannot be intuitively understood, but may be appre- 
hended in its character as a truth to be accepted by faith; and 
w^hile the truly wise may arrive at an understanding wdth regard to 
it, a satisfactory agreement and a logical settlement upon its merits 
are utterly impossible to persons who are merely puffed up with 
their knowledge. 

The history of doctrines affords the most striking evidences of 

mi,2:ht be himself." The most recent rationahzing theology seems inclined to return 
to this Ebionitic view. Vide the " Schlussbetrachtung " in Strauss' Life of Jesus for 
the German People. 

^ Ebrard, ubi supra. 

2 Comp. the History of Doctrines. Guizot, however, still speaks of a " continual 
mixture of the divine and the human." 



CHRISTOLOGY. 431 

this fact. Whenever the attempt is made to bring Christology to 
a logical conclusion, and formulate it, the difficulty of avoiding 
Ebionitism or Docetism, Nestorianism or Monophysitism, which 
stand on either side like Scylla and Charybdis, will present itself, 
and the history of doctrines will require to defend itself against the 
attacks of various forms of heresy in the manner best suited to re- 
pel the antagonizing error. The reason for this fact does not, how- 
ever, lie in the doctrine itself, with its infinite significance, but in 
the human limitations which affect the dogmatics of each particular 
age.^ 

SECTION XI. 

SOTERIOLOGT. 

Most intimately connected with the doctrine of the Redeemer's 
person is the doctrine of the salvation which depends on him, and 
of the appropriation of this salvation on our part by faith. This is 
soteriology. Its objective side is found in the work of Christ, in 
the redemption and atonement wrought by him. Its subjective 
side is found in the work of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart, 

^ The merely complementary relation sustained by the two leading confessions of 
Protestantism to each other is pointed out by Schneckenburger, Yom doppelten 
Stande Christi, Pforzheim, 1848. Jul. Miiller beautifully observes that "at this point 
evangelical theology needs a new development out of the Holy Scriptures as the orig- 
inal source of doctrinal life, and accompanied with a rejection of the entire ballast of 
formulas, which, in the dogmatics of former times, was connected with the idea of the 
communis naturarum,. In such development the leading object must be held to the 
preservation in doctrinal form of the evangelical picture of the life of Jesus Christ in 
its human truthfulness and comprehensibility, undeterred by monophysite, docetic, or 
Nestorian opinions, but accompanied by the declaration that this man Jesus Christ is 
the logos, in the flesh, God of God, born in eternity of the Father. . . . The thought 
that he who, as the eternal logos, is with the Father, is at the same time a true Son of 
man, contains such an inexhaustible fulness of knowledge respecting the common sal- 
vation, that every division based on the effort to definitely formulate the relation be- 
tween the divine and human natures in Christ becomes a sin committed against the 
God-man himself, to whom all profess a common allegiance. — Die evangel. Union, ihr 
Wesen und ihr Gottliches Recht, 1st ed., Berl., 1854, p. 316 sqq. Comp. also Rothe, 
■uhi supra, p. 384 : "When this shall have become clear, that moral imity with God is 
to be conceived as not ideal only, but as real, as the result of a more thorough ac- 
quaintance with the interior nature of moral being, then shall we also, for the first 
time, have grasped the key to Christology, and behold a living Christ, in sharp and 
vivid outlines, before the eye of the mind — a Christ who is bone of our bone, and 
flesh of our flesh, and at the same time the only begotten of the Father, in whose pres- 
ence we are constrained to bow and exclaim with Thomas, ' My Lord and my God ! ' 
Then will the breathings of our faith be deep and joyous, when it has seen the dawn- 
ing of this bright light in the midst of darkness — it is faith in Christ, instead of unbe- 
lief, which has penetrated through the dogma." 



432 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the different gradations of which are denominated the order of sal- 
vation. The principal points to settle are, the relation of justifica- 
tion to sanctification, of divine grace to human freedom, and of 
faith to works. The confessional opposition between Protestantism 
and Roman Catholicism is more sharply defined in this field than 
in any other. 

The doctrine of Christ's person would, indeed, belong to the realm 
Christ the Me- of idle speculation if its only purpose were to conceive 
diator. ^f Jesus as an isolated marvel upon the page of history, 

or as a God man who appears and vanishes away like some meteor. 
But this is not its object. Christ, as being the Son of God and Son 
of man, becomes the Mediator between God and man. He atones 
and redeems. His death is made to appear as the crowning point 
of his redeeming work, and Christ himself is the basis of reconcilia- 
tion, the iXao[j,6g. In him the old dies, and the new attains to life. 
Death and resurrection are the pivots upon which his character 
turns for the history of his world. The dogma concerning the 
death of Jesus belongs, in one respect, to Christology, as having 
proceeded out from the person of Christ. But, in its results, that 
death forms the condition of salvation, and the doctrine, therefore, 
belongs to soteriology. To apprehend this death in its religious 
significance, not from the idea of mere abstract right, as a satisfac- 
tion, nor yet from the idea of mere moral influence, as an example, 
but rather as a free thought of love, executed under a divine neces- 
sity in harmony with God's eternal decree, and as therefore fraught 
with infinite consequences for the entire human race, constitutes one 
of the highest problems of Christian dogmatics. In the solution of 
it the religious spirit is required to participate, as well as the rea- 
son, with its combining and analytical processes.^ 

But it is as improper to isolate the work of Christ as to isolate his 
person. The death of Jesus is most intimately and organically con- 
nected with his life previous to his death, and with the development 
of the kingdom of God subsequent to his resurrection, and also with 
Subjective so- the regeneration of each individual. This is subjective 
terioiogy. soteriology, the order of salvation. The process which 

was regarded as dynamical by the Christianity of apostolic times, 
that is to say, the change wrought in man by the Spirit of God — 
repentance, regeneration, renewing of the spirit, and sanctification — 
was, in later days, classified under the heads of illumination, con- 
version, sanctification, and perseverance, and the whole made to 
tend toward the goal of a most intimate communion with God, a 

^ Comp. Hagenbach's articles on this subject in the Kirchenbl. f iir die Eef. Schweiz, 
1854, Nos. 7 and 9. 



SOTERIOLOGY. 433 

iinio mystlca cum Deo. The two ideas which are chiefly important 
here, however, and which the Protestant doctrine, as distinct from 
the Roman Catholic, clearly distinguishes from each other, are justi- 
fication and sanctification. The former term is made jvistmcation and 
to denote the acquittal of the sinner on the part of sanctitication. 
God, considered simply as a declaratory act, while the latter desig- 
nates the gracious process by which the personal life of an individ- 
ual is developed into the divine. Although it is difficult to separate 
one from the other, their separation in the idea is required by the 
principle of evangelical Protestantism, that man is justified solely 
by the grace of God to the exclusion even of every consideration 
arising out of the good which God has wrought in man. This latter 
is simply a consequence resulting from the new relationship. 

But the determining of the exact relation of the grace which 
makes man free to the will of man which thus attains to freedom — 
which must always enter into the account as a will, and, therefore, 
as relatively free — is among the most difficult of doctrinal problems, 
which so easily admit of a turning aside to either the right or left. 
Both the Scriptures and experience assert that, on the one hand, man 
is unable to perform any thing without the aid of God, and that, on 
the other, he possesses the power of choosing to obey the call of 
grace or to refuse its authority. The whole history of doctrines shows 
that, in some periods of the Church, the greater emphasis was laid 
on the freedom of the will, Avhile in others its fettered state was 
made more prominent. This is the point at which it becomes neces- 
sary to develop the idea of freedom into clearness, and here, espe- 
cially, the philosophy of religion and that of dogmatics flow into each 
other. ^ A profound study of the problem will always result in the 
inclination to set aside the contrast, and to distinguish between free- 
dom and license, between necessity and compulsion, and between 
what is done by God in man and man in God, and what is done by 
man without God and by God without man.^ The letter of the 
symbolical definitions in the doctrine of the Protestant Church is 
often too harsh and unmanageable, and cannot be fully maintained 

^ In our arrangement the doctrine of freedom will come under notice twice in the 
system : first in connexion with the doctrine of sin, and next in connexion with that of 
grace. Anthropology, in general, will also fall into these two halves. 

^ " The solution of the great problem is found by turning the attention away 
from an abstract consideration of man and his separation from God, and fixing 
it upon the constant divine influence by which man becomes a higher personality ; 
thus the possibility of a free self-determination even toward the good is always 
preserved. The idea of a separation between divine causality and the free activ- 
ity of man must be given up ; both are with and in each other," etc. — Kling, ubi 
snipra^ p. 32. 
28 



434 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

in every feature of such definition. But the evangelical principle, 
which finds expression in that form, will eventually be recognized as 
the true and the only principle that can abide every test. 



SECTION XII. 
THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS. 

The salvation which proceeds from Christ reaches the individual 
through the medium of the religious community. The individual, 
however, enters into a living relation with that community only 
through faith in Christ. Thus the doctrine of Christ and the doc- 
trine of the Church condition each other. Dogmatics has to deal 
with the idea of the Church only on its interior or religious side, 
the external relation 'of the Church to the State and its political 
organization falling within the province of ecclesiastical law. Dog- 
matics, however, is obliged to furnish the governing ideas for the 
guidance of the latter. Its ofiice with relation to the means of 
grace to be administered by the Church — the word of God and the 
sacraments — ^is, in like manner, to apprehend them in their religious 
significance, while the careful determination of the most appropriate 
mode of conducting the administration belongs to liturgies. 

" The importance of the doctrine of the Church," says Kostlin, 
" for the science of Christian teaching, while it has been remarkably 
misapprehended during an extended period, has more recently been 
recognized the more clearly and emphatically." ^ But many an 
error has been committed in the process, and what is outward has 
been made prominent to a degree that suggests danger, and in a 
manner that can hardly be reconciled with the spirit of the reformers, 
or even with that of Luther, the authority of whose example is in- 
voked.'^ Whether, as Schleiermacher states the contrast, the Ro- 

* Luther's Lehre von der Kirche (Stuttg., 1853), p. 1. There is much conflict of 
opinion upon this doctrine at the present time ; " but so much is settled that Protes- 
tantism is divided among itself not so much with reference to the idea of the Church 
as concerning the relation of the phenomenon to the idea." — Schenkel, ubi stipra, 
p. 589. The point at issue is whether the Church should be regarded in the light of 
a remedial institution in which persons are to be trained for citizenship in the king- 
dom of God, or in the light of an organized community, in which the kingdom of 
Ood is, however imperfectly, already apparent and actually present. 

2 " It is undeniable that, despite its blessings, a disagreeable element of darkness 
has, in most periods, attached to the Church through which the most exclusive church- 
men have, as a class, obtained the greatest prominence, namely, a passionate insisting 
on the correctness of received views, a mania for fastening the charge of heresy upon 
opponents, an exaggerated love for the form they represented. If this old ecclesias- 
tical Adam should ever be restored, a certain distinguished theologian (R. Kothe, in 



THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS. 435 

man Catholic view, that the individual must come to Christ thi'ough 
the Church, be maintained, or the Protestant, that he can come to 
the Church only through faith in Christ — tlie former is empirically 
true, the latter ideally so — it is yet undeniable, from any point of 
view, that the religious character of the doctrine of the Doctrine of 
Church can only be understood through the doctrine of Christ neces- 

„ rm T • n 1 /-^i T • • 1 sary to imder- 

Christ. The doctrine of the Church is, m the next stand doctrine 
place, connected with the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, °^ church. 
in conformity with the expression of Irenseus, " Ubi ecclesia, ibi et 
Spiritus Sanctus; et ubi Spiritus Sanctus, ibi et ecclesia." Schleier- 
macher, therefore, brought the doctrines of the Holy Spirit and of 
the Church into the closest connexion, as the Apostles' Creed had 
also done at a much earlier period. 

The Protestant distinction between the visible and the invisible 
Church would assign the latter only to the province of dogmatics, 
as essential to the faith, while the former would belong to the do- 
main of politics; and questions relating to the constitution of the 
Church do, in point of fact, seem to be sadly out of place in a doc- 
trinal work, particularly a Protestant one. But inasmuch as the 
invisible cannot be absolutely separated from the visible, and inas- 
much as it does not manifest itself by the side of the visible, and as 
exterior to it, but rather in the visible, it will always be necessary 
for dogmatics to recognize the vessel in which the spirit of the 
religious community manifests itself. The task of settling the fun- 
damental forms of ecclesiastical life, by which alone that life can 
maintain its ecclesiastical character, is thus devolved upon dogmat- 
ics. While pointing out the spiritual nature of the Church, dog- 
matics is required to guard the Church, as being holy, against 
degenerating into worldliness; against divisions and dismember- 
ment by insisting upon her unity; and against separatistic schisms 
by asserting her universal character. The purely external adminis- 
tration of the Church, as variously modified by conditions of time 
and place, is turned over to another department, that of ecclesiasti- 
cal politics and ecclesiastical law. 

The same reasoning which applies to the constitution of the 
Church applies also to Church worship. The order- Liturgies based 
ing of the latter devolves upon liturgies. But liturgies ^^ dogmatics. 
is based on dogmatics, and derives from it the instructions upon 
which it is to proceed. The fundamental, unchangeable, and 

his Theol. Ethik.) would be obliged to gain new adherents to the opinion that Chris- 
tianity can attain to itself and its real nature only by the process of completely strip- 
ping ofE its ecclesiastical envelopments." — A. Schweizer, Die Prot. Central Dogmen, 
vol. i, p. 19. 



436 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

divinely ordered types of Christian worship, the word and the sacra- 
ments, are most intimately connected with the life of believers, and 
thus constitute an essential part of dogmatics. Considered as 
means of grace, an adminicula gratim, they will stand connected 
with the doctrines of salvation and grace in general, while in their 
character as institutions of the Church they will need to be placed 
under the doctrine of the Church. 

The idea of a sacrament is not of scriptural origin,^ but was grad- 
ually developed in the consciousness of the Church. The institu- 
tion of the so-called sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
however, is of biblical origin.^ The signification of these ordinances 
is still the ground of much controversy between denominations and 
schools. Much depends upon a profound penetration into the nature 
of a religious symbol, so as to prevent it from degenerating into a 
merely arbitrary ceremony, and from becoming involved in the 
Faith the con- magical notion of a purely objective efficiency, an 02nis 
necting link, operatum.^ The connecting medium is faith. But in 
the proportion in which misapprehension prevails on the part of the 
principal confessions of Protestantism themselves, should dogmatics 
be intent upon discovering a term which will be satisfying to the 
* religious feeling, without doing offence to a simple apprehension of 
the pure word of Scripture and its sound interpretation. 



SECTION XIII. 
ESCHATOLOGY. 

Inasmuch as the kingdom of God, which manifests itself on earth 
under the form of a church community, is progressing toward 
an ultimate consummation, dogmatics groups the aggregate of 
the hopes dependent on Christianity into the prophetical doctrines 

' Calixtus saw and insisted upon this ; Epit., p. 128 (Henke, Calixt. i, p. 299). 
Even Melanchthon objected to the term " sacramentum " at first, as being un-bibHcal 
(Loci Coram, of 1521, in Bretschneider, Corp., p. 210). Comp. Hagenbach, Hist. 
Doctr., § 258, note 2 (Smith's ed.). 

* The institution of baptism has, of course, been questioned by the sort of criticism 
which remands everything to the realm of vision which the Gospels record concerning 
the risen Jesus. Such house-cleaning labours by the radical method will not cause 
any considerable damage, however, while a community of believers exists to whom 
the form of the risen Lord is more than a phantom. 

^Schenkel has emphasized the objective theological side of a sacrament on the 
Protestant view in opposition to the merely subjective anthropological conception. 
Comp. his Wesen des Protestantismus i, p. 395, and the preface, p. xi ; but comp. 
also his Dogmatik, and other writings of later date, in which a different view is advo- 
cated. 



ESCIIATOLOGY. 437 

of death, the resurrection, the judgment of the world, and eternal 
life. These are denominated the last things, and the teaching in 
which they are presented is termed eschatology. 

The question whether the soul be immortal may be raised in con- 
nexion with the doctrine of the creation of man, or immortality not 
anthropology. But the question concerning immor- ^^^J'^^.^'i^oi- 
tality, in the most general acceptation, must not be ogy. 
confounded with the inquiry respecting the last things, which has 
less to do with the natural constitution of the soul and the destiny 
of individuals after death than with the world's development as a 
whole and the ultimate consummation of the kingdom of God. 
For this reason the position, in connexion with the doctrines of 
man and before the Church has come under notice, to which Hase 
assigned eschatology, is inappropriate. The most proper place for 
the doctrine respecting death is not, indeed, among the four last 
things; it may, more appropriately, be connected with the doctrine 
of sin. Its only claim to a place under eschatology lies in the 
teaching that death also shall be swallowed up in victory (1 Cor. 
XV, 54). The doctrines of the resurrection and the last judgment 
are characterized wholly by the scriptural mode of representation; 
the figurative form is unmistakable; but the vision is required to 
look beyond the figure to the eternal truth reflected in its imagery,* 
even though it will not be possible to comprehend these several 
doctrines within a fully rounded circle of adequate conceptions.'' 

^ See de Wette, Kirohliche Dogmatik, p. 213 : " The difficulties can be obviated 
only by distinguishing the purely doctrinal elements from those which are symboli- 
cally historical. . . . But the two must be re-combined into a living hope which is not 
ruled merely by an obstinate concern for the destiny of individuals, but which, like- 
wise, has regard to the fate of the whole. The eternal and the temporal, which are 
always involved in and connected with each other, are thus conjoined." 

2 Comp. the prophetical doctrines in Schleiermacher's Glaubenslehre. The extra- 
scriptural chiliastic vagaries and fancies, together with the hypotheses of soul- 
sleeping, hades, etc., have, without exception, been able to maintain themselves only 
within the sphere of the most narrow formulations of doctrine. Such doctrines have, 
however, been discussed with greater confidence in recent than in the oldev theology. 
Rothe, in his Ethik, ii, pp. 154-169, 480 sqq., has sought, in a very pecuhar manner, 
to open the way toward a more elevated solution of the problems of eschatology. 
Comp. also the labours of Auberlen and others. We cannot refrain, however, from 
directing attention to a statement by Palmer, which deserves consideration at this par- 
ticular juncture : " The Jewish scribes, before the manifestation of Christ, were unable 
to construct, from the prophecies of the Old Testament alone, a picture of the Mes- 
siah whose truthfulness might still be recognized after he had appeared, although 
every person who would use his eyes was, after his appearing, compelled to see that 
the Old Testament predictions were fulfilled in the person and work of Christ. So is 
it improbable that we should ever succeed in obtaining from the scriptural indications 



438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

If this might be accomplished, hope would cease to be hope and 
Christian hope ^^^^^ become realization, and faith would be trans- 
oniy to be real- formed into sight. In opposition to a sentimental, and 
often selfish, doctrine of immortality, it becomes neces- 
sary to insist upon the truth that Christianity knows no other hopes 
than such as shall be realized in and through Christ; and that, con- 
sequently, it can return to the numerous questions which arise no 
other answer than that which is already contained in its christolog- 
ical creed — namely, that Christ himself is the resurrection and the 
life, and that in him all his children shall live.^ 



SECTION XIY. 

THE TKINITY AND PEEDESTHSTATIOIS'. 

The doctrine of God in his tri-unity comprehends all theology. 
But this aggregation can only be brought to pass after the practical 
and religious signification of Father, Son, and Spirit has been as- 
certained in its connexion with the historical development of the 
kingdom of God. The whole is comprehended by this one doctrine, 
as constituting the sacred mystery of Christianity, and the doctrine 
^, ^. of election is most intimately connected with it. Both 

Election con- -^ 

nected with the the eternal nature of God as related to himself, and his 
^^ ^' eternal decree, lie outside of the relation of God to 

finite being, and consequently outside of the sphere of practical 
religion. They are, therefore, in the strictest sense, of a speculative 
nature, and move wholly within the realm of the absolute. 

The terms triad and trinity, together with the idea upon which 
they rest, are extra-biblical. But it does not follow that the idea 
is, on that account, unscriptural. The very contrary is true; for 
the whole of ]N'ew Testament theology is erected upon a mono- 
respecting the future and the consummation of the kingdom of God a harmonious and 
completely rounded whole which might deserve the name of a system, while we are 
equally certain and assured that the ultimate fulfilment will authenticate the prophecy 
as being entirely true and consistent with itself. In such matters, even a thirst for 
theological knowledge will do better to restrain itself to moderate bounds than to as- 
sume the air of knowing what, nevertheless, is not known, and to look contemptuously 
down from the height of such yviJaLc upon the rpiTiTf maric with which the Church has 
contented itself for well-digested reasons." It may also be well to recommend special 
care with regard to a phrase of Oetinger's that has recently been much used and 
much abused, namely, " that corporeity is the end of the ways of God," as it may lead 
into a religious materialism which may become as dangerous as the irreligious sort, 
because unconsciously promoting its designs. 

' Comp. Hermann Schultz, Die Yoraussetzungen der christlichen Lehre von der Un- 
sterblichkeit, Gottingen, 1861. 



THE TRINITY AND PREDESTINATION. 439 

theistic, but trinitarian, foundation, since God the Father chooses 
mankind in Christ. Christ, as the Son, has redeemed it, and the 
Spirit imparts the assurance of salvation to believers, and completes 
the work of sanctification. Neither work is conceivable apart from 
the others; and it is for this reason that believers are baptized in 
the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that the sub- 
stance of the Christian doctrine of redemption is concentrated into 
a trinitarian formula in the apostolic benediction in 2 Cor. xiii, 14, 
and elsewhere. 

But it is equally certain that the Bible does not emphasize the 
relation subsisting between the Persons^ of the Trinity Trinity less em- 
so much as the relation sustained by God to man. God?^ relation 
When John opens his prologue with " In the beginning to man. 
was the Word," he yet turns at once to his principal theme, the 
theme upon which he makes all else to depend, nal 6 Xoyog odg^ 
kysvero. He regards the manifestation of God in Christ as the 
most essential feature, and therefore emphasizes it again in his first 
epistle, where he asserts that the Son of God came into the flesh. 
The scriptural Triad is, consequently, predominantly a triad for 
purposes of revelation, while the relations immanent to it are, at 
most, simply alluded to. Nor should it be forgotten, that the 
Logos idea itself is not a new or strictly Christian thought, but was 
already present, as we see in Philo, in the speculative culture of the 
time. But inasmuch as God has manifested nothing except his 
nature, it will not be improper to retain the names of Father Son 
and Spirit, not, with Sabellius, as mere names, but as " distinguish- 
ing hypostatical terms." ^ 

The salvation taught by dogmatics should not, however, be made 
to depend on such subtleties. We have every respect 
for the speculative doctrine of the Trinity ; but it is a dep^endent ^on 
theological sanctuary which only anointed and approved ^^^^^^^^ies. 
minds, with pure intentions, may seek to penetrate. The doctrine, 
has, moreover, been loaded with many absurdities from time to time, 
and even pantheistic infidelity has concealed itself behind such 
intricacies in order to attack historical Christianity from behind 
such cover. The same is true of the mystery of predestination. 
Who has ascertained God's decree? A religious faith, as con- 
trasted with the superficial creed of Pelagianism, is compelled to 

^ The word " Person " is likewise extra-biblical, and in many respects inappropriate. 
"The very terms 'Father' and 'Son' indicate that they have reference to the mani- 
festation of God, and not to his immanent and extra-mundane being " (p. 296). 

^ Kling considers this expression to observe the correct medium between the Sabel- 
lian and the Athanasian theories {ubi supra, p. 38). 



440 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

acknowledge that salvation is not the result of accident, and not 
wrought out primarily by ourselves, but that it is a salvation that is 
willed and decreed by God, based on a foreknowledge of character 
and works. The problem of God's foreknowledge, and rewards and 
punishments based on it, we may not solve. It is wiser and more 
edifying for us to recall continually to mind the narrow limits of 
the human understanding, and to stand reverently still, with the 
apostle, before the riches both of the knowledge and the grace of 
God. 

SECTION XV. 
ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. 

Schleiermacher, § 203 sqq., and the discussions on ortliodoxy and orthodox views by Riickert, 
Krause, and Hase, in the Protest. Kirchenzeitung fiir das Evangl. Deutschland for 1854 ; Pelt, 
in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, x, s. v. 

James F. Clarke, Orthodoxy : Its Truths and Errors. Boston, 1875. John W. Donaldson, 
Christian Orthodoxy Reconciled with the Conclusions of Modern Biblical Learning. Lond., 1857. 
Daniel Dorchester, Concessions of Liberalists to Orthodoxy. Boston, 1878. 

A dogmatical system is said to be orthodox in so far as it is in 
harmony with the doctrine of the Church, as contained in its sym- 
bols, and with the conclusions deduced from such doctrine. It is 
heterodox in so far as it departs from the accepted belief of the 
Church. This distinction should not be identified with that made 
between supernaturalism and rationalism, which has already been 
discussed, although it has many points of contact with the latter. 

The term orthodox is to be taken in its historical rather than its 
etymological meaning in this connexion, for it is to be presumed 
that every instructor w^ill aim to teach the truth, and to be ortho- 
dox in this sense of the word. The conservative in ecclesiastical 
matters may, accordingly, be regarded as constituting the orthodox 
feature, while the mobile will characterize the heterodox. Ortho- 
orthodoxy not doxy, moreover, is not to be identified with super- 

l*^^t?f'J'lTv.^^" naturalism. The two ideas, to say the least, are not 
ed with super- ? »/ ' 

naturalism. coextensive. A great number of heterodox notions had 
their origiji in a period when supernaturalism was generally ac- 
cepted. Socinianism, for example, is, to the half at least, supernat- 
uralistic, and yet heterodox; and even altra^-supernaturalist opinions 
may turn over into heterodoxy, as we see in patripassianism. The 
Church and its creed, rather than the Bible, though Bible-ortho- 
doxy is sometimes spoken of, constitute the measure of orthodoxy, 
in the strictly technical meaning of the word. It follows, that even 
the strictest supernaturalist will be heterodox, in so far as his rela- 
tion to his own Church is concerned, whenever he diverges from 
her doctrine — for instance, a Lutheran who should incline toward 



ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. 441 

Roman Catholicism, or a member of a Calvinistic Church who should 
incline toward Lutheranism. Rationalism is, no doubt, a hetero- 
dox phenomenon, in all its tendencies. But as con- _ ^. 

^ , , ... Rationalism a 

trasted with the supernaturalist, the rationalist himself heterodox phe- 
might have the support of orthodoxy upon a given ^^^^'^°^- 
question. He might, for instance, take ground with the Reformed 
Church upon the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, or with the Luther- 
an Church upon the question of predestination. Nor is it difficult 
to show that pietism, with all its biblical supernaturalism, includes 
many heterodox elements. Where, indeed, can a thoroughly ortho- 
dox person be found in our day, whose views shall be so correct 
as that the defenders of the old-time Lutheran or Reformed ortho- 
doxy will find no feature that is open to objections? 

The genuine dogmatic theologian should pursue no other purpose 
than to present the truths of the Christian faith in purity, and in 
harmony with the Bible and the results of historical development, 
recognizing the goal toward which such development tends, and 
the requirements of the present age. He will obey the apostolic 
canon, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good." He will, 
accordingly, be both conservative and reformatory in his methods ; 
for " the endeavour to retain, in the dogmatical development, mat- 
ters which have become wholly antiquated in the public promulga- 
tions of the Church, and which exercise no definite influence upon 
other questions in the process of scientific discussion, is a false 
orthodoxy. To antagonize such formulas as have a well-established 
support in the formularies of the Church, and whose scientific ex- 
pression is not confused by the relation sustained by them to other 
doctrines, is false heterodoxy." ^ 

^ Schenkel says : " No greater error and no more hurtful notion can be found than 
exist in the fancy that the work of the Reformation was accomphshed, and even 
completed, three hundred years ago, and that every step beyond the original position 
of the reformers is apostasy from the Reformation itself; that to go back to the fin- 
ished theological system of Protestantism, as contained in confessional writings, and 
to settle down in them for all time to come, constitutes the chief duty of a believing 
theology and of a Church which has attained to greater freedom and independence." — 
Wesen des Protestantismus, iii, 1, Pref., p. iv. Similar language is employed by a 
French writer : " The Reformation is not the last word of Christianity, and the God 
who has revealed himself to us in his Gospel has yet many revelations to make to us 
on the thoughts, the concealed riches, and the infinite applications of the word of 
life. . . . Ignorance believes voluntarily in the absolute truth ; but education and expe- 
rience teach us to see shadows where we find contrasts, and simple differences where 
all seemed apparition." — Lettres a mon Cure, p. 4*7. Geneva, 1854. Hase remarks 
(Dogmatik, 5th ed., p. 9), with entire correctness : " Orthodoxy, as designating una- 
nimity with regard to the teaching of the Church as sustained by the written law, is 
authorized in the evangelical Church. But so, likewise, are individual divergences 



442 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XVL 
THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 

Comp. Ch. G. Heinrich, Versuch einer GescMchte der verschiedenen Lehrarten der christ- 
lichen Wahrheiten, etc., Lpz., 1790; J. H. ScMckedanz, Vers, einer Gesch. d. christl. Glaubens- 
lehre, Braunschw., 1827 ; W. Herrmann, Geschichte der prot. Dogmatik, von Melanchthon bis 
Sclileiermacher, Lpz., 1842; J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogmatik, i, p. 56 sqq.; W. Gass, Gescb. der 
prot. Dogmatik, etc, (vol. i. Construction of Basis and Dogmatism ; vol. ii, Syncretism, the For- 
mation of the Reformed School of Theology, Pietism ; vol. iii, the Transition Period ; vol. iv, En- 
lightenment and Rationalism. The Dogmatics of the Philosophical Schools. Schleiermacher 
and his Times), Berl., 1854-67 ; Heppe, Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantismus im 16. Jahrhun- 
dert (§ 76) ; *Dorner, Gesch. d. prot. Theologie, Munich, 1867 (Engl, translation by Robson and 
Taylor, 2 vols., Edinb., 1871) ; Miicke, Die Dogmatik des 19. Jahrhunderts, etc., Gotha, 1867. 
Hodge: Systematic Theology (3 vols.), N. Y. 1872, Introduction (in Vol. I), pp. 1-188. 

The earliest systematic collections of the doctrines of belief are 
found in the symbols and the confessions of faith. Origen, among 
the Church teachers of the first period, furnished a sketch of what 
we denominate a system of dogmatics, in his work on Principles. 
Of Augustine's works the following belong to this class: Manual 
Augustine's ^o Laurentius (on Faith, Hope, and Charity), on Chris- 
works, tian Doctrine and the Kingdom of God (each of the 
latter but partially), on Faith and Symbol, and on the Doctrines of 
the Church. He was followed by Fulgentius of Ruspe, Gennadius, 
and Junilius. In the Greek Church were produced the Catecheses 
of Gregory of Nyssa (Larger Catechetical Treatise), and of Cyril 
of Jerusalem (Catechism for the Baptized and to be Baptized), 
though they were more particularly designed for practical uses. 
The first to construct a dogmatics, in the strict sense, that is, a sys- 
tem of doctrine, was John of Damascus (730), in the w^ork, Precise 
Statement of the Orthodox Faith, though the compiler, Isidore of 
Seville (died 636) had led the way with his Statement (3 books). 

The dogmatics of the Middle Ages found its chief expression in 
Scholasticism Scholasticism, which latter obtained a necessary comple- 
and mysticism, ment in mysticism. John Scotus Erigena (died about 
880) was eminent as a philosophical thinker of the 9th century. But 
his principal work, on the Division of Nature, is not a dogmatics in 
the strict meaning of the term. From the close of the 1 1th and 
the beginning of the 12th centuries downward, Anselm of Canter- 
bury, Roscellin, and Abelard aroused the dogmatic spirit from 

and variations, provided only that they maintain a Christian and Protestant character. 
They both are placed under the law of a higher orthodoxy, namely, the perfect truth 
of Christianity, and it is incumbent upon Christian charity that it preserve the feeling 
of unity in the midst of such differences, and even of dispute. Whatever antagonizes 
Christianity, however, must be excluded as heretical, even though it lay claim to the 
Christian character," On the distinction between heterodoxy and heresy, comp. 
Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 186, and Martensen. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 443 

various directions, and sought to bring about a reconciliation be- 
tween knowledge and faith. But a properly systematic treatment 
in obedience to established rules dates back only to Peter Lombard, 
who died in 1164. The authors of such works, Robert Pulleyn, 
Peter of Poictiers, and others, were designated Sententiarii. The 
Yictorines, on the other hand, sought to combine mysticism, which 
rises to the surface from out of the depths of religious feeling, 
with dialectics. 

An increased knowledge of Aristotle, after the Crusades, led to 
a still further development of scholasticism. Alexander Hales 
(Doctor irrefragabilis, died 1245), Albert Magnus (died 1280), and 
Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), the head of an entire school g^^^^^.^^^ 
which was represented by the order of Dominicans, 
composed so-called Summce. These were loosely constructed works, 
in which every proposition was subdivided into a number of ques- 
tions, distinctions, and the like— a gigantic labour of the mind. 
The scholastic spirit, however, soon degenerated into the invention 
of hollow subtleties, a tendency which was especially facilitated by 
the prevalence of nominalism. The school of Thomists soon came 
to be opposed by the mystical school of Bonaventura (Doctor seraph- 
icus, died 1274), and also by the dialectic school of Duns Scotus 
(Doctor subtilis, died 1308), both of which originated with the order 
of Franciscan monks. The dispute between the schools became at 
the same time a quarrel of the orders. The Summse were now 
superseded by so-called Quodlibets; the number of the Degeneration of 
various questions approached infinity, and dogmatics dogmatics. 
was ultimately left without substance and worth. The free-think- 
ing but sceptical William Occam (died 1347) was succeeded by the 
last of the scholastics, Gabriel Biel (died 1495), while mysticism, 
which had made progress in the practical field in the persons of 
Master Eckart, Tauler, Ruysbroek, and Suso, received scientific 
form at the hands of Gerson (Doctor christianissimus, died 1429). 

The cultivation of humanistic studies gave to dogmatics a many- 
sided spirit, but left it, at the first, without fixed princi- Meianchthon 
pies for its control. The regeneration of dogmatics does pr^ofe^tant 
not begin earlier than the Reformation. Luther was a dogmatics, 
preacher rather than a dogmatic theologian. The foundation for 
evangelical dogmatics as a science was laid by Melanchthon, the 
Prseceptor Germanise, in his Commonplaces (Loci Communes, 
Yiteb., 1521; afterward Loci Praecipui Theologici). He was fol- 
lowed, in the Lutheran Church, by Martin Chemnitz (Theological 
Syllabus), Aegidius (died 1603), Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), and the 
rigidly zealous Leonh. Hutter (Lutherus Redivivus; died 1616), 



444 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

whose work (Loci, 1619) was directed especially against the milder 
school of Melanchthon. Twesteu published Hatter's Compendium 
in a second edition in 1 863. A work of leading importance, Theo- 
logical Commonplaces (Loci Theol., Jen., 1610-25, ix vols. 4to, edited 
Lutheran dog- hy Cotta, Tub., 1772-81, XX vols. 4to, supplemented by 
matic writers. Q ^ Miiller, vols. xxi and xxii, 1788-89; latest edition 
E. Preuss, 1863-70, vols, i-viii, unfinished), was published by J. 
Gerhard (died 1637); and the works by Quenstedt (died 1688), 
Konig, Calov, Hollaz, Baier, and others are also deserving of men- 
tion. A new scholasticism unfolded itself in these works, which 
was counterbalanced by a new mystical tendency in J. Boehme, 
Weigel, Arndt, and others. 

In the Reformed Church exegetical studies were prosecuted with 

,. ,., more enerp-y than dogrmatical, and the latter were more 

Dogmatic liter- ^'^ ° ' _ 

atureintheRe- dependent on the former than in the Lutheran Church, 
orme urc . ]i3g(3a|jgg ^jjg letter of the symbol was less authoritative 
in its influence over them. Zwingli's dogmatical labours (Brief and 
Pious Introduction to Protestant Doctrine, 1523; Commentary on 
the True and False Religion, 1525; Brief and Clear Exposition of 
the Christian Faith, 1536, et al.) are deserving of attention. 

But Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (Basle, 1535) 
Calvin and his is a work of the first importance, and comparable with 
successors. ^j^g Loci of Melanchthon. His successors were Bullin- 
ger, Musculus, Peter Martyr, Hyperius; and, in the seventeenth 
century, Keckermann, Polanus of Polansdorf, Alsted, Alting, Wol- 
leb, Burmann, Heidanus, F, Heidegger, and others. The synthet- 
ical method having been usefully followed in the Lutheran Chureh 
after Melanchthon, Cocceius (died 1669) and Leydecker now began 
to attempt different methods; for example, the Federal Theology 
and the CEconomical, in the order of the three persons. of the Trin- 
ity. But a new method, the analytical, was introduced into the 
Lutheran Church by Calixtus. It begins with the end or final 
cause, the " final method," toward which the entire system of belief 
must tend. Many, including some of the writers already men- 
tioned, followed in his track, the strictest of all being Dannhauer 
(died 1668) in his Christian Introduction, 1649. 

A milder tendency, diverging from rigid orthodoxy, began to 
assert itself in Germany at the opening of the eighteenth century, 
toward whose introduction various phenomena in the spheres of 
both religion and philosophy contributed. This we see in Spener 
and Pietism, and in the Cartesian, Leibnitzian, and Wolfian philos- 
ophies. In the Reformed Church the Arminian tendency, repre- 
sented by Limborch (died 1712; Christian Theology, 1686), gained 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 445 

a continually increasing number of adherents to its milder views, as 
did also the related tendency which went out from the school of 
Saumur. In the Lutheran Church a method increasingly controlled 
by the influence of the new period was introduced by Pfaff, in his 
Institutes (1720); Buddseus, in his Institutes of Doctrinal Theology 
(1723, 1741); Reinbeck (1731-41, 4 vols.), continued by J. G. Conz, 
(1743-47, 5-9 vols.); Carpov, (1737-65); Rambach (1744), and, un- 
der the determinate influence of the Wolflan philosophy, by Jac. 
Siegm. Baurairarten, in his System of Doctrine, published by Semler 
(1759 and 1760, 3 vols.). This tendency was also commended, with 
more or less fulness, by Semler, in his Institutes (1774), and Attempt 
at a Free Theological Method of Teaching (1777); and by Mlchaelis 
(1760, 1784), Teller (1764, 1782), Toellner (1775), Do- Transition to 
ederlein, Morus, and others, who tliereby brought about rationalism. 
the transition into rationalistic modes of thought, though they 
guarded themselves with many qualifications. 

After Gj'uner and Eckermann had prepared the way, Hencke 
compressed dogmatics, which had once extended ovei" forests of 
folios, into a few "lineaments," in which process he threw over- 
board " Christolatry and Bibliolatry, as beino; mere „ 

•^ ^ ^ y » _ Reactionary 

remnants of an old-time superstition." Kant iittro- tendency of 
duced a new era, and was joined, more or less fully, by ^^"^^ ^^^* 
Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon. Storr and Reinhard held fast 
the orthodox system, but rather with respect to its formal super- 
naturalism than as a rigid conformity to ecclesiastical tradition. 
Augusti, on the other hand, sought to restore the ancient system 
of doctrine, whose consistency even Lessing had conceded, to its 
place of honour, but without laying a deep foundation for it in 
philosophy, or bringing logical discrimination to bear on the ques- 
tion. The latter was much more efficiently done by De Wette, the 
former by Daub and Marheineke. 

In opposition to this reactionary movement of dogmatics, as 
understood by rationalism, the latter, with entire consistency, took 
separate ground, fin<ling its most adequate expression in Wegs- 
cheider's work, which must be regarded as the Corpus Doctrinse of 
the tendency. Bretschneider pursued an intermediate course, 
thouirh starting out with the fundamental ideas of rationalism. 
He also furnished a serviceable historical apparatus. Dogmatics 
thus seemed likely to be resolved into speculation in the one direc- 
tion, or to sink beneath the mass of historical matter with which 
it was loaded down, or, finally, to be evaporated in the schieiermach- 
crucible of rationalistic hypercriticism. At this point er's dogmatics. 
Schleiermacher appeared with hi» System of Doctrines, in which he 



446 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

did not base dogmatics upon either historical authority or philo- 
sophical speculation, but regarded it as representing the conscious- 
ness by which the Church is animated. From him dates a new 
period in the treatment of this science generally, though many con- 
tinued even afterward to move in the ancient ruts. KnapjD, Hahn, 
and Steudel, for instance, simply attached themselves to the older 
biblical and ecclesiastical system, while Hase, proceeding upon the 
basis of the doctrine of the Church as historically developed, strove 
to bring about its reconciliation with the advanced culture of the 
day, accomplishing the task with spirit and taste under the influ- 
ence of modern philosophy, beginning with that of Schelling. 

The spirit of Schleiermacher made itself positively felt, however, 
Twesten and pre-eminently through Twesten and Nitzsch, each of 
Nitzsch. whom contributed, in his own way, to the securing of 

friends for the revealed faith of Christianity, which rationalism had 
given up as lost, even among the younger generation of theolo- 
gians.^ Other writers have sought to open newer paths, e. g., Tob. 
Beck, who sought to comprehend the substance of Bible teaching 
in a corresponding system with a specially prepared terminology, 
while avoiding the road which had been trodden hard by the 
schools. In opposition to serious efforts of this character arose the 
system of Strauss, which assumed the form of a dialectical process 
for the annihilation of dogma, but which, after it had reached its 
culmination in Feuerbach, could only lead to a new and thorough 
investigation of the dogma, based on a recognition of the inde- 
structible basis upon which the life of the Christian faith is estab- 
lished. 

The more important works which have since been issued afford 
the happiest evidence of this fact, and prove that Christian dog- 
matics has not yet reached its final from, but that it is 
Proffr6ss of 
most recent rather passing through a metamorphosis, from which it 

dogmatics. ^-^^^^ come forth with its youth renewed, and with a re- 
newed disposition to clothe doctrine with fresh and appropriate 
forms, that shall prove to be more perfectly adapted to the deep- 
est needs of our age. The dogmatics of the Reformed Church 

' On Nitzsch comp. the Biography by Beyschlag, p. ITO. Mtzsch's " crowded, Heracli- 
tian style, which never presents more than the half-opened bud of the thought," does 
seem not only to present difficulties which " all feeble or ease-loving minds " will dread 
to surmount, but also to place frequent obstacles in the way of those who do not seek to 
avoid the labour needed to penetrate into such a depth of thought. The forceful ele- 
ments in the works of Mtzsch are an exalted earnestness and a cool criticism, which 
enable him to be just toward a more independent mode of thought, while standing 
firmly upon the positive foundations of Christianity. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 447 

has found a well-informed and capable interpreter in Schweizer, 
who has been joined in the free exercise of thought by Schenkel. 
In the Reformed Church, Ebrard represents the confessional point 
of view, while Yilmar, Thomasius, Philippi, and Kahnis repre- 
sent the Lutheran. The masterly work of A. Ritzschl aims at 
a positive remodelling of the orthodox system on a biblical basis. 
The dogmatic works of Biedermann and Lipsius represent the so- 
called liberal theology. One of the most important of the recent 
doctrinal systems is the System of Christian Doctrine (Glaubens- 
lehre) of Sulzberger, published in Bremen in 1877. He is Professor 
of Theology in the Theological Seminary of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church at Frankfort-on-Main, and his work is a terse and 
skilful presentation of the doctrinal system of his communion. 
The Roman Catholic Church, whose older dogmatic theologians, 
Bellarmine, Canisius, Maldonat, Becanus, and others, had, to a 
greac extent, conformed to the scholastic method, was Roman catho- 
likewise unable to avoid being influenced by the Intel- ^^^ dogmatists. 
lectual revolution of the times. A more simple and independent 
doctrinal method, from which the mass of scholastic and Jesuitical 
rubbish was eliminated, was introduced as early as the time of 
Noel (Natalis Alexander, died 1724). 

Among German dogmatists the older method was followed by 
Klupfel (died 1811), Stattler, Gmeiner, Schnappinger, Zimmer, 
Dobmaier, Buchner, Liebermann, and others. A new movement 
was begun by Georg Hermes (died 1831), in his Introduction to 
the Christian Catholic Theology (Munster, 1834). He, while fully 
regarding doubt as the necessary condition for the determinino- of 
truth, sought to press through it into orthodox Catholicism, as con- 
stituting the ultimate goal of a really profound speculation. But 
by that very effort he came into formal conflict with Roman Ca- 
tholicism and its cardinal principle of ecclesiastical authority. A 
similar process was passed through by the system of Gllnther. 
Franz Baader, influenced by Schelling's Natural Philosophy, was 
more speculative than any of his compeers. But a similar tendency 
had been previously apparent in Schwarz (died 1794), and Cajetan 
Weiler (died 1826). Among later Roman Catholic theologians, 
Brenner, Thanner, Klee, Staudenmaier, and others, appear also to 
be similarly inclined. 

In England, some of the leading doctrinal systems have been 
translations from the Continental writers. Among the Scotcli, 
whose theological type has been Reformed, Calvin's Institutes has 
always been recognized as the standard. The Independents and 
Presbyterians of England have exhibited a similar attachment. In 



448 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the Church of England, Pearson on the Creed and Burnet on the 
Thirty-nine Articles, old as they are, have largely supplied the 
dogmatic treatment. Among the Wesleyans, Wesley's Sermons, 
which are mostly of doctrinal character, have held the foremost 
place. The first Methodist writer of a full doctrinal system was 
Richard Watson, whose Institutes (Lond., 1823) have been the 
standard for the last half century. Pope, in his Compendium of 
Christian Theology (3 vols., New York, 1880), is the first British 
Wesleyan writer of a dogmatic system at all comparable with 
Watson. 

In the United States, there has been large dependence on the 
German sources, the works of the German dogmatists being trans- 
lated and freely read. Knapp's Theology has had a wide accep- 
tance. This has been succeeded by Storr and Flatt's Elementary 
Course of Biblical Theology (1836), Nitzsch's System of Christian 
Doctrine (1849), the Christian Dogmatics of the Danish Martensen, 
the Christian Dogmatics of the Dutch Van Oosterzee, and Schmid's 
Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. But 
American theology has not been without its original writers in the 
dogmatic department. Even during the colonial period there were 
vigorous doctrinal authors, w^hose works have had an important 
bearing on the whole later course of theological belief. Each Church 
has had its own dogmatic system. Dwight's Theology, originally 
delivered as sermons, has had large endorsement among Congrega- 
tionalists and still wider circles. Hodge, in his Systematic Theol- 
ogy, represents the doctrinal system of the Presbyterian Church. 
This work is the product of a lifetime of reverent study, of broad 
scholarship, terse and exact style, and of just recognition of the na- 
tive and foreign literature of the department. Raymond's Syste- 
matic Theology embodies the Methodist theology, and is marked 
by careful thought, a rich and warm diction, and a most attractive 
perspicuity and vigour of style. Both these works, as well as A. A. 
Hodge's Outlines of Theology, and Ralston's Elements of Divinity, 
indicate a disposition of the American theological mind to lean no 
longer on Continental authorities for doctrinal statement. 

LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. ^ 

J. C. Doederlein, Institutio theologi christ. in capp. relig. theor. nostris tempp. accom. 

Norimb. et Alt., 1V80. Ed. 6., emend, et acta a Ch. Gf. Junge. lb., 1797. 2 vols. 
Christl. Religionsuntericht nach den Bedurfnissen unserer Zeit. From the 

Latin, and continued from vol. 6 by C. G. Junge. Niimb. and Alt. 12 vols., 

1V75-1803. 

» More fully described la Winer's Handb., pp. 895-308, ErgSnaaingslieft, pp. 48-50. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 449 

S. F. N. Moms, Epitome theolog. christ. Lip?;., 1789. 

J. H. Tieftrunk, Censur des christl. -protest. Lehrbegrififs nacli den Principien der Re- 
ligionskritik. Berl., 1791-95. 3 vols. 

J. Cp. R. Eckermann, Compend. theol. christ. theor. bibl.-histor. Alt., 1791. 

Handb. fiir das system. Stud, der ehristl. Glaubenslehre. Alt., 1801-3. 4 vols. 

H. Ph. C. Henke, Lineamenta institt. fidei christ. hist.-critt. Helmst., 1793-95. 

G. Chr. Storr, Lehrbuch der christl. Dogmatik. Edited by K. Ch. Flatt. Stuttg., 1803; 
4th ed., 1813.* 

J. E. Ch. Schmidt, Lehrbuch der christl. Dogmatik. Giessen, 1800. 

K. F. Stiiudlin, Religionslehre oder Dogmatik und Dogmensgeschichte. Gott., 1800. 

F. V. Reinhard, Yorlesungen liber die Dogmatik, publ., with additions to the litera- 
ture, by J. Berger, 1801. 4th ed., with new additions to the literature, by H. A. 
Schott. 1818. 

Cp. A. Ammon, Summa theol. christianae. Gott., 1803. 

Inbegriff der evangelischen Glaubenslehre, etc. Gott., 1805. 

Ausfiihrlicher Unterricht in der christl. Glaubenslehre. Nurnb. and Altd., 1807- 

1808. 

C. Daub, Theologumena. Heidelb., 1806. 

J. Ch. W. Augusti, System der christl. Dogmatik nach dem Lehrbegriffe der luther. 
Kirche im Grundrisse dargestellt. Lpz., 1809. 

H. A. Schott, Epitome theol. christ. dogmat. Lips., 1811. 

* J. A. L. Wegscheider, Institutiones theol. christ. dogmaticae. Hal., 1815. 7th ed., 

1833. 
*K. G. Bretschneider, Handbuch der Dogmatik der evangel.-luther. Kirche. Lpz., 
• 18i4. 3d ed. Also Systeme in den dogm. Lehrbiichern von Schleiermacher, Mar- 

heineke, und Hase. Lpz., 1828. 2 vols. 5th ed., 1860. 
* Systemat. Entwicklung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe. 4th ed. 

Lpz., 1841. 
*W. M. L. de Wette, Dogmatik der evang. -luther. Kirche nach den symb. Biichern 

und den altern Dogmatikern. Berl., 1816. 1. 
f F. Brenner, Freie Darstellung der Theologie in der Idee des Himmelreichs, oder 

neueste kathol. Dogmatik. Hamb., 1815-18. 3 vols. 

Katholische Dogmatik. Frankf., 1827-30. 3 vols. 

f J. Thanner, Wissenschaftl. Aphorismen der kathol. Dogmatik fiir akad. Vorlesungen. 

Salzb., 1816. 
F. A. Klein, Darstellung des dogm. Systems der evang. -protest. Kirche. Jena, 1822. 

3d ed., 1840. 
Ph. Marheineke, Die Grundlehren der christl. Dogmatik. Berl., 1819. 
System der christl. Dogmatik. Berl., 1847. 

* F. Schleiermacher, Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsiitzen der evangel. Kirche 

im Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl., 1821, 1822.^ 2 vols. 

* A. D. Ch. Twesten, Vorlesungen liber die Dogmatik der evangel-luther. Kirche nach 

de Wette's Compendium. Hamb., 1826-29. 
*K. Hase, Lehrbuch der evang. Dogmatik. Stuttg., 5th ed., 1860. 
Gnosis, od. evang. Glaubenslehre fiir die Gebildeten. Lpz., 1827-29. 3 vols. 

^ The title of the older original is : Doctrinae christ. pars theor. e libris sacris repettta. 
Stuttg., 1793, 180r. 

2 Comp. with reference to this work, the criticisms of Ratze (1823), Braniss (1825), Delbriick 
(1827), Schmidt (1835), Rosenkranz (1836), die Uebersicht des Systems by Gess (1837), Welssen- 
boni, Darstellung und Krltik der Schlelermacher'schen Dogmatik. Lpz., 1849. Martin, Etude 
sur ies fondements de la dogmatique de Schleiermacher. Geneve, 1869. 
29 



450 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

*(K. Hase) Huttenis redivivus, oder Dogmatik der evang.-luther. Kirche. Lpz., 1829. 

11th ed., 18G8. 
*G. Ch. Knapp, Yorlesungen iiber die christl. Glaiibenslehre nach dera Lehrbegriffe 

der evang Kirche, publ. by K. Thilo. Halle, 1827. 2 vols. 2d ed., 1835. Amer. 

ed. Andover, 1836. 
A. Hahn, Lehrbuch des christl. Glaubens. Lpz., 1828. 2d ed., 1857, 1858. 2 vols. 
H. G. Tzschirner, Yorlesungen iiber die christl. Glaiibenslehre nach dem Lehrbegriff 

der evang.-protest. Kirche, publ. by K. Hase. Lpz., 1829. 
L. F. 0. Baumgarten-Crusius, Grundriss der evang.-kirchlichen Dogmatik. Fiir Yor- 
lesungen. Jena, 1830. 
E. F. Gelpke, Evangel. Dogmatik. Bonn, 1834. 
J. Ch. F. Steudel, Die Glaubenslehre der evang.-protest. Kirche nach ihrer guten Be- 

griindung. Tiib., 1834. " 
J. P. Mynster, Betrachtungen iiber die christl. Glaubenslehre; from the Danish by 

Th. Schorn. Homb., 1835. 
f H. Klee, System der kathol. Dogmatik. Bonn, 1831. 

j Kathol. Dogmatik. Mainz, 1835. 4th ed., 1861. 

f J. G. Hermes, Christ-katholische Dogmatik. Miinster, 1831-34. 3 vols. 

J. D. F. Strauss, Die christliche Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Ent- 

wicklung und im Kampfe mit der modernen Wissenschaft. Tiib., 1840, 1841. 

2 vols.i 
J. J. Cheneviere, Dogmatique chretienne. Geneve, 1840. 

W. Bohmer, Die christl. Dogmatik oder Glaubenswissenschaft. Bresl., 1843. Yol. 1. 
H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, dargestellt und aus 

den Quellen belegt. Erlang., 1843. 5th ed., 1863. Amer. ed,, transl. by Hay and 

Jacobs. Phila., 1876. 
f F. A, Staudenmaier, Christl. Dogmatik. Freib., 1844-52. 4 vols. 



ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

1. General. 

Arminius, James, The Works of. From the Latin, in 3 vols. Auburn and Buifalo, 

1853. 
Binney, Amos, and Steele, Daniel. Theological Compend Improved. New York, 

1875. 
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edinburgh. 
D wight, Timothy. Theology : Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons. 5 vols. 

New York, 1846. 
Hodge, A. A, Outlines of Theology. 8vo, pp. 678. New York, 1878. 
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. 4 vols. (vol. iv being an Index.) New 

York, 1873. 
Hovey, Alvah. Outlines of Christian Theolog)^ Providence, 1870. 
Knapp, George C. Lectures on Christian Theology. Translated by Leonard "Woods, 

Jun. London, 1831. 
Martensen, H. Christian Dogmatics. Edinburgh, 1866. 
Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Christian Theology. Boston, 1867. 

1 Comp. the Critique of Strauss' Glaubenslehre in its principles, hy Fischer (1841), Koster 
(1841), and Rosenkranz (1845). The destructive tendency inaugurated by that work has been 
carried to an extreme in Feuerbach, Wesen des Christenthums (Lpz., 1841 and 1848), and in 
other works issued by that school. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 451 

Pope, William B. A Compendium of Christian Theology. 3 vols. New York, 

1880. 
Eavmond, Miner. Systematic Theology. 3 vols. Cincinnati, 1 877-79. 
Schmid, Heinrich. The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. 

Philadelphia, 1846. 
Van Oosterzee, J. J. Christian Dogmatics. From the Dutch. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 388, 

430. New York, 1874. 
Watson. Richard. Theological Institutes. 2 vols. New York, 1836. 

2. Theology : The Divine Nature. 

Charnock, Stephen. Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God. 2 vols., 

Bvo. New York, 1874. 
M'Cabe, L. D. The Foreknowledge of God, ^nd Cognate Themes. Cincinnati, 

1878. 
Divine Nescience of Future Contingencies. New York, 1882. 

3. Christology. 
Bickersteth, Edward H. The Rock of Ages ; or. Scripture Testimony to the One 

Eternal Godhead of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. New 

York, 1861. 
Coulin, Frank. The Son of Man : Discourses on the Humanity of Jesus Christ. 

Philadelphia, 1869. 
Dorner, J. A. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ. 

5 vols. Edinburgh, 1878. 
Ecce Deus. Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ. Boston, 1869. 
Gess, W. F. The Scripture Doctrine of the Person of Christ. Andover, 1870. 
Liddon, Henry Parry. The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. London, 

1867. 
Sartorius, Ernest. The Person and Work of Christ. Boston, 1848. 
Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. 5th ed., 2 vols. 

Edinburgh, 1868. 
Turnbull, Robert. Theophany ; or, the Manifestation of God in the Life, Character, 

and Mission of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 239. Hartford, 1849. 
Ullmann, Carl, The Sinlessness of Jesus ; an Evidence for Christianity. Edinburgh, 

1858. New ed., 1870. 
Van Oosterzee, J. J. The Image of Christ as Presented in Scripture. London, 

1874. 
Wilberforce, Robert J. The Doctrine of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

Philadelphia, 1849. 

4. The Holy Spirit. 
Buchanan, James. On the Office and Work of the Holy Spirit. Edinburgh, 1856. 
Hare, Julius Charles. The Mission of the Comforter. 3d ed. London, 1876. 
Paraclete, The. An Essay on the Personality and Ministry of the Holy Ghost. 

New York, 1875. 
Walker, James B. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; or, Philosophy of the Divine 

Operation in the Redemption of Man. New ed. Cincinnati, 1880. 

5. Atonement. 
Atonement, The. Discourses and Treatises by Edwards, Smalley, Maxey, Emmons, 
Griffin, Burge, and Weeks. With an Introductory Essay by Edwards A. Park. 
3d ed. Boston, 1863. 



453 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Barnes, Albert. The Atonement in its Relations to Law and Moral Government. 

Philadelphia, 1859. 
Beecher, Charles. Redeemer and Redeemed. Boston, 1864. 
Browne, Edward H. Sermons on the Atonement, and Other Subjects. London, 

1859. 
Bushnell, Horace. Forgiveness and Law, Grounded in Principles Interpreted by- 
Human Analogies. New York, 1874. 

The Vicarious Sacrifice. New York, 1866 

Campbell, John M. The Nature of the Atonement. 4th ed. London, 1873. 
Candlish, Robert S. The Atonement : Its Reality, Completeness, and Extent. 2 vols., 

8vo. London, 1867. 
Crawford, Thomas J. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement. 

Edinburgh, 1875. 
Dale, R. W. The Atonement : being the Congregational Union Lecture for 1875. 3d 

ed. New York, 1876. 
Magee, Wm.. Discourses and Dissertations on the Scripture Doctrine of Atonement 

and Sacrifice. From the 5th London ed. 2 vols. New York, 1839. 
Malcom, Howard. The Extent and Efficacy of the Atonement. Philadelphia, 1870. 
Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced from the Scriptures. 

Cambridge, 1854. 
Miley, John. The Atonement in Christ. New York, 1879. 
Oxenham, H. N. The Catholic Doctrine of tlie Atonement. London, 1869. 
Smeaton, G. The Doctrine of the Atonement, as Taught by Christ Himself. 2d ed. 

Edinburgh, 1868. 
Symington, William. On the Atonement and Intercession of Jesus Christ. 3d ed. 

New York, 1849. 

The Doctrine of the Atonement, as Taught by the Apostles. Edinburgh, 1870. 

Wardlaw, Ralph. Discourses on the Nature and Extent of the Atonement. New ed. 

Glasgow, 1844. 

6. Justification. 

Buchanan, James. The Doctrine of Justification. Edinburgh, 1867 

Davies, R. N. A Treatise on Justification. Cincinnati, 1878. 

Heurtley, Charles A. Justification. Bampton Lecture for 1845. London, 1846. 

Newman, John H. Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification. London, 1874. 

7. Evil^ Origin of. 
Lovett, H. Thoughts on the Causes of Evil, Physical and Moral. London, 1810. 
Naville, Ernest. The Problem of Evil. New York, 1872. 
Young, John. Evil not from God. New York, 1858. 

8. The Church. 
Arnold, Thomas. Miscellaneous Works: The Church. Pp. 9-72. New York, 1845. 
Augustine, St. The City of God. Edited by Marcus Dods. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1881. 
Bannerman, James. The Church of Christ. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868. 
Coleman, Lyman. The Apostolic and Primitive Church, Popular in its Government 

and Simple in ils Worship. Philadelphia, 1869. 
Litton, Ed. Arthur. The Church of Christ in its Idea, Attributes, and Ministry. 

8vo, pp. 468. Philadelphia and New York, 1856. 
Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Christ. New York, 1843 
M'Elhinney, John J. Doctrine of the Church, with a Bibliography of the Subject. 

Philadelphia, 1871. 



THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 453 

Palmer, William. A Treatise on the Church of Christ, 2 vols. New York, 1841. 
Whately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ. New York/ 1843. 

9. Resurrection. 

Bush, George. Anastasis ; or, The Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body. New 

York, 1845. 
Ilanna, William. The Resurrection of the Dead. Edinburgh, 1872. 
Westcott, Brooke Foss. The Gospel of the Resurrection. London, 1869. 

SECTION XVII. 
CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 

The theological ethics of Christianity, called by the elder writers 
Theologia Moralis and Ethica Christiana, describes the theory of 
the moral life as it should find expression in a Christian feeling, 
which is produced by a living faith, and approves itself in a Christian 
life. It occupies, in common with dogmatics, the ground of posi- 
tive Christianity, and, therefore, derives its fundamental principles 
from Christianity. In another direction, however, it pjace of chris- 
stands connected with the general or philosophical ethics ^^^^ Ethics. 
of human origin ; and while it differs from the latter with regard to 
its scientific form, and its starting points and motives, their sub- 
stance can never be contradictory to each other. 

This science has been erroneously called practical theology by 
some writers, who contrasted it with dogmatics, and regarded the 
latter as a theoretical department, dogmatics being held to deal 
with things to be believed, and practical theology with things to be 
done. For, although ethics has to do more particularly with man's 
powers of action and volition, while dogmatics is concerned with 
his powers of perception and cognition, it would yet be highly un- 
scientific to regard ethics as a mere collection of practical rules. It 
is even true that, in certain respects, ethics may be called a theory 
with more propriety than dogmatics, since every theory requires a 
corresponding practice.^ Ethics is certainly employed upon the 

^ This holds true of practical theology properly so called. A word here with re- 
gard to the designation of this science. Dorner, uhi supra, decides in favour of 
ethics, as compared with "morals." " Mos, mores (whence comes moral discipline), 
_efers more especially to the outward appearance than to the interior source, and does 
not, by far, approach the meaning of the Greek rj^o^. Mores describes character, in- 
deed, but not its unifying source. 'Hi?of, originally the Ionic form of e^of, involves, 
on the other hand, what is customary, the moral as generally accepted ; not only em- 
pirical manners {mos\ which may be bad, but also what has been sanctioned, and is 
according to method and rule." Comp. Ersch and Gruber, Encykl. s. v. Ethos. Nor 
will it escape the notice of any who may study the usage of our time, that, while the 
word morality was formerly of universal application, it is now held to be more refined 
to lay stress upon " the ethical." 



454 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

practical side of the dogmatical system, but it is requisite that the 
practical side itself be theoretically, and, therefore, scientifically, 
apprehended, and it was for this reason that the necessity for a sep- 
arate treatment of ethics, apart from dogmatics, was acknowledged 
in a former connexion.^ Such a separation does not by any means 
involve a division by which ethics becomes independent of dogmat- 
ics. For even as faith and works are most intimately connected in 
the practical sphere of Christianity, so that works become the fruit- 
age of faith, so is Christian ethics everywhere based upon dog- 

^,^ matics. The absence from a system of Christian morals 
Christian Etb- .... . 

ics based on of indications which everywhere give evidence of the 
dogma ICS. doctrinal views of its author, is always a bad sign.'^ As 
dogmatics, moreover, reaches back with its most general ideas into 
the philosophy of religion, so must Christian ethics join hands, in 
its scientific expression, with philosophical ethics;^ and it will even 
resemble it more closely in outward appearance than dogmatics can 
resemble the philosophy of religion. This results from the fact that 
the features which are peculiar to a positive religion are more clear- 
ly apparent in its doctrinal statements than in its moral precepts. 

Every historical religion, nevertheless, possesses definite moral 
convictions, through which it governs peoples and times — a fact 
which may be traced down through all the subdivisions of Protes- 
tantism and Roman Catholicism.* It will, therefore, be necessary 
for philosophical ethics to descend to the level occupied by the his- 
torical phenomena of the moral life which come under the influence 
of positive religions, in order that it may derive life for the general 
from particulars — unless it should prefer to move about in the 
midst of dead abstractions. But its work will consist in utilizing 
whatever is gained in this way in the determining of the character 
of universal morality, while Christian ethics is concerned to dis- 
cover the concrete and historically defined, and especially the char- 
acteristically Christian features, for their own sake. Its task is. 
Christian Etn- therefore, as de Wette has shown,' analytical in its na- 
ics analytical; ^^^g while that of philosophical ethics is synthetical. 

philosophical, ' , . , . i . ^i - 

syntheticai.v The differences which exist between the two may, ac- 
cordingly, be stated as follows: 

^ Section 1, Part 1. 

2 Schleiermacher, § 229. Comp. also ibid., Christliche Sitte, p. 3 sqq. 

3 It will, doubtless, be apparent that one philosophical system cannot possess au- 
thority in Philosophical and a different one in Christian ethics.— Schleiermacher, § 22Y. 

4 Comp. Schleiermacher, § 228, note ; Marheineke, System des KathoHcismus, iii, 
pp. 20-29. 

^ Lehrbuch der Sittenlehre, § 3. 



CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 455 

1. Philosophical ethics has to do with the determining of man 
toward morality as a whole/ while Christian ethics represents the 
manifestation of the divinely human life in the person of Christ as 
constituting the ideal of morality, and, consequently, requires of 
each individual that he should become like Christ. This forms the 
Christian doctrine of the highest good.' 

2. The startingpoint of philosophical ethics lies, necessarily, in 
the moral self-determination of man, which involves the evidence 
of its own truth, in opposition to any determination on the part of 
nature, while Christian ethics regards the Spirit of God as the de- 
termining power through the effectual working of his grace in the 
believer's heart. This is the Christian doctrine of virtue which re- 
sults, without the slightest modification, from the teachings of 
Christian dogmatics. 

3. Philosophical ethics regards man in the relations which he 
sustains toward the world, and determines his duties by that rule; 
Christian ethics has regard primarily to the relations sustained by 
him toward the kingdom of God. This is the Christian system of 
duties. 

The above distinctions should not give rise to the misapprehen- 
sion that a philosophical and a Christian morality, which could con- 
flict with each other, may exist, or that a thing may be moral 
according to the principles of the one and not so according to the 
principles of the other. The truth is, that the one serves merely to 
confirm the other. Morality, which presents to view the Harmony of 
human element, can no more be contradictory to that andcSuan 
which involves the Christian element than the ideas man etbics. 
and Christ can contradict each other. Even Christian morality is 

^ The obligations of Christian ethics are binding only upon Christians ; philosoph- 
ical ethics puts forth a universal claim, for its object is to secure the control of every 
person who is able to comprehend the philosophical principles from which it is de- 
duced." Schleiermacher, Christliche Sitte, p. 2; comp. p. 7 sqq. ; de Wette, uhi 
supra. Rothe like A^se agrees with this view at bottom (Theol. Ethik., p. 35), although 
he does not distinguish Christian so much as theological ethics from philosophical. 
"The latter begins with the moral consciousness considered simply in that character, 
while the theological proceeds from that consciousness as it exists in the individual, 
under the determinate religious form assumed through the influence of the particular 
Christian Church to which he may belong, and also from the historical ideal of moral- 
ity as found in the Redeemer's person, of which the former is but a reflection." But 
Christian and philosophical ethics do not come into contrast with each other on his 
view, because philosophical ethics and philosophy in general are essentially Christian 
within the bounds of Christendom. Rothe concedes a relative contrast, however, in 
so far as mankind have not been altogether penetrated by the influence 9f Chris- 
tianity. 

2 See Schleiermacher, uhi supra^ p. 36. 



456 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

required to adapt itself to the conditions of mankind generally,' 
and the philosophical must tend toward the Christian as its goal. 
The foremost principle of the one, in each instance, is the ultimate 
aim of the other. Religion, when regarded from the standpoint of 
philosophical ethics, constitutes the crown and beauty of the moral 
life, while from that of Christian ethics it forms its root. In the 
view of philosophical morality, the Christian community is but one 
society beside others, in the State, in behalf of which certain duties 
are doubtless to be performed ; but the human society of the State, 
as being the most general form of a moral organism, is the under- 
lying idea. 

Christian ethics, on the other hand, starts out from the idea of 
the Christian community as a distinctively religious organism, and, 
spreading outward in constantly expanding circles, it comes to in- 
clude at last the duties which men owe to the State. Brotherly 
love {(pLXa6eX(l)ia), which has its origin in love to Christ, is by it 
extended into universal love. The supreme law in philosophical 
ethics, on the contrary, is respect for the dignity of human nature in 
other people, from which most general conception it afterward de- 
scends to the level of the several conditions of actual life, in which 
righteousness becomes spiritualized, and transformed into the prin- 
ciple of love. The latter result would, of course, be beyond its 
powders of attainment, did not Christianity itself afford it a clearly 
defined embodiment of the idea; for "it is able," in its character 
as philosophical ethics, "to do no more than set up pattern speci- 
mens of the moral life in general outline, while Christian ethics sets 
forth in detailed examples and precepts the problems which have 
actually been solved in the pages of Revelation." "" Christian ethics, 

1 De Wette, § 9 : " Christian ethics is required to be human, to adapt itself to 
human capabilities and needs, since it could not, on the contrary principle, bring an 
effective influence to bear on man." Bruch, p. 19 : " The more thoroughly the ethics 
of Christianity is apprehended, and the spirit by which it is animated is understood 
in its purity, the more will the conviction grow that it is nothing else than the truest 
reflection of the legislation which is woven into the nature of the human mind, and 
which, asserting itself in living power in the mind, is designed to lead man toward the 
goal of his destination." Pelt, Encyklopaedie, p. 520 : " True reason is always one, 
and finds its highest and purest mode of expression in Christianity ; the task remains 
the same." 

2 De Wette, § 4; or, in other words, Pelt, Encykl., p. 620: "The process of the 
unification of nature and reason is only indicated in the philosophical realm, while it 
is accomplished in the Christian." But comp. Dorner, uhi supra, p. 190: "The sep- 
aration of the two branches of philosophical and theological ethics, which must con- 
tinue at feast as long as philosophical ethics may desire, causes conflict. This, how- 
ever, is beneficial, not only to the end that reason, outside the pale of Christianity, 
may recognise with increasing clearness that its truth and purity are attainable only 



CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 457 

therefore, passes beyond the philosophical. To the former be- 
long the recognition of moral conditions and an abun- christian ethics 
dance of moral forces which are in thorough harmony transcend pmi- 
with human nature, though imparted to it rather than °^°^ 
originating in it. It may be said, accordingly, that to this extent 
philosophical ethics has to do simply with the moral nature of man, 
while Christian ethics is engaged upon the positive and Divine 
qualities which have been introduced into that nature, with grace 
and its salutary effects. It is, of course, necessary that a correct 
idea be obtained of this positive element, and of its relation to the 
natural man. It is the task of dogmatics to secure this idea. 

SECTION XVIII. 
cheist's work the basis of ethics. 

The positive element of Christian ethics does not consist in any 
authoritative letter of either the Old or the 'New Tes- Tj^gpogitiyggi^,. 
tament, but in a course of life which was introduced ment of Christ- 
into human conditions, and typically actualized, by 
Christ, and which, through the influence of his Spirit, is to be con- 
tinued in the community of believers, and to approve itself as a 
moral force upon the outside world. 

It was long customary to so conceive the positive feature of 
Christian ethics, and the characteristics by which it is distinguished 
from philosophical ethics, as to warrant the statement that the lat- 
ter acknowledges the authority of reason only, the former that of 
the Bible. Two entirely different authorities were thus opposed to 
each other in a form altogether outward, it being assumed that the 
Bible contains a collection of Divine commands, which were even 
characterized as "arbitrary," as contrasting with the autonomous 
requirements of reason. ^ The idea bears only against a false and 
merely formal supernaturalism, which assumes that the Bible is 
simply a code of faith and morals, and grounds the positively re- 
vealed ethics in the good pleasure of God. The Old Testament may 

through the religion of the incarnated ^.oyoc., but also on account of the non-Christian 
elements in Christian theology itself, which afford a partial endorsement of the ethics 
of the general human reason as against theological ethics, until the ethical self-con- 
sciousness of the Church, which coincides with the ideal process by which the first 
and the second nature interpenetrate each other, is complete." Comp. also Gelzer's 
Monatsbl., ubi supra. 

^ Ernesti, Vindiciae arbitrii divini in religione constituenda (Opusc. theol. i, p. 171 
.s'^-.). Per contra, Toellner, Disquisitio, utrum Deus ex mero arbitris potestatem suam 
legislatoriam exerceat, etc., Lugd. Bat., 1110; de Wette. tcbi supra, p. 4. Comp. 
Dorner, ubi supra, p. 188, against this false positivism. 



458 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

possibly correspond to such an idea, and the Decalogue, although 
it might with but little difficulty be traced back to the general 
foundations of morality, has, in point of fact, been long compelled 
to serve as a framework for Christian ethics. 

But it is also true that they who have correctly regarded the 
leaching of Jesus as the regulative feature, have too constantly 
considered it as merely statutory, without sufficiently remembering 
Jesus not a that the profound significance of that teaching can only 
^d^ ^statutory ^^ Comprehended in connexion with the life of Jesus 
teacher. and with the entire work of salvation. Jesus did not 

aim to enunciate disconnected moral maxims, like Epictetus, nor is 
his example, to which appeal is made, mere superadded example ; 
and it cannot, in many circumstances, be example even for us.^ For 
a Christian disposition does not consist in the imitation of his ex- 
ample in special matters, but in the imitating or appropriating of 
his spirit (Phil, ii, 5). As dogmatics builds upon the foundation 
laid by apologetics, whose work is to prove that Christianity is a 
religion, and indeed the absolute religion, so is ethics required to 
begin with taking its stand upon the apologetical result that Christ 
is the sinless One, the actualized moral ideal for humanity, and 
that, therefore, Christianity is not simply a general sort of moral 

phenomenon, but the universal moral power which rules 
Christianity the ^ , ■, \ t> t i • -Fx 

universal moral over the whole 01 modem history. Hence its positive 
1""^^' feature is not a letter, but an act — the revelation of 

God through Christ incarnated in human nature. Its question, 
therefore, will not be merely, "What is written?" but rather, 
"What is in harmony with the spirit of Christ?" Likewise, as 
dogmatics already entertains ideas which are not expressly con- 
tained in the Bible— for example, the Trinity — so is Christian ethics, 
in the course of its development, imperatively required to pass be- 
yond the letter of the Bible, and is, therefore, required to engage 
in the exact definition of moral ideas. The most blessed fruits of 
Christianity are fruits of which but the germ exists in the Bible— 
for example, the idea of a Christian State, of Christian marriage 
and all that it involves, of the abolition of slavery, of respect for 

1 The situation that one comes to occupy when he demands for every particular act 
a warrant from the moral deportment of Christ, may be learned from the example of 
Thomas a Kempis, who deduced the duty of writing books from John viii, 6. Vide 
Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii, p. 161. Schleiermacher's words re- 
lating to the individual bearings of Christian ethics (Die christliche Sitte, p. 48 sqq.) 
are very significant in this connexion. The setting up of a pattern in the field of 
morals is always a questionable procedure. An ideal, such as that to which we seek 
to attain, is more than a pattern which we strive to copy. 



CHRIST'S WORK THE BASIS OF ETHICS. 459 

individual life, and of religious services on the Christian Sabbath. 
These have been freely developed in the course of human life, with- 
out any direct command or statute in the Scriptures imposing the 
duty. Hence, as dogmatics presupposes the history of doctrines, so 
does Christian ethics have regard to the entire development of the 
Christian life, in which connexion such malformations as Montanism, 
Pantheism, Gnosticism, Asceticism, Jesuitism, Quietism, also come 
under notice, as marks of warning, similar to the study of heresies 
in dogmatics. 

SECTION XIX. 

DIVISION OF ETHICS. 

Christian, like philosophical, ethics falls into general principles 
and particular or applied ethics. The former is concerned with the 
settling of the moral principle, or, better, of the objects Christian eth- 
and motives of moral action, and hence, with the mves- ics general and 
tigation of man's moral nature and capacities, the cor- ^^ 
rect bounding of the ideas of good and evil, of sin and imputation, 
and of grace and freedom. It also has to do with the work of set- 
ting forth the goal of all moral effort, with the doctrine of the 
highest good, all of which leads back again into the profoundest 
depths of the doctrines of the faith. Special ethics, on the other 
hand, has to do with the particular manifestations and expressions 
of the moral life in given circumstances, and is subdivided into the 
particular doctrines of virtue and of duty. 

The division into general and special ethics is, of course, only 
relative. Rothe's observation, in opposition to this view, that it is 
" merely external and formal, in a thoroughly abstract way," ^ is 
correct if the division be taken as an absolute one, and if it be car- 
ried out in an abstract and lifeless manner. But an examination 
of Rothe's work itself will show at once that the first two volumes 
contain general ethics, together with matter that is usually includ- 
ed under dogmatics, and that the third is devoted to special morals, 
although the author, at this point, in connexion with the doctrine 
of duties, again distinguishes between the general and the par- 
ticular. He justly declares, that, with reference to general ethics, 
the discussion relating to a "supreme moral principle" ^. ^ fRotiie 
is confusing and without result. He demands, instead, Hariess, and 
a threefold object, which he disposes into the doctrines 
of good, of virtue, and of duties. Other writers have preferred a 
different division. Hariess sets forth the following three parts; 

» Theol. Ethik, i, p. 199. 



460 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the good, the possession, and the preservation, of salvation. The 
last named of these has to do with " the concrete manifestation of 
Christian virtue in the fundamental relations of human life," and 
hence coincides, in this regard, with special ethics. Pelt likewise 
divides ethics into three parts :^ (1) The actualizing of the highest 
good upon earth in the form of the kingdom of God ; (2) Of the will 
of the individual, to be developed in conformity with the doctrine 
of duties ; and (3) The realizing of the highest good in the habitual 
character of individual Christians, or the doctrine of virtue. Rosen- 
kranz, following the antithetical method of the Hegelian school, di- 
vides the whole of ethics into the two diverging ideas of good and 
evil, and of human freedom.^ By this method the first and second 
form the general, and the third the special, part.^ 

Schleiermacher's division is in harmony with his fundamental 
views of Christianity.' The end of Christianity is held to be bless- 
schieiermacii- edness in God, which, however, has been disturbed by 
er's mettiod. ^-j^g consciousness of sin. This fact gives rise to a feel- 
ing of disinclination, out of which comes an impulse to act in the 
direction of restoring the idea, now violated, of the relation between 
the higher and the lower potencies of life, or, in other words, of 
restoring human nature to its normal condition. This is restorative 
action. Over against such disinclination, moreover, is an inclination, 
or voluntary desire, to yield to the authority of the higher require- 
ment, and this gives rise to expansive or extensive action. But, 
in addition, there are elements of satisfaction, intermediate between 
the inclination and the disinclination, which do not, indeed, corre- 
spond to absolute blessedness, but yet are a relative blessedness; 
and these originate action, designed, not to introduce changes, but, 
while remaining without any proper efficiency, to serve as an ex- 
pression of the individual's inward state. This is descriptive action, 
whose only object is to recommend the personal experience of the 
individual to the favour of others. Its general expression compre- 
hends everything which we are accustomed to include under the 
name of Christian worship. 

Whatever may be the method, however, by which it is intended 
to formally connect theological ethics with dogmatics, on the one 
hand, and, on the other, to combine or isolate philosophical ethics 
from dogmatics, and whatever may be the mode by which we seek 
to distribute the proper tasks of philosophical ethics over different 
departments, and to trace the various radii from the centre to the 

^ Encyklopaedie, p. 519. ^ Ibid., p. 57. 

3 Other methods of dividing are given in Pelt, p. 523. 
* Christliche Sitte, p. 44 sqq. 



DIVISION OF ETHICS. 461 

circumference of life, everything will depend upon the discovery 
of the centre itself, in order to trace, in the spirit of the Gospel, 
"the main outlines toward a thorough regeneration of the moral 
life in both State and Church." ' 

Asceticism and pedagogics are sometimes regarded as special 
subdivisions of ethics, the former as teaching man how Asceticism and 
to train himself for morality, the latter as showing how pedagogics. 
he may train others. But since every exercise of moral power re- 
acts upon the moral disposition, while the good cannot be secured 
without conflict, it follows that asceticism is already conditioned in 
morality. Many forms of exercise occur in the practice of godli- 
ness [yvjivaoia, 1 Tim. iv, 7, 8), being at times largely negative, and 
aiming to avert the evil by reacting against the power of sensual 
allurements, as we see in the mediaeval asceticism, fasting, mortifi- 
cations, voluntary abstinence, and in other abnormal forms. Then, 
ao^ain, they are largely positive, stimulating the good by meditat- 
ing upon the supreme good itself, and by absorbing the emotions 
in the divine ideals. All of this, however, finds a place in moral- 
ity itself. According to Schleiermacher's division, the former would 
belong to. the class of restorative actions, and the latter to that of 
descriptive actions. 

The moral principles involved in education must likewise be dis- 
cussed in ethics, and more especially under the head of expansive 
actions.^ The art of training, however, the technics of education, 
forms a distinct science, which is properly termed pedagogics, but 
which is not a theological, but a philosophical, science, in so far as 
it deals with man as a whole. It belongs to practical theology in 
so far as it is concerned with a training for ecclesiastical life. 

Casuistry, too, has been treated as a distinct branch. It has to 
do with cases in which duties come into conflict with 
each other [de casihus conscieiitiae). Kant designated 
it as the "dialectics of conscience." It is, however, merely the 
outgrowth from a scholastic and Jesuitical morality, and, as such, 
is to be banished from a sound system of ethics, inasmuch as it does 
not present actual cases of conflict to view, and merely resolves 
apparent cases by a higher law. 

' Gelzer, Protest. Monatsbl. fiir innere Zeitgeschichte, 1854, Preface to vol. iv. 
The author includes among the most indispensable prerequisites for such a work, a 
profound understanding of modern history from the Reformation to our times, and 
incessant energetic investigation of original sources, and inquiry into the original 
meaning of Christianity, and also into the laws of its transformations in the field of 
secular and ecclesiastical history. 

2 See Schleiermaeher, uhi supt'a, p. 53 ; Rothe, iii, p. 679 sqq. 



463 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

SECTION XX. 

THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 

E. Feuerlein, Die Sittenlehre des Christenthums in ihren geschichtlichen Hauptformen, Tiib., 
1855 ; A. Neander, Vorlessungen uber die GeschicMe der christlicTien Ethik, pub. by Erdmann, 
Berl., 1864; C, S. Wake, Evolution of Morality; being a History of the Development of Moral 
Culture, 2 vols., Lond., 1878; A. Thoma, Geschichte des christlichen Sittenlehre in der Zeit des 
N. Test., Haarlem (Lpz.), 1879; Wuttke, Christian Ethics, 2 vols., N. Y., 1873, treats the History 
in vol. I. 

The Bible presents to our notice neither a system of morality nor 
one of doctrines; but it has a wealth of moral precepts, all of which 
are animated by, and borne upon, the spirit of the theocracy, and 
which are interwoven with the history of God's kingdom, like pearls 
in a diadem. Nor did the apostolic fathers refrain from moral ad- 
Ethicaiiabours nionitions. In the progress of the conflict with the 
of the Fathers, heathen, or antique, conception of the world, the more 
rigid view of Montanism soon came to occupy a place beside the 
milder tendency. In another direction, mistaken views of Christian 
liberty, on the part of the Gnostics, led into the dangrerous errors 
of the Carpocratians, and the later pantheistic sects of the Middle 
Ages. It thus became the task of Christian theology to more ex- 
actly determine and regulate Christian morality. Certain prelimi- 
nary labours had already been performed by the apostolic fathers 
and the apologists. We see this especially in Clement of Rome 
and the Shepherd of Hermas. Clement of Alexandria followed, 
giving many moral precepts, carried down to particulars in the 
pedagogics, and treating in his Miscellaneous works the moral law 
and virtue as the chief good. 

A considerable number of treatises of a moral nature are found 
in the works of Tertullian, which must be divided into classes, ac- 
cording as they were written before or after his conversion to 
Montanism, e. g., On Theatricals, Idolatry, The Soldier's Crown, 
The Pallium, Patience, Veiled Virgins, Exhortation to Chastity, 
Monogamy, Modesty, and other works. In a similar spirit Cyprian 
wrote an Exhortation on Martyrdom, on Good, on Patience, and on 
Works and Alms. The preachers Macarius, Basil the Great, the 
two Gregories, Chrysostom, Ephraim Syrus, and Cyril of Jerusalem 
made extended use of moral references, and many of their sermons 
are purely moral. Ambrose, too, in his w^orks on Virgins, and on 
the Duties of Ministers of the Church, and Augustine, in his works 
on the Morals of the Catholic Church and on Continence, furnished 
Ethical works of 1^01*^1 and ascetic treatises. Jerome rendered profit- 
early writers, able service, especially to monastic asceticism, in his 
polemical conflict with Jovinian and Vigilantius, and his Morals of 



THE HISTORY OF ETFIICS. 463 

Gregory the Great (died 604), in his work on Job, indicate the na- 
ture of their contents by their title. In this department, as in dog- 
matics, the work of compilation preceded that of systematic ar- 
ransfement, as we see in several of the works of John of Damascus. 

The doQfmatical works of scholasticism include ethics also, it be- 
ing largely controlled by the "four cardinal and three theological 
virtues" of Aristotle. Casuistry, also, was developed under its in- 
fluence, Raymond de Pennaforte (died 1275) obtaining special celeb- 
rity by his Summary on Penitence. The Victorines and the later 
Mystics penetrated more deeply into the foundations of the religi- 
ously moral life, but committed the error of not basing asceticism 
upon the spirit of Christian liberty. This applies also to the valu- 
able Imitation of Christ of Thomas a Kempis. The Etwcai reaction 
continually increasing corruption in the Church after m the Church. 
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon, and the separation of 
the churches, produced a mighty reaction. 

The forerunners of the Reformation, such as Wycliffe, Huss, and 
others, pointed out, among other things, moral infirmities, and the 
reawakened interest in classical studies, likewise, intro- Humanism and 
duced a new feature into ethical teaching. Morality ethics. 
was exalted into a guide to the wisdom of Christianity for the 
practical government of life by Petrarch (died 1374), Marsilius 
Ficinus (died 1499), Louis Yives (died 1540), Erasmus (died 1563; 
Manual of the Christian Soldier) and others. Savonarola (died 
1498) wrote his Simplicity of Christian Life in a spirit of larger 
sympathy with Christian faith. While the Reformation must 
be regarded as a moral renovation, not as a reform of abstract 
doctrine, it ^as yet, first of all, necessary that the new principle 
should be apprehended in the way of conquiering the faith of men. 
The reformers, therefore, appear as moral heroes and The reformers 
inaugurators of a new period, but not as moralists in ^"^^ ethics. 
the strict sen^e. Zwingli, however, presents with special force in 
his sermons the morals of practical life. He performs that same 
office, also, in his writings, The Shepherd, Freedom of Foods, and 
other works. Luther, in his Letters, Meditations, Sermons, Appeal 
to the German Nobility, and similar writings, gives living witness 
of the moral spirit by which he was animated. Melanchthon, in his 
Elements, however, accorded a scientific treatment to ethics, though 
from an ancient standpoint. Calvin, who, as a reformer, was 
a Christian, Cato-like censor, included ethics in the doctrine of re- 
generation, as expounded in his Institutes, under the Life of the 
Christian Man, The Bearing of the Cross, and other chapters.^ In 
^ Institutes, ii, 8 ; comp. lib. iii, c. 6-8. 



464 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

the Reformed Church generally it was common, in view of the 
position occupied by the Old Testament, to attach great promi- 
nence to the legal element, and to combine it into a system, chiefly 
in connexion with the Decalogue. 

The first to treat Christian ethics as a separate theological depart- 
First separate ^^^^ belonged to this Church— namely, Lambert Da- 
treatment of naeus (Danaen, died 1536), in his Christian Ethics 
(Geneva, 1577, 1601-40). The school of Saumur pro- 
duced in the seventeenth century the Christian Morals (1652-69, 
6 vols.), by Moses Amyraud (died 1664), in which the attempt was 
made to harmonize natural with revealed ethics. A new interest 
was imparted to the study of ethics by the Cartesian philosophy, 
particularly within the Reformed Church;^ and Arminianism gave 
special prominence to the ethical side of Christianity as constitut- 
ing an essential feature. 

After Calixtus' had, in the Lutheran Church, separated ethics 
Protestant eth- f^om dogmatics, which he does in his Epitome of Moral 
icai writers. Theology (1634-62), other affiliated works were pub- 
lished, such as those of Conr. Durr, of Altorf (died 1677; Com- 
pendium of Moral Theology, 1698); G. Th. Meier, of Helmstedt 
(died 1693); J. Ch. Schomer, of Rostock (died 1693; Moral The- 
ology Consistent with Itself, 1707), and similar works. The two 
movements of Pietism and Methodism reacted upon the ethical life 
with stimulating and purifying effect. The close of the old and 
the transition into the new period was marked, both in dogmatics 
and ethics, by Buddaeus in his Institutes of Moral Theology (1711, 
1724), and J. L. Mosheim in his Ethics of the Holy Scriptures 
(Helmst. and Leips., 1735-53, 9 vols.). These were succeeded by 
Rambach (1738, 4to), S. J. Baumgarten (Halle, 1764), Crusius 
(Leips., 1772, 1773, 2 vols.), G. Less (1777, 4th ed., 1787), Ende- 
mann (1780, 2 vols.), Doderlein (Jena, 1789; 3d ed., 1794), Mich- 
aelis (Gott., 1792, 2 vols.), Morus (1794-99, 3 vols., published by 
Voight), and others. 

In the Roman Catholic Church the Jesuits especially devoted 
Roman catho- themselves to ethics, dragging it further and further 
lie ethics. into the labyrinths of casuistry, and shaking it to its 

lowest foundations by their miserable theory of probabilism. The 
most notorious are Gabriel Vasquez (died 1604), Thomas Sanchez 
(died 1610), Francis Suarez (died 1617), Paul Laymann (died 1635), 

' Conip. Pelt, p. 479. 

^ The Lutheran Church had not been without ethical writers even prior to Calixtus ; 
the latter merely gave to ethics a more systematic form, and brought it into connexion 
with the body of Church teaching. Comp. Henke, ubi supra, p. 514. 



THE HISTORY OP ETHICS. 466 

Vine. Filliucius (died 1622), Escobar (died 1669), and Busenbaum 
(died 1669), in his Marrow of Cases of Conscience. This work, 
which first appeared in 1645, has passed through 52 editions. It 
has been rewritten and enlarged by Lacroix (Cologne, 1757) and 
others. Jesuitism was confronted b}^ the stricter and more Augus- 
tinian spirit of Jansenism and the school of Port Royal, to which 
Ant. Arnauld, Pierre Nicole (Essay on Morals, Par., 1671-1714, 
6 vols.), and Pasquier Quesnel (Abridgment of the Morals of 
the Gospel, Par., 1693) belonged. They combined with a thor- 
oughly sincere moral disposition a strict asceticism, amounting 
almost to enthusiasm, and not unfrequently an obscure mysticism.* 
Quietism was a distinct outgrowth from this tendency. 

A new period for ethics began with Kant and his doctrine of the 
Categorical Imperative, by which ethics was happily Kant's treat- 
delivered from the fetters of an erroneous theory of ment of etwcs. 
blessedness, or Eudsemonism, but was at the same time robbed of 
its profound religious motives, and transformed into a species of 
moral arithmetic. Even Christian ethical writers, such as Ammon, 
followed this system for a time, while others, as Reinhard, pro- 
ceeded by the eclectic and empirical route. Men of strong supra- 
naturalistic faith, like Schwarz and Flatt, contented themselves 
with adhering only to what is scriptural, without starting out with 
any definite scientific principle. De Wette has pointed out the 
necessity for such a principle.'* As Schleiermacher created an 
epoch in philosophical ethics by his Critique of Morals, so his treat- 
ment of Christian ethics is thoroughly peculiar, and everywhere 
based on the specifically Christian element. From this time a 
striving to attain to a more thoroughly scientific character is appar- 
ent in most of the Protestant works belonging to the department 
of ethics, however strongly their authors may be controlled by dis- 
similar fundamental views. 

Richard Rothe has, according to Bunsen's judgment, penetrated 
more deeply than his predecessors " into the innermost marrow of 
ethical speculation, and has demonstrated that Christianity is the 
realization of the highest thoughts of God." In the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, Liguori (died 1787) and Bened. Stattler, (Ethics, 1782) 
endeavoured to restore probabilism. Others adopted the older 
scholastic method, for example, Liebermann in his Institutes (May- 
ence, 1840, 5 vols.). Among the Roman Catholic moralists who 
have shown themselves accessible to the scientific impulses of the 
century, to a greater or smaller extent, we may mention Schwarz- 

^ On this point compare especially Reuchlin's Gesch. von Port Royal. 
2 In Berlin wissensch. Zeitschrift, 18X9, Nos. 1 and 2. 
30 



466 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Imber (1785), Lauber (1784-88), Wanker (1794), Mutschelle (1802, 
1803),Geisshuttner (1803),Schenkl (1802, 1803), Reykberger (1794), 
Reigler (2d ed., 1828), and Vogelsang (Bonn, 1834-39, 2 vols.). 
The latter is a disciple of George Hermes. The manuals and text- 
books of J. M. Sailer (Bishop of Ratisbon), Heinrich Schreiber, 
and Joh. Bapt. von Hirscher are especially noteworthy because of 
their practical aim. 

LITERATURE OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 

F. V. Reinhard, System der christl. Moral. Wittenb., 1788-1815. 5 vols. 

J. W, Schmid, Theologische Moral. Jena, 1793. 

— — Christliche Moral, wissenschaftlich bearbeitet. Jena, 1797-1804. 3 vols. 

C. F. Ammon, Die christliche Sittenlehre nach einem wissenschaftl. Grundrisse, zu- 

nachst fiir seine Vorless. Erl., 1795. 

JSTeues Lehrb. der relig. Moral u, der christl. insbesondere. Gott., 1800. 

Handbuch der christl. Sittenlehre. Lpz., 1823-29. 

C. F. Staudlin, Neues Lehrb. der Moral fiir Theologen, nebst Anleit. zur Gesch. der 

Moral u. der Moral Dogmen, Gott., 1815. 
f J. M. Sailer, Handb. der christl. Moral, zunachst fiir Seelsorger. Miinch., 1818. 

New ed. Sulzb., 1834. 3 vols. 

* W. M. L. de Wette, Christl. Sittenlehre. Berl., 1819-23. 3 vols. 

Lehrb. der christl. Sittenlehre und der Gesch. derselben. Berl., 1833. 

F. H. Ch. Schwarz, Evang. christl, Ethik. Lehr- u. Handb. fiir Theologen und andere 

gebildete Christen. Heidelb., 1821. 
J. F. V. Flatt, Vorles. u. christl. Moral. Tiib., 1823. 

* L. F. 0. Baumgarten-Crusius, Lehrb. der christl. Sittenlehre. Lpz., 1826. 
J. F. Bruch, Lehrbuch der christl. Sittenlehre. Strassb., 1829-32. 

L. A. Kahler, Christliche Sittenlehre. 1st division. Konigsb., 1833. 

* Wissenschaftlicher Abriss der christl. Sittenlehre nach Johanneisch-apostol. 
Principien. Konigsb., 1835 ff. 

f H. Schreiber, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie. Freib., 1834. 2 vols. 

f J. B. von Hirscher, Die christl. Moral, als Lehre von der Verwirklichung des gott- 

lichen Reichs in der Menschheit. Tiib., 1835. 3 vols. (Comp. Tholuck's lit. An. 

zeiger, 1839. Nos. 76-79). 
C. Sartorius, Die Lehre von der heil. Liebe, od. Grundziige der evang. -kirchl. Moral- 
theologie. Stuttg., 1840-56. 4 vols. 
H. Merz, Das System der christl. Sittenlehre, nach den Grundsatzen des Protestantis- 

mus im Gegens. zum Katholic. Tiib., 1841. 
*G. C. A. von Harless, Christl. Ethik. Stuttg., 1842. 7th ed., Gutersl, 1875. Eng. 

transl. by Morrison and Findlay. Edinb., 1868. 
*F. Schleiermacher, Die christl. Sitte nach den Grundsatzen der evang. Kirche im 

Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl,, 1842. (Vol 12 of Sammtliche Werke, and 

vol. 7 of the Literar. Nachlass zur Theologie). 

* R. Rothe, Theol. Ethik. Wittenb., 1845-48. 3 vols. New ed., 1871, in 5 vols. Ibid. 
Ph. Marheineke, System der theol. Moral. Berl., 1847. 

f Caj. V. Weiller, Grundlegung zur Ethik als Dogmatik. Miinchen, 1848. 
jF. Probst, Kathol. Moraltheologie. Tiib,, 1849, 1850, 2d ed., 1853. 2 vols, 
f K. Werner, System der christl. Ethik. Regensb., 1850-53. 3 vols. 
f B. Fuchs, System der christl. Sittenlehre. Augsb., 1850, 1851. 3 vols. 



THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 467 

f F. Elger, Lehrbuch der kathol. Moraltheologie. Regensb., 1851-53. 2 vols. 

f K. Martin, Lehrbuch der kathol. Moral. 2d ed. Mainz, 1851. 

W. Bohmer, System der christl. Lebens. Breslau, 1853. 

f M. Jocham, Moraltheologie oder die Lehre vom christl. Leben nach den Grundsatzen 

der kathol. Kirche. Sulzb., 1854. 3 vols. 
f L. Bautain, Moral des Evangeliums. From the French, by Gaisser. Tiib., 1856. 
C. F. Jager, Die Grundbegriffe der christl. Sittenlehre. Stuttg., 1856. 
A. Wuttke, Handbuch der christlichen Sittenlehre. Berl., 1861, 1862. 2 vols. 2d ed., 

ibid. Amer. ed., transl. by Lacroix. N. Y., 1873. 
Ch. Palmer, Die Moral des Christenthums. Stuttg., 1863. 
Ph. Th. Culmann, Die christliche Ethik. Stuttg., 1864-66. 2 parts. An extremely 

theosophical work. Comp. the review by Palmer, in Jahrb. f iir deutsche Theolo- 

gie, xix, 2. 
f Stapf, Epitome theologiae moralis. Edidd. Hoffmann at Aichner. Oenipont. 1865. 

3d ed. 
Wendt, Kirchliche Ethik. Vols. 1, 2. Lpz., 1864, 1865. 
Chr. E. Luthardt, Die Ethik Luthers in ihren Grundziigen dargestellt. Lpz., 1867. 

Vortrage liber die Moral des Christenthums. Lpz., 1872. 

A. F. C. Vilmar, Theologische Moral. Giitersl., 1871. 

A. V. Oettingen, Die Moralstatistik und die christliche Sittenlehre. ErL, 1868, 1869. 

Popular Works. 

W. M. L. de Wette, Vorlesungen liber die Sittenlehre. Berl, 1823, 1824. 4 vols. 
H. Gelzer, Die Religion im Leben. Reden an Gebildte. Zlir., 1839. 

Ethical Monographs. 
We mention merely as examples of this kind of literature : 
On Marriage: Jorg and Tzschirner (1819), f Klee (1835), Oischinger (1855). 

Divorce: Harless (1860), Huschke, Schroder. 
. Falsehood: Kierkegard (1829), Heinroth (1833). 

Falsehood when the result of Pressure: Boehme (1818). 

Oaths: Goeschel (1837), Riegler (1837, 1847). 

Suicide: Zyro (1837), Blumroder (1847). 

Life in the Christian Family: H. Thiersch (6th ed., 1872). 

Asceticism and its History : Zockler (see under Church History), etc. 
A large number of works on the observance of the Sabbath day have been issued in 

recent times, e. g.^ by Streuber, Oschwald, Liebetrut, Hengstenberg, Kraussold, 

Beck, and others. 
The relation of the Christian to politics has also become a question of considerable 

importance in Ethics in our day. To this place we must also assign the prize essays 

of the Harzergesellschaf t : On War, by Wickemann ; and on Capital Punishment, 
, by A. Bizius. 
Valuable service in the department of Christian Pedagogics ^as rendered by Schwarz 

(of Heidelberg), who wrote while Rationalism was yet prevalent. Comp. also 

J. C. A. Heinroth, Von den Grundfehlern der Erziehung, Lpz., 1828 ; Th. Schwarz, 

TJeber Religiose Erziehung, Hamb., 1834 ; K. Raumer, Die Erziehung der Madchen, 

Stuttg., 1854. Last ed., 1866. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 
Joseph Alden, Christian Ethics ; or, the Science of Duty. N. Y., 1867. 
Archibald Alexander, Outlines of Moral Science. N. Y., 1870. 
J. Bascom, Ethics ; or, Science of Duty. N. Y., 1879. 



468 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

Edward Beeoher, The Conflict of Ages ; or, the Great Debate on the Moral Relations 

of God and Man. Boston, 1853. . 
T. R. Birks, Supernatural Revelation ; or, First Principles of Moral Theology. Lond., 

ISYQ. 
John Blackie, Four Phases of Morals : Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism. 

N. Y., 1872. 
Henry Calderwood, Handbook of Moral Philosophy. Tth ed. Lond., 1881. 
James Challen, Christian Morals. Phila., 1859. 
Frances Power Cobbe, Religious Duty. Lond., 1864. 
J. Leadley Dagg, The Elements of Moral Science. N. Y., 1860. 
J, Llewelyn Davies, Theology and Morality, Belief and Practice. Lond., 18*73. 

D. Dewar, Elements of Moral Philosophy and of Christian Ethics. 2 vols. Lond., 
1826. 

Jona. Dymond, Essays on the Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Political 

Rights and Obligations of Mankind. N. Y., 1834. 
W. Fleming, A Manual of Moral Philosophy, with Quotations and References for the 

use of Students. New ed. Lond., 1871. 

E. H. Gillet, The Moral System; with an Historical and Critical Introduction, with 

Special Reference to Butler's Analogy. N. Y., 1874. 
Joseph Haven, Moral Philosophy ; Including Theoretical and Practical Ethics. Boa- 
ton, 1860. 
Laurens P. Hickok, A System of Moral Science. Revised with the Co-operation of 

Julius H. Seelye, LL.D. Boston, 1880. 
Mark Hopkins, The Law of Love, and Lov6 as a Law ; or. Moral Science, Theoretical 

and Practical; with Strictures by Dr. M'Cosh, with Replies. N. Y., 1869. New 

ed., 1875. 
Lectures on Moral Science ; Delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston. 

N. Y, 1862. 
H. Martensen, Christian Ethics. Translated from the Danish by C. Spence. Edinb., 

1873. 
A. P. Peabody, A Manual of Moral Philosophy. N. Y, 1878. 
Alexander Smith, The Philosophy of Morals. 2 vols. Lond., 1835. 
Sydney Smith, An Elementary Treatise on Moral Philosophy. N. Y., 1850. 
Samuel Spalding, The Philosophy of Christian Morals. Lond., 1843. 
Herbert Spencer, The Data of Ethics. N. Y., 1879. 
Ralph Wardlaw, Christian Ethics ; or, Moral Philosophy on the Principles of Divine 

Revelation. Lond., 1833. 
Francis Wayland, The Elements of Moral Science. 77th ed. Boston, 1865. 
Hubbard Winslow, Moral Philosophy ; Analytical, Synthetical, and Practical. 6th ed. 

N. Y, 1866. 
William Whewell, The Elements of Morality, including Polity. 2 vols. N. Y., 1845. 
Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England. New ed. Lond., 1852. 



SECTION XXL 
THE METHODOLOGY OE SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

The study of systematic theology can be pursued with profit only 
after the preparatory studies in exegetical and historical theology 
have been completed. Yet it is possible to so awaken an interest 



THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 469 

for dogmatics and ethics, while pursuing such preparatory studies, 
that a proper and methodical study of the former science will only 
require for its complete treatment such elements from the mental 
and outward experiences of life as have developed into personal 
convictions. It is by no means possible to master dogmatics by 
study alone. It requires to become a possession of the mind as the 
result of earnest conflict. The same is true of ethics. It is first of 
all necessary that Christianity shall have been justified as a divine 
fact to the personal consciousness, and consequently that apolo- 
getics shall have subjectively performed its work in the mind of the 
dogmatic theologian. Otherwise it will be impossible to determine 
and practically complete the objective development of dogmatics 
into a science. 

The study of encyclopaedia is designed to awaken an interest in 
dogmatics. The theologian is invited to direct his attention, with 
the first step he takes into the science, upon that point at which all 
theology culminates in a scientific aspect. He is not to lose sight 
of the goal while examining into the great variety of matters which 
intervene, although this is likely to occur where a soulless and 
micrological exegesis is employed, or the ordinary road of trodden 
ecclesiastical history is followed. The dogmatic heights cannot be 
stormed, but must be gained. The intervals that lie between can- 
not be overleaped. The fruit must ripen under the vivifying influ- 
ence, from within, of the religious disposition as it ascends into 
greater clearness, and, from without, of the streaming light of sci- 
ence. In its nature the study of dogmatics is partly historical and 
partly philosophical, and neither side should be culti- 
vated to the neglect of the other. A mere dogmatic historical and 
historian who is thoroughly " posted," as students say, ^ ^ osop^^ca . 
in his department, but who has not been inwardly impressed by 
his subject, and brought into relations of sympathy with it, resem- 
bles, according to Hegel, a counting-house clerk, who keeps an ac- 
count of the wealth which belongs to other people, without ever 
acquiring property of his own. But it is also true that the mere 
speculator who has failed to lay an historical foundation is not un- 
like the mercantile speculator, or swindler, without substantial cap- 
ital, who is, consequently, doomed to inevitable bankruptcy. It is, 
therefore, needful that the historical and the philosophical elements 
be combined in this study, and upon a scriptural basis. But if the 
conversational and disputational method, in addition to that of 
direct address, is in keeping anywhere, it is here. 

Disputation, however, will not accomplish every thing. The in- 
ward health, which holds together the marrow of the religious life, 



470 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 

and to which dogmatics must bear testimony, is of greater value 
than the gymnastics of the intellect. Mere science is inferior to 
wisdom, which, to use the expression of Gerson, requires a cogni- 
tion of the affections. The practical task of ethics is, at least, as 
important within the dogmatico-ethical department as the scientific. 
Religious ex- ^^ ^^^Y who has experienced the sanctifying, purify- 
perience neces- [jicr and elevatinsT Dower of the Gospel in his own be- 

sary to under- ... . . . ^ 

stand dogmat- mg, who IS earnestly striving to attain to that Christian 
ics and ethics, (disposition in which the Christian virtues find a reali- 
zation — he only will be able to speak of a fruitful and blessed ex- 
perience derived from the study of dogmatics and ethics. He only 
who internally participates in the weal or woe of the Church is 
entitled to an opinion upon these matters. Without this, however 
great may be his outward learning and logical ability, he can only 
speak of the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven as the blind may 
speak of colour.* 

This practical way is pointed out by our Lord himself (John vii, 
11) with reference to apologetics. The reading of writings for and 
against a principle, instructive as it is for the riper judgment," 
serves, as a general thing, to confuse rather than to set forth the 
truth. Only he who has learned from his own experience to know 
upon what point the weight of Christian truth is really directed, 
will be able to comprehend the exact salient point of apologetics, 

* " So long as moral and religious regeneration is regarded simply as a formula, to 
be recited from the catechism — and multitudes of nominal Christians have even now 
no other conception of its character — there will arise no loudly expressed opposition 
against it. Or, if it should arise, it will amount to noise only, and pass away in the 
antiquated squabbles of schools of theology. Far otherwise will be the case when 
the dead formula is transformed into a mighty law of life, and an effective regenera- 
tion is suggested such as will endeavour to permeate the State with moral influence, 
and lead the Church back to its eternal origin, that it may renew its youth ; at this point 
the ways of the living and the dead, of hirelings and the children of the house, will 
diverge. At this point of separation stands the present time." — Gelzer, ubi sup^a. 
" All that occurs in the profounder life of the soul is intelligible to them only who 
have passed through analogous experiences ; and in the same way the deepest experi- 
ence of the human soul, its union with Christ by faith, must ever remain unintelligible 
to those who have not partaken of it." — Gess, Uber die biblische Versohnungslehre, 
p. 33. 

2 Oberlin, for instance, prepared himself for his conflict with the freethinkers by 
reading the works of Voltaire. Comp. Oberlin's Leben, by Schubert, p. 29. In like 
manner the theologians of our day cannot be excused from learning to know the liter- 
ature of nihilism, whose highest perfection of form has been attained in Strauss's 
Old and New Faith, and which has entered on a new stage of development, as ideal- 
istic pessimism, with Schopenhauer's philosophy. But to begin with such studies, in 
the expectation of thus being enabled to discover the truth, is like plunging into a 
whirlpool for the purpose of learning to swim. 



THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 471 

and will be able, when encountering even unskilful argumentation, 
to sepai ate the kernel from the shell. So, too, the true Need of expe- 
tactics for the polemic, with which he may resist the rience. 
assaults of error, can only be acquired through the experience 
gained in conflict with the foe within his own being. Besides, it is 
only in connexion with such conflict that the courageous disposi- 
tion is developed which forms the necessary correlative to genuine 
Christian endurance. 

It is evident, finally, that the study of ethics also will be attended 
with profit only when personal moral growth keeps ^ 

pace with the progress of the study. Where conscience needed for 
is lacking the mind wdll, despite all the definitions for- study of ethics. 
mulated by science, never learn what constitutes the power of con- 
science, and in the absence of love it can never know wherein con- 
sists the might of love. It is indefatigable labour expended on 
himself that opens the moral nature of man to the vision of even 
the scientific inquirer. Only where the chief good is recognised as 
such, as the result of personal experience, can the doctrine of what 
is good be scientifically developed with success — the doctrine of 
duties only where obligation is personally felt, the doctrine of vir* 
tues only where Christian virtues are practically cultivated. In the 
absence of moral effort any amount of ethical studies will fail to 
become more than dry theory or lifeless, abstract doctrine. A 
majority of the errors committed even in the field of scientific 
ethics — for example, in casuistry — were coincident with a neglect 
of practical morality. The times of decadence in morality have 
ever reacted unfavourably upon the treatment of ethical science. 
Similar facts may be shown in the field of art. But incongruities 
between theory and practice are nowhere so strikingly apparent as 
when they exist in the sphere of morals, as in Pharisaism or hy- 
pocrisy. 



472 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 



SECTION L 

PEOVINCE OP PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Practical theology embraces the theory of Church activities or 
functions, whether they be exercised by the Church as 
practical the- a whole or by individual members and representative 
^ ^^' persons acting for the Church. Its task is regulated by 

the nature of religion in general, and by that of the Christian 
Church in its determinate historical individuality. It, therefore, 
builds upon all such studies as give to religion and Christianity a 
scientific character and an outward form. Its immediate sphere of 
action, however, is that of art — that is, of action emanating from 
known laws. 

In designating practical theology as a theory, we evidently depart 
from the usage by which the preceding departments are character- 
ized as theoretical in contrast with the practical.^ But usage may 
also prove our justification. It does not, at any rate, hold to the 
etymology of the word so far as to have us think, in connexion 
with it, simply of theorizing (-deoyQelv) — the properly contemplative 
as distinguished from the practical. On the contrary, whenever 
theory is spoken of a reference to practical ends is always under- 
stood, so that it denotes a guide to practice.^ This usage, less 

^ Marheineke likewise observes that *' the theology which is not practical is theoret- 
ical. The latter is knowledge for its own sake, the former for the sake of practice." 
— Prakt. Theologie, § 6. But knowledge having reference to subsequent action is the 
very thing that is denominated theory ! 

''The definition by Pelt, by which practical theology is made "a scientific knowl- 
edge respecting the self-development of the Church," is likewise inadequate. The 
knowledge is not alone sufficient in this case, but needs to be transformed into action, 
as Pelt himself remarks, in the progress of his statement (p. 561), when he says that 
practical theology aims to show how " the further development of the Church may 
be assured by the action of the Church in the present moment." It is true of every 
ecience, and, therefore, of this, that a theory of this nature must not be a rhapsodical 
something, but is required to become an organic whole, ''bearing the ide? -.pon 



PROVINCE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 473 

scientific than customary, it is true, would, accordingly, convert 
practical theology most emphatically into a theoretical science. It 
transmutes into action what the inquiring mind has brought before 
us from the fields of the philosophy of religion, exegesis. Church 
history, dogmatics, and ethics, and transforms the k-nLarrniri into 
TexvTj. It is not the application of an art, but the theory which 
qualifies for the practice of an art. It thus possesses a g^^g^^^^, ^^^^, 
claim to scientific character. For, while all theology acter of practi- 
aims, in its character as a positive science, to affect the ^^^ ^neology. 
life of human beings, it is yet incomplete without that department 
which is most directly engaged in carrying that positive aim into 
effect. It is, accordingly, with entire 'justice that practical theology 
has been termed, by Schleiermacher, " the crown of the tree." 

But, in like manner, as there is an internal unity of life in the 
crown of the tree which is outwardly repeated under a different 
form, so are all the different theological sciences repeated in prac- 
tical theology, but with reference to the life of the Church and its 
needs, and hence in the form of application.^ In its practical the- 
most general aspects practical theology reaches back p5Sfosophj^^S 
into the philosophy of religion, for it is designed to religion. 
redu-ce religion to practice in the life. Unless the nature of the 

which it rests within itself as a recognised germ of life" (p. 562). Vinet, speaking of 
practical theology, observes well and to the point : " It is art which supposes science, 
or science resolving itself in art. It is the art of applying usefully, in the ministry, 
the knowledge acquired in the three other departments of theology, which are purely 
scientific." — Pastoral Theology (Skinner's ed.), p. 21. Also Ebrard: "Practical theol- 
ogy, when examined in the light, is not a knowledge, but an ability; not a science, 
but an art, in which the theological knowledge that has been acquired becomes prac- 
tical, in which it undergoes a practical application." The contrary view is advocated 
by Palmer, ubi supra, p. 323 : " Not the application to certain concrete conditions of 
office and life of a previously indwelling knowledge, but a knowledge itself which the 
other departments of theology have not furnished, forms the contents of practical 
theology." We concede this, provided this knowledge be a knowledge relating to 
what is to he done. On any other view practical theology becomes the most hollow 
and unfruitful of all studies, while it is undeniably the most fruitful of them all when 
its eye is fixed upon actual life, 

^ It is not easy to understand why Graf (Prakt. Theologie, pp. 135 and 176) should 
object to this expression, unless the view introduced by Schleiermacher with reference 
to theology in general be regarded as antiquated (p. 136). Our idea does not, how- 
ever, involve a "popularized theology," but simply a scientific combination and elab- 
oration of the practical elements. Comp. what Vinet says : " The speculative side 
should have its place. Action is the last end of speculation ; but whatever may be 
the nature of the action, it is not sufficiently provided for if attention be confined to 
it in the practical point of view. It should be studied abstractly. ... He who re- 
gards the things of his profession only in the midst of action will act neither with 
freedom, nor with intelligence, nor with depth. — Pastoral Theology, p. 22. 



474 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

^ religion be understood, all worship, sermons, religious training, 
and care of souls will be impossible. The conception entertained 
with regard to the nature of religion will determine what the 
worship, sermon, catechesis, and the care of souls are to accomplish. 
But practical theology cannot be allowed to rest content with 
mere general definitions in religious matters. It has to do with 
well-defined Christian and ecclesiastical functions. It, therefore, 
presupposes, in its scientific work, the whole of the positive con- 
tents of Christianity — its facts and teachings, and, more than all 
else, a knowledge of the Bible. The sermon must be rooted in 
the Bible. The homilist needs to be also an exegete. It also re- 
quires familiarity with Church history. The entire constitution 
and government of the Church, and the organization of its worship. 
The historical are grounded in historical conditions, and cannot be 
basis. gp^^j^ Q^^ from abstract theories. Liturgies, for in- 

stance, is based upon archaeology, and Church government on the 
history of the constitution of the Church. The function of teach- 
ing, moreover, in all its departments, necessarily presupposes 
Christian doctrine, considered both in its establishment by apolo- 
getics and in its development by dogmatics and ethics. Finally, 
since Church functions are always exercised by a particular Church, 
having a determinate denominational character, and being exposed 
to the possibility of conflict with other confessions, practical the- 
ology is required to include also this symbolical and polemical side 
of theological science. It thus comes to pass that the symbol is 
reflected especially in catechisms and liturgies, and that the consti- 
tution of any particular Church corresponds to its peculiarities of 
confession. These considerations justify the placing of practical 
theology at the close of the theological course. Only that theolo- 
practicai the- gian who has passed through a preliminary scientific 
pie^es^'the^ the- training, and has received into himself and assimilated 
oiogicai course, the Substance of theological knowledge, is qualified to 
dispose of and utilize the possession he has acquired. The latter, 
however, will not accomplish itself. Hence, it is the task of prac- 
tical theology to present to view the combined practical features of 
all theology, and then to indicate the objects toward which the ac- 
tivities of the Church are to be directed, and also the laws under 
which its functions are to be exercised. 

The ofiice of practical theology is to show, not merely what may 
be admitted to the ecclesiastical field in the character of an estab- 
lished element of worship or Church constitution, but also how 
everything is to be administered. Only a crude empiricism would 
consent to leave this to the play of chance or considerations of 



PROVINCE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 475 

convenience. The scientific dignity of practical theology appears 
in the very fact that it will not rest satisfied with mere routine, but 
demands, and makes possible, a regulated action in behalf of the 
Church and in harmony with its spirit. Such action, in unison 
with law, we designate as being according to art, and therefore 
assign practical theology to the department of art as its legitimate 
field. It is important, however, that the word art be not under- 
stood in a perverted sense, so as to denote paltry arts True art the 
and tricks, or the unnatural, since true art is altogether highest nature. 
nature, taken out from its crude and accidental surroundings, intel- 
lectually illumined, and transmuted into consciousness. 

It is sometimes said by persons who are prejudiced against sci- 
ence, that the apostles were not learned men; that they did not 
treat preaching as an art, and that this work does not afford a field 
for the exhibition of art, because only what comes from the heart 
can effect an entrance into other hearts. Such objections, however, 
serve merely to show to what extent the real nature of art is yet 
misunderstood. The word is employed in this connexion both in a 
wider and a more limited sense. Practical theology is entitled to 
the name of a theory of art, even in the broader meaning, since 
every rational function which aims at a definite result must be 
guided and upheld by an authoritative principle. In this sense it 
is actually customary to speak of medical art, the corresponding 
feature to which in the theological field may, perhaps, be found in 
the art which has to do with the training and the care of souls. 
But a place in practical theology must be conceded to art also in 
tl^e narrow or aesthetical meaning of the word, in which sense it 
comes under the category of "descriptive functions."^ This will 
appear more particularly in connexion with the theory of worship, 
in the department of Liturgies. 

SECTION IL 

PRACTICAL SIDE OF CLERICAL LIFE. 

The aggregate of ecclesiastical functions, which constitutes the 
object of practical theology, may be comprehended under the two 
categories of Church Government and Church Ministrations. The 
clergyman is required by the practical relation which he sustains 

toward the Church to devote himself, predominantly, if „ 

' i "^ ' Former restrlo- 

not exclusively, to service in each of these depart- tion of practical 
ments. For this reason, practical theology has hitherto ^" °^^' 
been largely restricted to the task of furnishing a guide to clerical 

* Comp. Schleiermacher's division of Ethics, supra. 



47« PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

duties, or to the character of a science of the clerical calling, with 
particular reference to the ministrations of the Church. 

"The practical in theology," says Schweizer, "has in no wise 
been created by the spiritual order, but rather has itself produced 
this order, which is in a peculiar sense the servant of the Church. 
The theology, at times predominantly learned, and at other times 
more largely practical, has been developed by the Church itself, 
regarded as a community holding to a common faith." ^ His view 
requires that practical theology should begin with the institution 
of a spiritual order, a measure which belongs, according to Schleier- 
macher's arrangement, to the theory of Church government. Since, 
however, this branch has not as yet been largely developed, it 
would seem to be by no means advisable, in a methodological point 
of view, to place its scanty proportions in the foreground. It is, 
likewise, very difficult to divide the whole of practical theology 
between the two categories of Church government and Church min- 
istration.* It is impossible to separate them wholly from each 
other. The liturgical elements, for instance, belong to Church gov- 
ernment in so far as the organization of the worship is concerned,' 
and to Church ministrations when the administration of the worship 
is in question. 

It seems to be hazardous, upon the whole, to depart too greatly 
in this matter from the concrete facts with which we have to deal. 
We do not misapprehend the faulty character of an empirical proc- 
ess which yields as its result the simple fact "that preaching is 
carried on, and then constructs a theory — homiletics — to correspond 
with that fact." * But it is also necessary that, on the other hand, 
the a priori construction of a science whose very name indicates 
that it is designed to meet practical wants, be avoided. These 
Practical needs practical needs, moreover, have not arisen as the result 
hMoricai ^ dS ^^ "^^^^ accident, but grow out of the historical devel- 
veiopment. opment of the Church during her progress to this time. 
Hence they are consequently to be regarded as necessary rather 
than accidental facts, and as rooted in the history of the Church. 

To these considerations we must add the practical nature of the 
calling of the theologian himself. The primary object in which he 
is concerned, when, having been qualified for the service of the 
Church, he leaves the school behind, is certainly that he be intro- 
duced into the spiritual office. To acquaint him with the duties of 
that office is the work of practical theology. Should he confine his 
efforts in that position also to speculative labours merely, when may 

* Uhi supra^ p. 20. 2 ggg Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 35. 

* Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 269 and 286. * Schweizer, uhi supra, p. 24. 



PRACTICAL SIDE OF CLERICAL LIFE. 477 

we suppose that he will develop a sense for the practical? It is just 
this theory that constitutes a most distressing feature, that, after 
having in many instances spent numerous years in study, our young 
ministers often fail to know how to conduct a mere Bible class, or 
to construct a sermon that shall be more than a compilation from 
the notes of seminary lectures. If it happen that, in addition, their 
heads become filled with notions upon Church government through 
the study of practical theology, instead of their being brought in 
person to the place where safe action is necessary, what is to be 
looked for in such a case ? A morbid and total devotion to science, 
without due emphasis on its practical departments, would result in 
rendering the young preacher unpractical who is placed in the very 
heart of the activities of practical theology. It appears, Necessity of 
then, that, in connexion with the study of practical p^ctiraTsideof 
theology, the young preacher should be first directed clerical duties. 
into the fields which have already been cultivated by other hands — 
homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies — and led to put forth his effort 
there. It is, nevertheless, requisite that the nature of such studies, 
their internal necessity, and their connexion with the organism of 
the Church, as a whole, be made scientifically clear to his mind.^ 
After this he may extend the range of his vision beyond the culti- 
vated fields of Church ministrations, and embrace the uncultivated 
lands of ecclesiastical polity and ecclesiastical law.^ 

It is certainly an observation of real value, that the functions of 
the Church are not identical with those of the clergy, and, there- 
fore, may not be confounded with them. But the theologian must 
comprehend these functions, and the clergyman must execute them 
theoretically or in practice. A sudden attempt to establish a lay 
theology, in which the clergyman should take occasional part, but 
only with reference to his own person, would be wrong, and could 
just as well be applied to other departments. It may be said that 
the Bible is the common property of all Christians, and that there- 
fore exegesis belongs to all ; that the faith is the common property 
of the Church, and that dogmatics is consequently a science in 
which all may engage, and by no means theologians only. Since, 
however, theology as a science does not come within the reach of 
all men, but is empirically restricted to those who are occupied in a 
special calling and profession, we may say that exegesis, historical 

' Corap, Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 32, 

" Schleiermacher consequently evinced sound judgment in placing Church ministra- 
tions before Church government, Rosenkranz, too, conchides his Encyklopaedie 
with this department. Pelt, on the other hand, begins with the theory of Church 
organization. 



478 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

theology, and systematic theology have to do with what it is nec- 
essary that the minister should know. Practical theology, on the 
Difference be- Other hand, treats what he has to do, in the exercise of 
tween the re- a clear consciousness and as a pastoral function; act- 

lation of the . , , « , ^ 

preacher to mg, as he must, m the name of the Church, main- 
oio^^Tid^the ^'"^i^i^g ^ constant connexion and reciprocal relation 
other depart- of active influence with the Church. This practical 
ments. point of view will govern our arrangement, which does 

not rest on a xwiori considerations, but upon a simple recognition 
and observation of the state of facts in the case. 



SECTION HI. 

METHOD OF TEEATMENT. 

The duties for which practical theology is to qualify, admit of 
being divided according to various methods, which correspond to 
the different points of view that may be occupied. We class them 
under the three following categories : 

1. The gathering of individuals, and their introduction into the 
fellowship of the Church. This we call Halieutics and Catechetics. 

2. The guiding and promoting of the Christian life within the 

^ , . . Church society : a. As expressed publicly in connexion 
Categories of ^ ... . 

Practical The- with the worship, either in a prescribed or a more inde- 
^°^^' pendent form; this is Liturgies and Homiletics. h. As 

manifested in the wider circles embraced Avithin the Church, in the 
form of the care of souls ; this is Pastoral Theology. 

3. These functions are enclosed within the Organization of the 
Church, by which each clergyman is required to labour in his own 
place, and to whose proper management he must contribute; this 
is Ecclesiastical Polity and Law. 

Every mode of division involves deficiencies, which are owing to 
^ the fact that the actual state of the Church, with the 

All modes of ^ , ' . 

division imper- needs which have been made manifest by experience, 
^^ * does not in all respects correspond to the ideal of what 

the Church ought to be. A purely scientific arrangement, based on 
the idea of the Church, will not unfrequently come into conflict 
with things as they exist. On the other hand, one which starts out 
with a recognition of the actual condition of the Church is open to 
the charge of being controlled by accidental features, and, there- 
fore, of being unscientific. This objection was brought to bear 
against most of the earlier methods of arrangement, which, how- 
ever, in many instances, scarcely deserved this name, since they 
joined together homiletics, liturgies, and catechetics, at haphazard, 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 479 

without going back to the conditions lying deep in the organism of 
the Church, upon which their life depends. 

The disposition to organize this department has been manifested 
in different directions since the time of Schleiermacher, and divis- 
ions of the most various kinds have been attempted. Those by 
Nitzsch, Schweizer, Marheineke, and Moll principally deserve at- 
tention. Nitzsch conceives practical theology as being a ^ 
theory of Church functions, and divides the latter into Nitzsch and 
fundamental and conservative. Among fundamentals he ^ ^^' 
reckons homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies, the first two of which 
are included under the idea of the didactic. He divides the con- 
servatives into education and sacred politics. This method is fol- 
lowed in the dissertation cited above. A somewhat different view 
prevails in the larger work,* which divides the functions, jBrst, into 
those designed to edify, such as preaching, celebrations, the care 
of souls; and, second, into the regulative, such as internal and ex- 
ternal Church law, objectively as legislation, subjectively as the 
formation of government and constitution. Schweizer has raised 
important objections against the arrangement of Nitzsch. Of these 
we notice especially that which censures the destroying of the nat- 
ural connexion of homiletics with litursrics throusrh the association 
of the former with catechetics, thus giving to it a character too ex- 
clusively didactic. Schweizer proceeds upon the distinction be- 
tween Church government and Church ministrations, and gchweizer's ar- 
endeavours to carry further into details, and to modify, rangement. 
the plans marked out by Schleiermacher, with whom he agrees in 
the main. He deals, first of all, with the instituting of the spiritual 
order, the developing of a positive clergy from the natural clergy.'' 
He then lays down an ingeniously contrived division of Church 
ministrations, based upon Schleiermacher's distinction between the 
free and those restricted to set forms. Such restriction applies,^ 
most of all, to the services of the public worship, though less rigidly 
to the sermon than to the liturgy. It is less operative in the care of 
souls, where it appears more largely in the department of pastoral 

* Praktische Theologie, vol. i, p. 128, sqq. 

^ He obtains three forms: 1. The Roman Catholic, on which the sacerdotal char- 
acter of the individual {character indelebilis) makes a clergyman of the clergyman. [ 

2. The Illuministic and Quaker, where the distinction between those who impart and 
those who receive is but temporary, and determined by the particular service in hand. 

3. The Protestant, which is intermediate between the preceding two. 

2 The clergyman is restricted in services which he performs in the name of the 
Church, and as directed by her, being, so to speak, merely the organ of the Church, 
while in free activity his individuality may assert itself. Coincident with the above 
is the distinction between the fixed and movable. 



480 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

supervision than in that of unofficial service. It appears least 
of all in the work of winning souls to the Church,^ though more 
prominently when that function is exercised in connexion with the 
regular work of a church than in connexion with missionary work. 

Schweizer's division will, accordingly, result in the following 
schweizer's di- scheme: L The theory of Church government. IL The- 
vision. ory of Church functions; 1. Theory of worship; a. Li- 

turgies, h. Homiletics; 2. Pastoral Theology, the Care of Souls; 
a. ministerial, h. free ; 3. Halieutics, theory of the art of adding 
to the membership of the Church; a. Catechetics, h. Theory of 
missionary operations. 

Much may be said, however, in opposition to this division also. 

^ , ■ , Not only is the entire distinction between free and 

Defects of _ -^ 

Schweizer's restricted merely relative, as Pelt has shown,'^ but the 
arrangemen . j-gia^ivity itself, liis plus out of the minus, is not 
always properly graduated. Should catechetics — which, in its 
character as the service for immature minds, reaches back into 
worship, and therefore into the department which, more than 
others, is controlled by established forms — be less restricted to 
forms than the care of souls ? The missionary function, halieutics, 
moreover, is erroneously placed by the side of catechetics, while it 
ought to precede, and prepare the way for, the latter function, as 
well as for all the remaining ones, It is, certainly, a function of 
acquisition, Avhile catechetics is a preparatory function. Halieutics 
seeks its field, and finds it, beyond the limits of the organized eccle- 
siastical community; catechetics stands within those boundaries, 
though on the line. The two departments should, accordingly, lead 
and follow, instead of being placed side by side. The contrast be- 
tween freedom and limitation cannot be the determining idea in 
this matter. 

Marheineke distributes practical theology over the three concen- 
Marheineke's ^ric circles within which practical effort must be em- 
method, ployed. He distinguishes: 1. The Christian Church; 
2. The Protestant Church; 3. The particular, or local. Church. The 
ministrations of the Church have reference to the latter, and are 
divided into: a. The formation of the congregation, the instruction 

* From ukitvti alitvq, Matt, iv, 19. The term was first employed by Sickel in his 
Grundriss der christl. Halieutik, Lpz., 1829. We employ it in its broad meaning, not 
excluding Halieutics from Homiletics, with which it was identified by Sickel, but still 
regarding it primarily as the science of missions, and, therefore, placing it before Li- 
turgical Homiletics proper, and also before Catechetics. 

2 Encykl., p. 567. Comp. also the review in Bheinwald's Repert., 1837, vol. xix, 
p. 125, sqq. 



METHOD OF TREATMENT. 481 

of youth; catechetics. h. The assembling of the congregation; 

homiletics and liturgies, c. The influencing of individuals; care of 

souls. This method is also open to the objection of destroying the 

unity of the different functions. Liturgies concerns the life of the 

general, as well as that of the local, Church. Catechetics has to do 

both with future members of the Church, and, in part, with the 

congregation. Preaching is conducted in the name of the Church, 

and for the good of the congregation. Moll deduces the functions 

of practical theology from the nature of the Church, 
T . -r^ ^'' 1 • 1 ^ -I /-^.^ 1 -^ Moll's method. 

devotmg Fart i to the physiology oi the Church, and 

reserving the theory of ecclesiastical functions for Part II. These 
are divided into regulative, training, and edifying functions. The 
first class includes the constitution, the legislation, and the admin- 
istration of the Church. To the second belongs training by means 
of supervision, instruction, and discipline. The third has to do 
with liturgical performances. Harms constructed a 
witty scheme, without claiming for it any scientific 
character. It is according to the three P's — the preacher, the 
priest, and the pastor — the catechist losing his place, and being 
stowed away in the pastor's province. A fourth P ought to have 
been available for the pedagogue. The Roman Catholics, Drey, 
Staudenmaier, and Graf, have adopted still other divisions.* 

We might attempt additional methods to those which we have 
enumerated,^ For example, we might arrange an order according 
to the following plan: 1. The ofiicial and extra-official; or, based 
on the nature of religion, the directly religious and liturgical, 
designed to affect the feelings; 2. The homiletical, which operates 
more especially upon the understanding, and addresses its appeal to 
reason; 3. The practical, or pastoral, function, which directs its 
aim upon action — the practical life. In connexion with this scheme 
it would be necessary to regard catechetics, the common basis of 
the whole, as a preparation for the religious life in every direction, 
such as the public worship, the instruction, and the religious training 

^ See Pelt, tihi supra. 

2 This, as we observe, is substantially the same as that of Ebrard, in Liturgik, § 10, 
namely : a. Ministerium externum (catechetics and missions) ; b. Ministei^ium inter- 
num (worship and care of souls) ; c. The common bond of outward order (guber- 
natio). A different method is given by Ehrenfeuchter, Theorie des Cultus, p. 81, 
who gives the precedence to catechetics (the power of religion to produce doctrine 
and dogmas) ; the next place to the care of souls and ecclesiastical law (the power to 
penetrate through the individuality of nations in the course of historical develop- 
ment) ; and the last and highest place to liturgies, because the most diversified powers 
of the life of the Church flow together in the worship ; but, being deprived of move- 
ment, present themselves as settled states. 
31 



482 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of children. The entire discussion of this subject indicates that 
it would be prejudice to insist that any particular arrangement is 
the only correct one, and that every division which may be scien- 
tifically justified deserves notice in its place.^ 

SECTION IV. 

HISTORY OF PKACTICAL THEOLOGT. 

Directions for the conduct of the spiritual ofiice are already 
found in the Pastoral Epistles of the New Testament; in the Apos- 
tolic Fathers; in Tertullian, Cyprian, and Chrysostom, in his work 
on the Priesthood; Ambrose, in his treatise on the Duties of Min- 
isters; in Augustine, in his work on Christian Doctrine; and in 
Works of the Ephraem Syrus, in his work on the Priesthood,. To 
Fathers. these must be added The Pastoral Care, which is as- 

cribed to Leo the Great (died 461), the Book of Pastoral Care, to 
John, Bishop of Ravenna, by Gregory the Great (died 604), and the 
Epistle to Ludifredus on the Duties of Priests in the Church, by 
Isidore of Seville (died 636). During the Middle Ages the work 
on the Institution of the clergy, by Rhabanus Maurus, was a leading 
book for the training of the clergy, and many directions are found 
elsewhere for priests, bishops, monks, and Church ofiicers in gen- 
eral, according to the different gradations of the hierarchy and the 
requirements of different places.^ 

The forerunners of the Reformation turned their attention pref- 
Work of the erably upon practical theology. Wycliffe, among 
Reformers. others, for example, wrote a tractate on The Pastoral 
Office. But a special change was wrought in the character of prac- 
tical theology by the Reformation itself, by which it became the 
theory of culture for preachers and pastors, instead of remaining a 
theory of training for priests. The isolated directions of Luther 
were collected by Conrad Porta, of Eisleben (died 1585), in his 
Pastoral of Luther, which has been often reprinted since 1582, the 
last edition being that issued in Nordlingen in 1842.^ The term 

^ An absolute division is impracticable, because the several branches of practical 
theology are so interlaced as to admit of being represented separately only in a modi- 
fied sense. See Vinet, Past. Theol., pp. 22, 23. 

^ Comp. Ratherius of Verona, Synodica ad Presbyteros et Ordines ceteros forinse- 
cus, i. e., per universam dioecesin constitutos, in d'Achery, Spicileg. T. I., p. 3*76 sgg.; 
the Tractatus de raoribus et officiis episcoporum, by Bernard of Clairvaux (died 1153), 
addressed to the Archbishop Henry of Sens, and Neander, Der heil. Bernhard, 
p. IV, sqq. 

2 Ck)mp. F. Gessert, Evangelisches Pfarramt nach Luther's Ansichten, Bremen, 
1826. 



HISTORY OF PRxVCTICAL THEOLOGY. 483 

pastoral theology, which had alreaay been employed by Erasmus 
Sarcerius (1562), was now, with minor variations, transferred to 
other works also; for example, those of Quenstedt, in his Pastoral 
Ethics (1678, 1V08), of J. L. Hartmann (died 1684), of Kortholt, in 
his Faithful Pastor (1698), of Mayer, in his Museum of the Minis- 
ter of the Church (1690),^ and of other writers who did not always 
work in harmony with the spirit of Luther. 

The universities provided chairs of practical theology only in 
exceptional instances; for example, in Helmstedt and ^ f- i *>, 
Tubingen. Such features as were deemed important oiogy in the 
were generally treated in connexion with dogmatics ^^^^^^^^^^s* 
under the head of The Ministry, or in the chapter On Cases of Con- 
science. Spener, in his Pious Desires, and A. H. Francke, in his 
Pastoral Admonitions (1712), his Observations on Hartmann's Pas- 
torate (1739), and in his Pastoral College (1743), infused new life 
into this study. But, down to the close of the eighteenth century, 
the works most esteemed were those of Mieg (died 1708), Sacred 
Duties of the Protestant Pastor (1747), Deylingius (died 1755), In- 
stitutes of Pastoral Prudence (Lips., 1768), Pet. Roques (died 1748), 
The Protestant Pastor (1723, Germ., Halle, 1768), Mosheim (1754), 
and Tollner (1769), Outline, upon which followed Rosenmtiller 
(1778), G. F. Seller (1786), J. J. Pfeiffer (1789), and others. All 
of these, however, were superseded by Niemeyer. 

The rationalistic spirit of the age, which first found expression 
in Spalding's Utility of the Preacher's Office (1st ed.. Rationalistic 
1772), asserted itself during the final decades of the cen- p^rfctf cai 
tury in the secular mode of apprehending the task of theology. 
practical theology. Those profounder relations of the spiritual 
office, as they had been described by Herder, in his Provincial 
Sheets, were crowded into the background more and more. Graff e, 
with his dry formalism, allied himself with Kant, while Schlegel, 
on the other hand, emphasized the " promotion of Christian godli- 
ness," and F. H. Ch. Schwarz (died 183V) defined the Christian idea 
still more clearly. To this was now added the impulse for scien- 
tific arrangement which emanated from Schleiermacher, although 
works of even later date — for example, the very serviceable treatise 
by Hiiffell — were but slightly influenced by it.'^ Harms is original 
throughout, everywhere proceeding upon practical considerations, 
in this respect contrasting with Marheineke, who is purely specula- 
tive. The two complement each other; but the bridge which leads 

^Comp. Tholuck, Geist der Luther. Theologen Wittenbergs, p. 261. 
^ According to the judgment of some critics the work of Hiiffell has even lost in 
value by reason of its strict regard for scientific principles. 



484 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

over from tlie one to the other might be difficult to find by the 
student. In view of what has been done down to the present time, 
it may be asserted that, so far as Germany is concerned, Nitzsch 
has brought the science of practical theology to a conclusion for 
some time to come. Within the pale of the Roman Catholic 
Church Maria Theresa was the first to erect a chair of practical 
theology, its seat being in the national university of her realm, 
Austria. Sailer was efficient here, also, in a preparatory way, and 
was followed by Schenkel, Pawondra, Schwarzl, Gollowitz, Reichen- 
berger, Hinterberger, Herzog, and others.^ Among Rom.m Cath- 
olic works, that by Graf is preeminent. 

Little has been done in England or America for the scientific 
organization of practical theology. The usage has obtained of 
treating the functions of the minister under the two heads of 
preaching and the pastoral care, leaving Halieutics, Catechetics, 
Liturgies, and Ecclesiastical Law to be treated, without any 
attempt to assign them fixed places, or to be omitted altogether. 
Shedd speaks of the minister as both an orator and a pastor : as an 
orator he addresses masses of men; as a pastor he deals with indi- 
vidual souls. All of practical theology, threefore, which this writer 
considers is the formation of clerical character and the discharge of 
strictly parish duties. Hoppin, following the same general method, 
divides the minister's activities into those of the study and pulpit, 
and those which find their place outside of the study and pulpit. 
Yinet, who is regarded as an authority in America, makes the same 
twofold division : "The preacher instructs, the pastor trains up: 
the one receives and nourishes those who come; the other seeks 
also those who do not come." Kidder, however, takes in the whole 
scope of practical theology, though without attempting to show the 
logical connexion of its parts. It is made by him to include " a 
knowledge of the various theories of Church polity; the theory and 
administration of discipline; the history and use of liturgies; the 
agencies and details of Church enterprises ; catechetics, or the ele- 
ments of Christian instruction; homiletics, the science and art of 
Christian address ; and the duties and relations of the pastoral 
office."^ Practical theology, in England and America, still waits 
for a broader treatment which shall unite all the parts into one 
consistent whole. 

^ See Pelt, p. 55Y. ^ Christian Pastorate, p. 196. 



PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 485 



LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY IN GENERAL. 

Ch. F. Baur, Ueber das Verhaltuiss der prakt zur wissenschaft Theologie. Tiib., ISIL 
A. H. Niemeyer, Handbuch fiir christliche Religionslehrer. Halle, 1790, 6*th ed., 

1823 and 1827. 2 vols, 
f J. M. Sailer, Vorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie. 5th ed. Sulzb., 1853. 3 vols. 
J. F. C. Graffe, Die Pastoraltheologie nachihrein ganzen Umfange. Gott., 1803. 2 vols. 
G. Schlegel, Handbuch der praktischen Pastoralwissenschaft. Greifsw., 1811. 

F. H. Ch. Schwarz, Der christl. Religionslehrer und seine moralische Bestimmung. 

Giessen, 1798-1800. 2 vols. 

G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Entwurf eines Systems der Pastoraltheologie fiir Vorlesungen- 
Erl., 1816. 

* L. Hiiffel, Ueber das Wesen und den Beruf des evangel. -luther. Geistlichen. Geissen, 

4th ed., 1843. 2 vols. 
J. T. L. Danz, Die Wissenchaften des geistl. Berufs. im Grundrisse. Jena, 1824. 
F. B. Koster, Lehrbuch der Pastoralwissenschaft mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Pas- 

toralweisheit. Kiel, 1827. 

* Kl. Harms, Pastoraltheologie. In Reden an Theologie-Studierende. 3d ed. Kiel, 

1878. 3 vols. 
R. Haas, Der geistl. Beruf nach den neuesten Zeitbediirfnissen. Giessenj 1834. 2d 

ed., 1845. 2 vols. 
Ph. Marheineke, Entwurf der prakt. Theologie. Berl., 1837. 
J. J. Kromm, Der evangel-protest. Geistliche innerhalb der Grenzen seines heiligen 

Berufs. Mannh., 1839. 
t J. Widmer, Vortrage iiber Pastoraltheologie. Augsb., 1840. 

f A. Graf, Kritische Darstellung des gegenwartigen Zustandes der praktischen Theo- 
logie. Tiib., 1841. 
*C. I. Nitzsch, Praktisehe Theologie. Bonn, 1847, 1848. 3 vols. New ed., 1848-67. 

Index by Schmidt, 1872. 
K. F. Gaupp, Praktisehe Theologie. Berl, 1848, 1852. 2 vols. 
F. Schleiermacher, Die praktisehe Theologie nach den Grundsatzen der evangel. Kirche 

ira Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl., 1850. 
fF. Yogi, Pastoraltheologie. 7th ed., by GoUowitz, 1855. 
f J. Amberger, Pastoraltheologie. Regensb., 1851, 1852. 2 vols. 
C. B. Moll, Das System der prakt. Theologie, im Grundrisse dargestellt. Halle, 

1853. 
J. H. A. Ebrard, Yoi'lesungen iiber praktisehe Theologie. Konigsb., 1854. 
F. Ehrenfeuchter, Die praktisehe Theologie. 1st part. Gott., 1859. 
K. Kuzmany, Praktisehe Theologie der evangel. Kirche Augsb. und Helv. Conf. Zu- 

nachst fiir akademische Yorlesungen. Wien, 1860. 
W. Otto, Grundziige der evangelischen praktischen Theologie. Dillenb., 1866. 

Evangelische prakt. Theologie. Gotha, 1869. 2 vols. 

R. Kiibel, Urariss der Pastoraltheol. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1874. 

J. Paludain-Miille-r, Der evang. Pf arrer und sein Amt. From the Danish, by A. Struve. 

Kiel, 1874. 

E. Doye, Der evang. Geistliche als Pred., Priester und Pastor. Berl., 1874. 
A. Schweizer, Pastoraltheologie. Lpz., 1875. 

F. L. Steinraeyer, Beitrage zur prakt. Theol. Berl., 1874-79. 5 parts. 

G. V. Zezschwitz, System der prakt. Theol. I-pz., 1876-78. 3 parts. 
Th. Harnack, Praktisehe Theologie. Erl, 1877. 



486 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

SECTION V. 
CATECHETICS. 

Catechetics has to do with the introduction of persons into the 
Christian community, and therefore with the imparting of instruc- 
tion and the religious nurture connected therewith. Catechetical 
instruction in the Christian countries of our day is largely confined 
to children, who have been admitted into the Church by the rite of 
baptism and by the regeneration of the heart. But its range should 
also embrace the instruction of such adults as have not come under 
early religious training, or have neglected it. 

The function of receiving new members into the Church is pre- 
ceded by that of gaining new members for the Church, or rather 
Haiieutics and ^^^' the kingdom of God in general. This function of 
Keryktics. acquisition has been termed Haiieutics. It coincides 
with the missionary function, or Keryktics,^ and by its nature takes 
the precedence of catechetics. In view of the continually increasing 
demands of science, it was impossible that the missionary function 
should, in its steadily progressing development, retain an empirical 
character alone. It was compelled to gradually construct a science 
of missionary operations, and a good beginning has already been 
made in this direction.^ 

It is not proper, indeed, to embrace the methodology of missions 
within the circle of studies which are necessary to the future servant 
of the Church as such, because mission work, as historically devel- 
oped down to the present time, is, with few exceptions, rather a 
miatter for independent Christian effort than an enterprise of the 
Church in its official character. Another reason is, that the train- 
ing of the missionary varies from the ordinary course of theological 
training in many respects, both as to form and matter. The meth- 
Methodoiogy of odology of missions will, nevertheless, possess interest 
missions. foj. every theologian who is interested in the general 

work of missions ; and even within the bounds of Christendom the 

' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 298 ; Danz, p. 362, and the works bj Stier and Lindner, 
cited there. 

^ Such beginnings exist in the various instructions given to missionaries by the 
societies in whose service they are engaged, e. g.^ the Unterricht fiir die Briider und 
Schwestern, welche unter den Heiden am Evangelio dienen, Barb}^ 1'784; the in- 
structions in Annual Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society, Lond,, 1804-44; 
Melville Home, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1824; James Hough, The Missionary Vade- 
mecum, etc., Lond., 1832; William Swan, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1830. Also the 
special instructions relating to India, of Duff, Buyers, etc. Comp. also the Calwer Be- 
leuchtungen der Missionssache, since 1842 ; and especially W. Hoffmann, Missions- 
fragen, i, 1, Heidelb., 1847. 



CATECHETICS. 487 

■ultimate object always is to win souls for Christ. Plomiletics, too, 
must aim to win souls. The same must be said of catechetics and 
pastoral theology, although such effort differs considerably in char- 
acter from that which is expended upon persons who have no ac- 
quaintance whatever with Christianity. Within the Church the 
theory for such effort may, at least with reference to cultured 
persons, be largely regarded as applied apologetics. But, be- 
yond the borders of the Church, there is no element upon which 
it may lay hold aside from the religious spirit in human nature 
generally.^ 

Returning to catechetics, we observe that the name did not origi- 
nate accidentally;^ for iiari]x^lv (from ?]%of, a sound), whence Karr}- 
Xriri]^, Karrjxovfievog are derived, signifies, in both the New Testa- 
ment and the earlier Church fathers, to announce or instruct in a 
general sense (comp. Luke i, 4; Acts xviii, 25; xxi, 21-24; Rom. 
ii, 18; 1 Cor. xiv, 19; Gal. vi, 6). On this basis catechetics would 
be synonymous with keryktics. But by the more definite usage, 
which was subsequently developed, the name of catechists was 
applied to persons who prepared the novitiates for Christianity, for 
which reason they were also called nautologists, since they, accord- 
ing to a figure prevalent at the time, brought on board new rein- 
forcements for the crew. It will be necessary to hold fast this idea 
when attempting to determine the scope of catechetics. Every 
person whose Christianity is not yet sufficiently advanced to enable 
him to participate personally in the benefits of redemp- gcope of cate- 
tion, is yet a catechumen, a minor, whose susceptibility chetics. 
to the influence of both the edifying and the regulative function 
needs to be aroused.^ Every person who aids to qualify him for 
that end is a catechist. 

It is, of course, true that Christian youth — that is, that portion of 
the Church which has become incorporated with it through bap- 
tism and instruction in the Sunday-school, but which has not yet, 
by renewal of the baptismal covenant, been individually received 
into the fellowship of the Church — are with us the leading objects 

^ In dealing with Jews the Old Testament Scriptures furnish a point of contact; 
but the nature of the work becomes, for that very reason, different from that which 
must be employed with the heathen. It, as a rule, presupposes a knowledge of Chris- 
tianity, though not a Christian understanding, and is therefore more particularly po- 
lemical and apologetic than halieutic. 

^ Schliermacher, § 291, thinks that the term is too limited for the ground to be oc- 
cupied ; but it is in some sense also too broad, inasmuch as in the ancient meaning of 
the word KaTTjx^iv the homiletical function was also involved. A further discussion of 
the word KaTTjx^tv may be found in Zezschwitz, p. 17, sqq. 

^ Schliermacher, §§ 293, 294 ; Zezschwitz, System der Katechetik, Einl. 



488 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of the catechetical function.* But circumstances may exist in 
which adults likewise need catechetical instruction, as in the case of 
Jews, Mohammedans, or heathen who become Christians, or of Ro- 
man Catholics who become Protestants. It is, as can be readily seen, 
the task of ethics and pastoral skill to determine the general method 
of estimating such changes of relation from the religious and moral 
Difference be- point of view, while catechetics has to do with persons 
aTd"crteci!et! ^"^^ ^^^ ^^^^ already resolved to eifect that change.^ 
ics. But adult persons are found, even in Christian countries, 

whose immaturity in a Christian aspect calls for catechetical instruc- 
tion, either because they were not baptized in infancy or because 
their religious training has been wholly neglected. Nor is it by 
any means a settled question, with reference to a large portion of 
the Christian Church, especially in the rural districts, whether a 
form of instruction midway between the hermeneutical and the 
catechetical could not be introduced, which should carry forward 
and establish the instructions previously received by persons who 
have been admitted to fellowship among mature Christians.^ 

SECTION VL 

CATECHETICAL METHODS. 

The Christian religion rests upon the facts of consciousness as 
well as upon those of a positive revelation and of actual history. 
It follows, therefore, that the task of the catechist will involve the 
developing of religious feeling and of the understanding of the cate- 
chumen with regard to the inward truths of religion, as well as the 
The work of impressing on his soul of the great value of external 
the catechist. truths. This reflection will indicate to what extent 
the interrogative method is adapted to catechetical instruction. 

^ The instruction of candidates for Church membership is exclusively a clerical 
function, while the earlier religious training belongs, in part, to the school and the 
family. It follows that different classes of catechumens may be assumed, each of 
which will require a mode of treatment peculiar to itself. 

2 Palmer's exclusion of the instruction of proselytes from the scope of catechetics 
(Katechet., p. 5), and its being assigned to the field of missionary work, arise from 
the confounding of the function of winning and converting souls, by which the reso- 
lution to embrace the new faith is called forth, with the teaching function, which as- 
sumes the change of religious belief as an already existing fact, and is employed upon 
a more thorough exposition of particulars. The catechumen is no longer beyond the 
pale of Christianity, though he yet remains outside the Church. Comp. also what he 
has said in Section iii with reference to the relation of halieutics to catechetics. 

^ With reference to the catechization of adults, which Spener already introduced at 
Frankfort, and which others also successfully engaged in, see Burk, Pastoraltheol- 
ogie in Beispielen, p. 536, sqq. 



CATECHETICAL METHODS. 489 

This instruction should be, not mere instruction, but the training 
and nurture of the soul. 

Two methods are to be avoided at this point — the one going to 
the extreme of endeavouring to lead the young and inexperienced 
mind to discover every thing through the questions he is made to 
answer, w^hile the other goes to the contrary extreme of seeking to 
furnish him with the needed information wholly from without. 
Catechetics goes back to the nature of religion and Christianity, 
and is required to gauge its task by that rule. Religion Function of 
cannot be imparted from without like a material sub- catechetics. 
stance. The spark which God has placed in every human soul 
must be kindled into life. But this, in turn, must be accomplished 
through incitements and communications from without. Among 
these may be enumerated the presenting of religious examples, and 
of great religious occurrences and facts, the opening to view of the 
connexion running through the Bible history,^ and especially by 
directing attention to the splendour of the life of Jesus. All this 
must constitute the introduction to a subsequent strictly systematic 
method of instruction in the form of catechism. The method 
should also be accommodated to the necessary gradations of the 
course of instruction, being at one time more interrogative, and at 
another more in the form of direct statement. This w^ill serve to 
show how far the definition of Bertholdt ^ and others may be ap- 
proved, which asserts that "catechetics is the particular science 
which lays down the rules which are to govern in religious instruc- 
tion, imparted by the method of question and answer, in order that 
it may become appropriated and profitable." 

Many absurdities have been evolved, especially by Graffe, in 
connexion with this play of question and answer. There has been 
talk of spiritual Socratism, in which the fact was overlooked that 
Socrates had to do with very different persons from ^j^^ socratic 
those who, as a rule, come under the influence of the i^etbod. 
catechist.^ Their questions, moreover, have a very different aim. 

* " Catechetical instruction should begin with creating a clear conception of all these 
personages (Abraham, Joseph, Moses, Samuel, David, Paul, John), each of whom is 
representative of some particular feature of the religious life, but all of whom unite 
among themselves into a common whole." — Rosenkranz, p. 332. All that is merely 
mechanical, as well as all that is merely learned and critical, should be avoided. 

'^ Theol. Wissenschaftskunde, ii. p. 297. Mosheim regarded catechization as being 
" a reasonable and orderly conversation between teacher and pupil." — Sittenlehre (3d 
ed.), i, p. 488. 

* Hiiffell, i, p. 44*7, sqq. (2d ed.). " The Socratic method begets the conceit in the 
mind of catechumens that they, in some way, produce religion, and almost compels 
them to indulge in arrogant criticisms upon the faith whose wisdom has, after all, not 



490 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The natural process is that he should put the question who desires 
to learn about some matter, and it would follow that the catechu- 
men and not the catechist, should ask. 

This is the arrangement in the catechism of Leo Judseus. But it 
is the catechist who inquires in order to ascertain how much the 
catechumen knows — a task which may consist simply in the mechan- 
ical conduct of a recitation, which certainly does not deserve the 
name of a Socratic method ; or it may involve a process of inter- 
rogation which serves either to merely excite attention, to arouse 
independent thought, or, as being grounded in the conversational 
form, to logically advance the progress of the discussion. This last 
form is only available, however, when dealing with persons of some- 
what mature years and an advanced stage of knowledge. In such 
a case the various forms of questioning, such as the problematical, 
assertory, demonstrative, categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive, 
may all be employed ; not, however, so as to admit of their being 
previously memorized, but in such a way as to develop them natu- 
rally through the active interchange of ideas. The exciting of such 
Tbe real art of interchange in proper measure, together with the ani- 
the catechist. mating of its progress, constitutes the principal art of 
the catechist. This, however, cannot be accomplished by the mere 
eliciting of answers. The catechist will need to assert his right to 
speak at the proper point, to impart after having for a time de- 
manded. It is, therefore, as important to observe the proper key 
while narrating, expounding, and exhorting, as to impart the proper 
turn to questioning. 

The task of catechetics, however, is by no means fully exhausted 
Religious na- when directions relating to form have been supplied. 
shouidLXd- ^^ ^®' ^^'^* ^^ ^^^' essential that the religious nature of 
led. youth be studied in so far as it is the object of cate- 

chetics, and this not merely with reference to its powers of appre- 
hension, but in every direction in which it is displayed. At this 
point catechetics has general pedagogics for its basis, and this, ac- 
cordingly, would be the proper point for discussing the relation of 
religious instruction as imparted by the school to that dispensed by 
the Church. Much has been said upon this point from the peda- 
gogical point of view. But it is further essential that the subject- 
matter of the instruction, which is distinctively Christian in its 

yet dawned in any wise upon their understandings." — Rosenkranz, p. 3-35, Mar- 
heineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 315. Zezschwitz shows, however, that the abuse of the 
method of developing a subject by question and answer does not set it aside, but that 
its further development is a task of the art of catechetics, vol. i, p. 4; comp. p. 11 
sqq.j vol. iii, p. 23, sqq., and vol. iv entire. 



CATECHETICAL METHODS. 491 

character, be handled in accordance with clearly defined theolog- 
ical views, and also that the grading of the instruction, the object 
to be attained thereby, and the means to be employed, be clearly 
determined. The grading might be about as follows: 1. For the 
period of childhood, the exciting of religious feeling and reflection 
by means of repeating Scripture narratives and teaching simple 
texts, verses from hymns, and the like; 2. At the riper stage of 
youth for boys and girls the connected teaching of Bible history, 
accompanied with the teaching of the catechism. At this stage 
the didactic element will predominate; 3. At the stage of incipient 
manhood the instruction proper for all candidates for Church mem- 
bership, their preparation for the sacrament, and their initiation into 
the deeper unity of the Bible, in both history and doctrine, as well 
as into the teaching of the Church. With the latter process may 
be connected a survey of Church history, introduction into the life 
of the Church as a community, and into the life of devotion gener- 
ally. To what extent a stage of instruction beyond that for candi- 
dates for Church membership should be assumed is a question of 
practical importance,. but upon the answer to which the catechetical 
function is no longer dependent, since, in the nature of the case, its 
task was ended at joining the Church. All that is subsequent to 
that act belongs to ecclesiastical didactics and to pedagogics in its 
broad acceptation; for instance, the religious instruction imparted 
in Bible classes, in Sunday-schools, Church lyceums, lectures, and 
similar ways. Here we see the value of catechisms, of sacred histo- 
ries, of volumes of selected passages from the Bible, and many sim- 
ilar works. Every pastor should always have in mind the instruc- 
tion, and use of proper methods thereto, apart from his pulpit 
ministrations. 

But the true catechist has not fulfilled his task when, in his offi- 
cial capacity, he has conducted a session for the in- ^ , ^ ,. 

. ^ "^ . . . . Catechetics a 

struction of the children. He will bear in his heart the part of pastoral 
youth entrusted to his care (John xxi, 15: (Sooke to, dp- ^^^ ' 
via fiov). With this feature catechetics reaches over into the field 
of pastoral care. It is also customary, in many places on the Con- 
tinent, to connect the instruction of children with the public wor- 
ship, and in this respect catechetics comes into contact with the 
homiletical and liturgical functions — the arranging of an appro- 
priate worship for children. But where no such custom prevails 
the hour given to religion must not become one of instruction sim- 
ply,' but must at the same time be made an hour of edification, of 

^ " The catechetical function must not be confined to instruction, but must consist 
pre-eminently in developing a children's worship, the soul of which is prayer, and it 



492 PRACTICAL TPIEOLOGY. 

training in the practice of godliness, and hence a branch of worship. 
The summit of the catechetical function, finally, consists in the 
reception into Church fellowship, the recognition of whose signifi- 
cance and relation to the whole belongs to liturgies. 

SECTION VII. 
MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. 

The study of catechetics must not be confined to oral instruction 
merely, but must also involve appropriate practice, an opportunity 
for which should be afforded the student. Occupation with the 
general instruction of children will furnish a useful introduction to 
such practice; and the sttident who has enjoyed the benefit of 
thorough instruction in religion and of a thorough preparation for 
joining the Church, and who has preserved the blessed influence of 
such a course in his own heart, will, in a special sense, possess a 
great advantage over others. Diligent attention given to sound 
catechetical methods, and a general interest in the religious and 
intellectual life of the young, are also of advantage. 

The opinion is strongly entertained by many that catechetical 
knowledge will spontaneously develop itself. But precisely that 
which seems easy, even to children, is the most difiicult of all. Let 
Luther be remembered, who owned that he was obliged to give his 
entire life to the study of the catechism, and yet never could ex- 
haust the study. By way of contrast let a young minister, dried 
up with speculative and critical knowledge, be imagined as the 
centre of a circle of animated and joyous children. Does conceit 
lead one to despise these little ones, and is there in him nothing of 
the feeling which attracted Christ toward those of whom he said. 
Necessity of " of such is the kingdom of heaven"? In that case it 
svramttivwitif were better to acknowledge one's bankruptcy than to 
childhood. sin against the sanctuary of childhood. But if the love 
exists, and only practice be lacking, the needed remedy may yet be 
found. It is the task of the Church to provide that remedy. The 
end in view is not to be attained by hiring a few children through 
offering rewards, or forcing them into the auditorium as horses are 
driven in a riding-school, for the purpose of experimenting with them. 

must involve a disciplinary element." — Pelt, Encykl., p. 676. " The children's wor- 
ship must go hand in hand with catechetical instruction and with the several depart- 
ments of catechetics. It must preserve, nourish, make, and keep alive what these 
have planted."— Hirscher, p. 563 ; Vinet, Past. TheoL, pp. 229-235 ; Palmer, p. 536, 
s^'^'. / Kraussold, p. 1*79, s^-. ; Zezschwitz iii, p. 615. In the language of the early 
Protestants of Germany, recitations from the catechism were explicitly termed " pray- 
ings," a usage still in vogue in some sections of Switzerland. 



MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. 493 

The pastor should seek out the children in their sphere as he would 
look for plants in their natural soil. All young pastors, even 
those who are not constrained thereto by motives of economy, 
sliould endeavour to secure opportunity for the teaching of chil- 
dren. Even the scientific instruction of the young forms a valua- 
ble preparation for religious teaching, and the teaching of language 
and history especially will afford those gymnastic advantages wdiich 
were elsewhere looked for from the Socratic method. The ability 
to tell a story or relate an incident well is a special art to be ac- 
quired only by practice. But the religious disposition and con- 
tinued participation in the religious life are, here as elsewhere, a 
prime necessity. Every opportunity afforded the theological can- 
didate to teach a Bible class, or conduct a Sunday-school, should be 
thankfully embraced all through his theological studies. To observe 
a thorough catechist while surrounded by the children, and with 
him to enter into the thought and feeling of the children, will 
quicken the mind and impart courage. Hirscher beautifully says: 
" Fortunate art tliou if nature has provided thee with rich endow- 
ments; but, however this may be, let there be no lack of effort to 
secure what may depend upon thyself. A real enthusiasm will 
richly supply what nature might have bestowed in but inferior 
measure." ^ 

SECTION VIIL 

HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 

Comp. Langemack (died 1740), Historia Catecbetica (Stralsimd, parts 1-3, 1729-40) ; Kocher, 
Katechetiscbe Geschichte der pjipstlichen Kirche, Jena, 1753 ; Schuler, Gesch. d. katechet. Rel.- 
unterrichts unter d. Protestanten vou der Reformation bis 1762 (1766), Halle, 1802; Gilbert, 
Christ. Catecbet. bist., P. I., tres priores aetates complectens, Lips., 1835 ; Ditbmar, Beitr. zur 
Gesch. d. katecbet. Unterricbts, Marburg, 184S ; Ebrenfeucbter, Gescb. d. Katecbismus mit bes. 
Beriicksicbtigung d. Hannover. Landeskircbe, Gott., 1857 ; Mayer, Gesb. des Katecbiimenats u. 
d. Katecbese in d. ersten secbs Jabrhunderten, prize essay, Kempten, 1868 ; Weiss, Altkircbl. 
Paedagogik dargest. in Katecbumenat u. Katecbese der ersten secbs Jabrbunderte, prize essay, 
Freiburg, 1869; Vinet, Pastoral Theology (Skinner's Translation, 2d. ed.), New York, 1861; 
Kidder, The Christian Pastorate, Cincinnati, 1871 ; Elliott, Herraeneutical and Pastoral Lec- 
tures, New York, 1880 ; Phelps, Men and Books, New York, 1882. 

The catechumens of the ancient Church were not children; but 

childhood is already designated in the Kew Testament „ ^ ^ 

•' ^ * , Catechumens in 

(Mark x, 13-19; Eph. vi, 4; 2 Tim. iii, 15) as called to the ancient 
participate in the kingdom of God. With regard to "^^ 
the relation held by catechumens, and the different classes to which 
they belonged [dKpoG)fj,evoi, yovvuXivovreg, Karrjxovfisvot, (fXtyn^ofievoL) ^ 
consult the best works on ecclesiastical history. Zezschwitz says:' 
"Ecclesiastical antiquity has no knowledge of a rexvrj KarrjxrjriKT], or 
catechetical art. The latter appears in that character at a time 
1 Paare 724. 2 Paoje 15. 



494 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

when the governing idea is no longer the catechumenate, but the 
function of teaching." The Apostles' Creed furnished the subject 
matter of instruction at an early period. But distinctively cate- 
chetical discourses were also in vogue, together with addresses deliv- 
ered on the occasion of reception into membership. This we see 
in Cyril of Jerusalem, and in the Catechetical Discourse of Gregory 
Early catechet- <^f Nyssa. A guide for the instruction of adult cate- 
icai works. chumens was given by Augustine in the treatise on 
Catechetical Questions, addressed to the deacon Deogratias, at 
Carthage. 

The situation was changed when the baptism of children had be- 
come more general, and Christianity had been made the religion of 
the state. Then catechetics became, in consequence, more largely 
what it is in our day — a teaching of the young. Charlemagne ren- 
dered valuable service by providing for such teaching. The Ten 
Commandments and the Lord's Prayer were taught in addition to 
the Creed. These were termed Leading Articles, which extended 
also to the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The 
monks Otfrid, of the Weissenburg monastery in Alsace, and Kero 
The first cate- ^^^ I^otker Labeo, of St. Gall, wrote the first cate- 
chisms, chisms. A clear view of the position of catechetics in 
the fifteenth century is given in the Picture Catechism, published by 
Geff'jken, in Leipzig, in 1855. The Waldensian Catechism repre- 
sented an evangelical tendency. The Wiclifiites and Hussites 
(Bohemian Brethren) were also interested in the religious education 
of the young, which had been so terribly neglected by the Church in 
the lifeless and mechanical state in which it had become immersed.^ 
Among Roman Catholics, upon the Reformation, the Chancellor 
Charlier GJerson constituted a notable exception, assuming the posi- 
tion of catechist in his own person, and also furnishing the priests 
with a guide for catechization, though in very general outlines 
merely, in his treatise on Drawing the Poor to Christ. 

The first agency to perform thorough work, however, was the 
Luther's two Reformation. Luther, while engaged in the visitation 
catechisms. q£ ^-j^q churches, in 1528, became convinced of the need 
for providing the people with a " good, simple, unvarnished cate- 
chism," a " lay Bible which should embrace the entire contents of 
Christian doctrine." This called forth his two cntechisms, the 
smaller being intended for children and the larger for teachers.'* 

^ Comp. Herzog's "Waldenser, 4, supplement, p. 458 ; and Zezschwitz, Katechismen 
d. Waldenser u. Bohmisclien Briider, Ei'langen, 1863. 

2 Different editions by Stier, Parisius, Purgold, etc. See Winer, Handbuch d. Lit- 
eratur, complementary vol., p. 199. 



HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 495 

They constituted the basis of religions instruction during a long 
period, and engaged the attention of numerous commentators. 
Luther is still a model as respects the true catechetical style in 
point of hearty and naive mode of expression.^ The Reformed 
Church, too, did not remain behindhand. CEcolampadius, in his 
Report on Children,'^ and Leo Judaeus,^ and Calvin," led the way. 
The Heidelberg Catechism, composed by Zacharias Ur- The Heidelberg 
sinus and Caspar Olevianus, became as famous as the catecMsm. 
catechisms of Luther, having been translated into nearly every lan- 
guage, and been made a symbolical book of the Reformed Church.^ 
The older catechists did but little theorizing, the amount contrib- 
uted in this direction being limited, upon the whole, to noteworthy 
hints in individual works. But a special emphasis was placed upon 
the matter in the state churches by the ordering of sermons on the 
catechism by the authorities of the Church.® But there was no 
absolute lack of theoretical instruction. The catechism of David 
Chytraus, at Rostock (1554-1604), assumed the form of popular 
dogmatics, but secured a wide acceptance by reason of its clear 
arrangement and precision.^ We may mention the following addi- 
tional works: Hyperius, on Catechetics (1570, republished by A. 
Schmidt, Helmstedt, 1704); Alsted, Catechetical The- Leading au- 
ology (Hanov., 1622); Dietrich (died 1669), Catechet- LSThe'r^M 
ical Institution (1613); Maukisch, the commentator of spener. 
Dietrich (1653); Kortholt, Encouragement for Catechetical Instruc- 
tion (1669), and Trotzendorf. These authors are the most widely 
known theorists between the time of Luther and that of Spener. 

1 " The catechism of Luther," says Herder, " must be fervently committed to mem- 
ory and retained forever." Comp, Harnack, Der kleine Katechismus Luthers in 
seiner Urgestalt, Stuttg., 1856. Comp. Vilmar (Pastoraltheol., p. 104) with reference 
to its advantages over the Heidelberg from a pedagogical point of view. Zezschwitz 
(Katechetik, ii, p. 265, sqq.) furnishes a " historico-critical estimate" of the material of 
catechetics. 

2 Reprinted in the Leben u. ausgewahlte Schriften d, reform. Kirche, vol. ii, pp. 
296 ff. 

3 Newly published by Grob, Winterthiir, 1836. 
^ Henry, ii, pp. 150, sqq. 

^Originally issued in 1563. An edition in the form of the original edition, pub- 
lished by Wolters, 1864. Bethune, Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism, N. Y., 1868. 
See a judicious estimate of this work, as contrasted with the depreciatory treat- 
ment accorded to it in the days of rationalism, in G. Miiller, Theophil., Zurich, 1801, 
p. 313. Comp. also the more recent works of Zyro, Sudhoff, Giider, Bender, Krum- 
macher, and others. 

^ Comp. Rudelbach, Amtliches Gutachten iib. d. Wiedereinf iihrung der Katechismus- 
examina, etc., Dresden, 1841. 

' Krabbe, Chytraus, pp. 45, 46. 



496 PRACTICAI. THEOLOGY. 

The last-named theologian, Trotzendorf, gave a new impulse in 
this field by the publication of his Catechetical Tables (1683), and 
also by his Thoughts on Catechetical Information, published by a 
friend in Halle, in 1815.^ The principal query with Spener was, 
" How shall we connect the head with the heart ? " Seidel, of Ber- 
lin (171*7), and others, followed in his track. OEtinger, too, is im- 
portant in this connexion because of his Historical and Moral Store- 
house of Catechetical Directions, which appeared in 1762.^ 

In the orthodox school, Fecht, of Rostock (died 1716), delivered 
Orthodox writ- lectures on catechetics, and combined catechetical prac- 
®^^- tice therewith. Additional guides to catechization were 

furnished by Rambach in his Well-Instructed Catechist, which ap- 
peared in 1722; by Buddseus (died 1729), in his Catechetical Theol- 
ogy, which appeared in two volumes in Jena, in 1752, and by 
others. In the Reformed Church, Osterwald (died 1747) endeav- 
oured to bring into vogue, through the medium of his widely circu- 
lated Catechism (Amsterdam, 1707), a more independent treatment, 
which should accord with the needs of the time. But his effort 
resulted in his substituting the subjectively abstihact element of 
natural religion and morality for the earlier concrete and objective 
modes of expression sanctioned by the usage of the Church. The 
Catechetics af- rationalistic revulsion in education, caused in the latter 
ucarpedaSg- ^^^^ ^^ *^^ eighteenth century by Basedow, Salzmann, 
ics. and other philanthropical schoolmen, reacted also upon 

catechetical instruction.^ The aim was to counteract, by the proc- 
ess of a free development of the faculties of the soul, a merely me- 
chanical method and a dead orthodoxy. 

But the result was a lapse into the opposite extreme. The posi- 
tive subject matter was frequently lost in the process of shallow 
argumentation, and in this way a false Socratism came into being, 
which could be confined within appropriate limits only after long- 
continued struggles. The so-called " philanthropic " method found 
"Philanthropic" adherents, though with modifications, in Miller, in his 
method. Directions in the Art of Catechising (1778, 1782, 1788); 

in Rosenmtiller, Directions in Catechising (1763, 1793), and others. 
Schmid treated catechetics in an entirely formal way, as we see in 
his Catechetical Handbook (Jena, 1791, 1792-99, 1801, 3 vols.). 
Graeffe, finally, carried the rationalistic formalism of questions to 

^Comp. Thilo, Spener als Katechet., Berlin, 1840. 

2 Comp. the Siid-deutscher Schulbote, 1855, 1-4. 

2 Comp. Salzmann, Die wirksamste Mittel Kindern Religion beizubringen, 3d ed., 
Leips., 1809. In his Konrad Kiefer he raves against the catechism, and allows little 
Konrad " to pluck pigeons " instead of handing him the book ! 



HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 497 

its highest point. He may, therefore, be considered the repre- 
sentative of the older rationalistic catechetics, based on Kantian 
principles in religion and morals, while Dinter, on the other hand, 
succeeded in overcoming formalistic narrowness and dryness by a 
more vivid and original apprehension of the matter of religious 
teaching. Still, in his dogmatic opinions, he did not forsake the 
rationalistic point of view. 

The religious element, and, more particularly, the peculiarly 
Christian features of that element, was regarded by Daub and 
SchAvarz as being the essential thing, a view that was in the strong- 
est contrast with the former method. A more profound apprehen- 
sion of the whole subject, however, has been attained through the 
influence of the Schleiermacher school — as we see in services of 
Riitenik and Schweizer — though the process was not scweiermacher. 
unaccompanied by the danger of making the dialectical element 
prominent at the expense of the emotional. 

The Jesuits and related orders acquired entire control of the educa- 
tion of youth in the Roman Catholic Church, the Larger (1554) and 
Smaller (1566) Catechisms of the Jesuit, Peter Canisius (died 1595), 
being highly esteemed, in addition to the Roman Catechism, which 
received the sanction of the Council of Trent, in 1566. The theory 
of catechetics, likewise, Avas not neglected by the Jesuits.^ But 
even Roman Catholic catechetics did not escape the in- Roman catho- 
fluence of the age in later times.^ Here, too, an ani- ^^' catechetics. 
mated and Christian mode of treatment obtained the victory over 
every sort of lifeless formalism. 

LITERATURE OF CATECHETICS. 

Riitenik, Uebersicht der katechetiscben Literatur, in Theol. Stud. u. krit,, 1831, 

p. 188 ff. Tholuck, Literarischer Anzeiger, 1830, No. 18. 
J. F. C. Graffe, Vollst. Lehrbuch der allgem. Katechetik. Gott, iTgS-QS. 3 vols. 

Grundriss der allgem. Katechetik, nach kantiscben Grundsatzen. Gott., 1796. 

G. F. Dinter, Regeln der Katecbetik. Neustadt a. d. 0.,. 1801. 
C. Daub, Lebrbucb der Katecbetik. Fraukf. a. M., 1801. 

F. H. Cb. Scbwarz, Katecbetik oder Anleitung zu Unterredungen mit der Jugend im 

Cbristentbume. Gies., 1818. 

G. Tbierbach, Handbuch der Katecbetik. Frankenhausen, 1822, 1823. 2 vols. 
Die Katecbisirkunst. Nordbausen, 1826-31. 5 vols. 

Lebrbucb der Katecbetik. Hannov., 1830. 

W. Stern, Erfabrungen, Grundsatze uud Grundziige fiir bibl.-christl. Religions-unter- 

ricbt. Karlsr., 1833. 
f J. B. Hirscber, Katecbetik oder der Beruf des Seelsorgers. Tiib., 1841. 
Lor. Kraussold, Katecbetik. Erl., 1843. 

^ Comp. Possevin's (died 1611) Letter on the Necessity, Utility, and Reason for Teaching the 
Catholic Catechism (ed. W. Eder, Ingolstadt, 1583). 
* See M. Vierthaler, Geist der Socratik, Salzburg, 1798. 
32 



498 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

* Ch. Palmer, Evang. Katechetik. Stuttg., 1844. 

A. Keller, Anleitung zum katechet. Unterrichte. Aarau, 1851. 2 vols. 

C. N. Kiihler, Katechetische Baukunst. Kiel, 1851. 

J. G. Hanschmann, Christl. Katechetik, Lpz., 1852. 

G. G. K. L. Plato, Lehrbuch der Katechetik. Lpz., 1853. 

H. Puchta, Handbuch der praktischen Katechese. Stuttg., 1854. 

* C. A. G. V. Zezschwitz, System der christlich-kirchlichen Katechetik. Lpz., 1863. 
G. A. F. Edelin, Leitfaden zur Ertheilung des Confirmandenuiiterrichts und zur Wie- 

derholung dieses Unterrichts mit Erwachsenen. Basel, 1872. 
K. A. Kiitenik, Der christl. Glaube, nach dem luther. Katechismus in katechet. Vor- 

tragen zusammenhangend dargestellt. Berl., 1829. 
Al. Schweizer, Leitfaden zum Unterricht in der christl. Glaubenslehre fiir reifere 

Katechumenen. Ziirich, 1840. 

See Winer, Handbuch der Theol. Literatur, vol. ii, p. 213, sqq. ; M'Clintock and 
Strong's Cyclopsedia, articles Catechetics, Catechism, and Catechumens, vol. ii, pp. 
148-154. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN CATECHETICS. 

There have been many English works on the Catechism of the Church of England. 
Among these we may mention : 

Barry, Notes on the Catechism. 2d ed. Lond., 1868. 
Williams, A Brief Exposition of the Church Catechism, with Proofs from Scripture. 

A new ed. Lond., 1841. 

The individual Churches have each produced their catechism, which, in many cases, 
have undergone important modifications. For the names of these, and works written 
on them, we refer to the denominational literature of each of the great communions. 
See Hurst, Bibliotheca Theologica, pp. 264, 267, 328. New York, 1883. 

SECTION IX. 
THE THEORY OF WORSHIP — LITUEGICS. 

To comprehend the nature of Christian worship as a whole, and 
The field of ^^ the various elements by which it is modified in par- 
liturgics. ticular, is the scientific task of liturgies. Upon the 

manner in which it is performed will depend, in great measure, both 
the general organization of the public Christian worship and the 
administration of its several details. "The former is included in the 
department of Church government, the latter in that of Church 
ministrations. 

It is the task of the philosophy of religion and of ethics to point 
out the necessity of public worship. It is, first of all, important to 
arrive at the understanding of such worship as being a necessity of 
the common life of Christianity instead of a mere court-ceremonial; 
or, at most, a moral stimulus for the masses. The nature of wor- 
ship, which Hegel terms " the highest deed of the human spirit," ^ 

^ In harmony with that view, and carrying the idea further into its details, Rothe 
calls worship an action^ and moi-e particularly an action to be pei-foi^med in common 
— an internal, ethical, spiritual action, the highest which the Christian may perform. 



THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LITURGICS. 499 

must be deduced from the nature of religion and of Christianity. 
It is, therefore, the first duty of liturgies to apprehend the idea of 
public worship as an ethically justified and obligatory act on the 
part of the congregation. The constituent elements of the worship 
are afterward to be recognised in harmony with their liturgical 
importance and their relation to each other, as they stand upon the 
basis of that fundamental principle. This is also the point at which 
the relation of worship to art, in the strict sense, is to Relation of 
be determined. The Church is not simply an educational worship to art. 
institution, as those seem to suppose who centre the entire worship 
in the sermon, and regard everything else, such as singing, prayer, 
the sacraments, and the benediction, as mere additions. 

Bahr says: "In no other religion does the religious community 
appear to be so necessary and essential as in Christianity. The 
idea of a church, whether local or embracing the whole of the 
Church, is eminently peculiar to Christianity, and attains to the 
full dignity of truth in it alone. Christianity assumed the form of 
an independent religion for the first time when it appeared in and 
with the form of a community, and it lives and continues on from 
age to age only in that form. . . . The Church, united by the ties 
of a common Lord and a common faith, not only sustains a doc- 
trinal relation to Christ, but also a vital connexion like that of the 
body to the head. But it appears as such, as a whole, only in the 
public worship." ^ Also Palmer, in his treatise on Practical The- 
ology, says : . " In the celebration the Church presents herself in 
bridal array; at such times we should, before all else, be filled with 
joy and exultation, excited by the reflection that it is a glorious 
privilege to belong to the Church, to be identified with and live in 
it." ^ Schenkel's idea, shared, however, by many others, that public 
worship is merely a means for the exciting of piety, and that it has 
no end in itself, grows out of his warped view of religion generally. 

Worship must be conceived as the common act of the congrega- 
tion in which the religious life of its members finds 

Worsliip u6uii 6cl. 
expression under the form of devotion. Such expres- 
sion takes shape partly in the word and partly in the symbol.^ 

1 Page 351. 

2 Comp. supra, § 12. We concede fully that a mere participating in the worship is 
not necessarily religious, and that facility in the use of forms of worship cannot be a 
substitute for universal piety (p. 171); but this is pronouncing judgment upon mock- 
worship merely, which stands related to the true and sacred worship of God as arti- 
ficiality does to art, or hypocrisy to religion. Here, too, the rule applies : abusus non 
tollit usum. — Dogmatik, p. 1*72. 

3 Ehrenfeuchter's conception (§ 33) of Christianity, as the end of all symbols, can 
hold good only in so far as the symbol is regarded as being veiled and obscure; 



500 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The nature of the religious, or, more exactly, the Christian, symbol, 
as distinguished from the legal ty^^es of Judaism and heathen 
nature-symbols, and the relation of the symbol to the Word, can 
only be understood from the peculiar nature of the religious or 
Christian life. Ehrenfeuchter says: "It would be as silly to apolo- 
gize for religion because it has a system of worship as to excuse the 
soul for having a body. Some desire to attribute the worship to 
the sensuousness of man alone. . . . But on this method no one would 
suspect the eternal law of life, by which everything that is real is 
also possessed of the power to express itself in figurative form, and 
to manifest itself in the fulness of life and energy." ^ The place of 
the sermon in the worship is likewise determined by liturgies, so 
that homiletics itself is, in a broad sense, a part of liturgies.^ In a 
different point of view the sermon, nevertheless, extends beyond 
purely liturgical limits, and unfolds in its independent movement a 
conformity to law which is no longer included in the domain of li- 
turgies. All worship is based upon action and reaction, upon mutual 
incitement according to settled laws, which modify its organism, 
and upon which its earnestness, dignity, solemnity, practical fruit- 
fulness, and power to edify, depend. 

This, accordingly, is the place for discussing the contrast between 
the formally restricted and the free, the established and the mova- 
ble, the devotional and the festal, what has been historically trans- 
mitted, and what is demanded by the present time. 

A sound theory of worship will maintain a true medium between 

-, . . that settled uniformity of a lifeless mechanism which 

Province of a "^ 

sound theory moves in the world of empty ceremonies, and a frivolity 
of worship. ^/hich is possessed of a mania for novelty and adherence 
to the fashion of the times, and v/hich elevates its unsettled and 
superficial notions to the place of what has been tested and shown 
to be of worth.^ It also distinguishes between a superabundance 

mystification has an end. But Christianity has, on the contrary, developed a noble, 
free, consciously-spiritual symbolism, upon which the worship is necessarily based, and 
which Ehrenfeuchter himself has profoundly and fervently apprehended under the 
idea of an "ideal art." Pp. 253, 2*75, and elsewhere. 

1 Page 51. 

2 This is also the view of Palmer, p. 352. Comp. Hagenbach, Liturgik u. Homi- 
letik. 

2 Even a better and really religious subjectivity has its limits. Ehrenfeuchter, ubi 
supra, p. 76, observes with justice that " when the attempt is made to enforce the 
universal acceptance of an individual poetic view, which may possibly be profoundly 
true for the individual, and afford him wondrous comfort, the only result will be a 
hardening of the poetic element and a petrifaction of the religious. For the poetic 
feeling of an individual is transitory, and even has its highest charm in the fact of its 



THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LITURGICS. 501 

of what may be perceived by the senses, and that rationalistic 
soberness which dreads all that is imaginative.^ It will know how 
to discover those elements of art which are most nearly related to 
the religious life, and be obliged to carefully distinguish between 
the sacred and the profane, the necessary and the accidental, that 
which has been made from that which has developed. Fluctuating 
and unsettled states, in this regard, will increase in proportion as 
our stay upon the soil of practice without principles, on the one 
hand, and of impractical theories on the other, is protracted. 

A general interest in the liturgical regulation of our Church affairs 
has, however, been aroused, and the theory of worship has been re- 
constructed from its foundations. It is only to be regretted that 
bridges leading over from the region of speculation to that of prac- 
tice are so few, the result being that the learner, whose immediate 
object is to qualify himself for the service of the Church, is, with 
all the abundance of theory at command, left in ignorance with re- 
spect to the course he should adopt. The simple restoration of 
what is old, toward which the tendencies of the present age are di- 
rected from certain quarters, will by no m.eans furnish a solution of 
the problem. What is needed is a living worship, which ^^^^ ^f ^ y^. 
shall address both the intellect and the feelings. Upon ^^s worship, 
this consummation science needs to fix its eye, pursuing its course 

evanescent character, in the isolation of each separate moment which blooms forth 
with enlivening influence from the prosaic conditions of the actual world. . . . Such 
play of the imagination and the feelings gives rise to the arbitrary character of par- 
ticular services {k^eAo^pijGKeia).^^ "A misunderstanding of the significant difference 
which exists between public and family worship works serious injury at this point." — 
Ibid., p. 79. 

^ " This is the pietistic view, which attaches no importance whatever to the outward 
features of the worship, and perhaps regards it as being in contradiction with itself, 
or with the idea upon which it rests. With this coincides the rationalistic view, in 
that it separates the interests of freedom from those of necessity, and maintains that 
the Christian religion is only designed for the needs of individuals, and requires that 
each one should be pious for himself ; that no value is to be attached to outward 
union for the purposes of a common worship, because this will constitute a limitation 
of individual liberty." — Marheijieke, Prakt. Theologie, § 75, Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, 
Liturgic, § 38. On the relation of Protestantism to art, comp. Meyer, Das Verhalt- 
niss der Kunst zum Cultus, Zurich, 1837 ; Grueneisen, De Protestantismo artibus baud 
infesto, Stuttg., 1839, 4to; Protestantismus u. Kunst, in Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift, 
1839, 4, No. 8, pp. 287-322; Der Protestant. Gottesdienst u. d. Kunst in ihrem 
gezenseitigen Verhaltnisse, St. Gall, 1840; Lange, In welchem Verhaltniss steht die 
Reformirte Kirche nach ihrer Lehre u. nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung zAir 
Kunst ? An esvsay in the Verhandlungen d. Schweiz. Predigergesellschaft, St. Gall, 
1844 ; Schnaase, Verhaltniss d. Kunst zum Christenthum u. besonders der evangel. 
Kirche, Berl., 1852 ; Koopmann, Der evangel. Cultus u. d. Kunst, Darmst., 1854, and 
Kottmeier, Darstellung des Heiligen durch d, Kunst, etc., Bremen, 1857. 



502 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

until the time shall arrive when the understanding, having been 
matured by thorough study, shall yield its fruitage as well in the 
practical life as in other domains. 

SECTION X. 

CONTRAST BETWEEN PROTESTANT AND EOMAN CATHOLIC LITUEGICS. 

In the Protestant minister's circle of studies that part of liturgies 
which relates to ministrations in the Church, or to direct administra- 
tion, will require less space proportionately than that which has to 
do with the government of the Church, and consequently with the 
devising of methods. The contrary to this is the rule in the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

The word liturgies points primarily to the already existing service 
for the Church, the Liturgy.^ The more complicated such service 
is, the more time will be needed for acquiring the mechanical readi- 
ness which is necessary to its performance. It is apparent that 
theology will be in a very low state where the whole of the theo- 
logical course is expended upon a mechanical training of this sort 
,, ^ . , ,., for the clerical office. Regions still exist within the 

Mechanical lit- _ * 

urgy in Roman Roman Catholic Church where nothing more than such 
oicism. ^ mechanism is required. But Roman Catholic theol- 
ogy is not at its best in such localities. Wherever it bears the 
character of a science, it seeks, rather, to penetrate by the way of 
speculation into the inner sanctuary of worship, and to justify its 
meaning and importance to the thinking mind.^ But there is no 

^ Comp. the lexicons on 7\.EiTovpy6Q^ ^.eiTovpyelv, ^eiTovpyla (Lukei, 23; Heb. viii, 2; 
ix, 21 ; X, 11), formed out of Mlmg [XtJIto^, from ?.ad^j Aewf), the equivalent of drj/nocioc, 
and epyov {munns piihlicum)\ hence epyov rov /lea)= rov Xdov is equivalent to XeItov 
epyov. See also the Apol. Conf. Aug., p. 270 (ed. Hase), where the ancient use of the 
word is well expounded. On the ecclesiastical and Levitical meaning of the word in 
the New Testament, comp. Bleek on the respective passages in the Epistle to the He- 
brews. The derivation from Xtrr^ (Atrai, preces, whence is derived the word litany) is 
erroneous. The Latin word cultus (Gr. XaTpela) answers to the German words " Got- 
tesdienst" (divine service) and "Gottesverehrung "^(worship of God), which have 
been frequently objected to, especially the former, though unjustly. See Pelt, p. 100. 
Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 63, says, that " he only who has been made free by 
God, and been born again into the liberty of the children of God, can resolve to enter 
upon the service of God, in which alone man can be truly free." 

^ " In our days," observes a Roman Catholic writer, " praise will be given by all ra- 
tional persons to him who has sufficiently sharpened his intellectual vision to enable 
him to find again in the worship of the Church the royal robe with which the incar- 
nated Son of God was enveloped, and to interpret all its forms in the spirit to which 
its origin is due." — Most, Die liberalen Principien auf dem Gebiete des Cultus, in Tiib. 
theol. Quartalschrift, 184'7, No. 1. 



PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 503 

breaking through the bounds of what has been traditionally received 
and what already exists, and Roman Catholic liturgies is, therefore, 
compelled to struggle always with the same task in reference to 
worship, which oppresses the scholastic theology of Roman Catholi- 
cism with reference to dogma, namely, to secure an after under- 
standing of matters which already exist. "The theory has more 
the character of a statute than of an internal and necessary law." ^ 

This is not the case with Protestant liturgies. This is continu- 
ally employed upon the task of constructing a system Protestant li- 
of worship which shall perfectly correspond to the turgics. 
Protestant principle, and to the needs of each particular time. It 
does not become contemplation merely with reference to the already 
finished edifice of the temple, but is essentially constructive, and we 
always find it engaged with line and compass in the study of the 
plan. It does not aim to secure a definite conclusion of its labours 
for all subsequent time, but to carry forward the development, 
within certain limits to be by itself appointed, of what is capable 
of being developed. There can, accordingly, be no idea of a mech- 
anism in the performance of liturgical services, and the specifically 
technical features connected therewith can only consist in the per- 
sonal appropriation of things that are prescribed, and in a personal 
entering into the spirit of the worship. The liturgical capability 
of the Protestant clergyman will, therefore, be manifested by a 
spiritual reproduction of what is prescribed by the Church, and is 
to be attained less in the way of practice than in that of inward 
consummation. For, it is certain that even the simplest of litur- 
gical services, such as the offering of prayer in the presence of the 
congregation, the administering the sacraments, and the pronounc- 
ing the benediction, are more appropriately and fervently performed 
by him who has penetrated the mystery of religious Necessity of re- 
feelings and their public representation, than by him Usious feeiinff. 
who, having no sympathetic feeling, simply performs a duty which 
is officially assigned to him. Every opus operatuni is a negation of 
the Protestant principle, the death of liberty, and a turning away 
from the internal to the external. 

This leads to a further distinction between Roman Catholic and 
Protestant liturgists, namely, that the Protestant clergy- Difference be- 
man, in his liturgical functions, sustains a different re- tween Roman 
lation toward the congregation from that sustained by protestaut li- 
the Roman Catholic. While the latter ministers in turgists. 
sacred things by virtue of his priestly character, even where no 

^ Ehrenfeucliter, uhi supra, p. 63; compare §16, and Marlieineke, Prakt. The- 
ologie, § 198. 



504 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

congregation is present, or, when it is present, still only before it, and 
never in and with the congregation,^ the Protestant liturgist repre- 
sents in person the priesthood of the whole congregation. He ex- 
presses in Church prayers only what all mentally repeat, and, if he 
sing, his voice is lost in the volume of praise by the whole con- 
gregation. The sacraments, even, are administered by him as the 
officer designated by the congregation, and set apart by the Church. 
He shares with the Roman Catholic liturgist, indeed, in being bound 
by the rule established by the Church, but not in the same degree, 
nor in the same manner. Many consider it, no doubt, a prerogative 
of Protestantism to afford absolute license, and such license has 
occasionally been carried to a high pitch, certainly not to the ad- 
vantage of real Protestantism.^ 

To assume that the preacher offers 2>i*ayer simply as a preacher, 
Distinction be- since "the prayer must be his own work as much as 
icirand'ntur- ^^^^ sermon," is erroneous. A clear distinction must be 
gicai elements, made, at this point, between the homiletical and the 
liturgical elements.^ No restraint is imposed upon him with respect 
to the former by homiletical rules, and he is certainly expected to 
come before the congregation with prayer as well as speech. The 
more the congregation recognises in the preacher's personal piety 
the acme of the religious life of the community,* the less will he 
refuse to perform a service which he must consider, in this precise 
form of service [XeirovQyla), as being the necessary complement to 
the more independent sermon. The sermon is an inadequate and 
incomplete feature when not sustained by the whole economy of the 
worship. 

liturgies in re- Liturgics touches upon the fields of ethics and eccle- 
a^nTecciesias- siastical law. Here, too, arise the ethical questions con- 
ticai law. cerning the extent to which the liturgist is required to 

represent the ritual in his own person, and whether he is simj^ly to 

1 Ehrenfeuchter, p. 223. 

2 *'The further development with which such a formal Protestantism violently 
breaks in upon, and interrupts, the course of liturgical tradition, is a progress into 
vacancy, and the setting to rights and clearing up are a transferring into the hands of 
the individual of what is designed for the Church as a whole." — Marheineke, Prakt. 
Theologie, § 227. Remarks on the license assumed by Protestant clergymen to the 
injury of the liturgical rights of the congregation occur in Bahr, ubi supra. 

^ Comp. Al. Schweizer, Wiefern liturgische Gebete bindend sein sollen ? Zurich, 
1836, p. 22, «§'., and the discussions of this subject by H. Lang, Bitzius, and Riifli in 
the Swiss Reform, 1873, Nos. 10, 12, and 15. 

^ " The bond of union which embraces the entire body must also appear in the sin- 
gle individual, and the organism of the whole show forth in the particular member." 
— ^Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 65 ; comp. p. 346. 



PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 505 

make use of its forms of expression.^ Upon this follows, in imme- 
diate sequence, the legal question respecting the authority in which 
the right to prescribe a ritual is vested, and the extent to which it 
is allowable for the individual administrator to depart from the 
established form. Pedantry in Church government may work as 
injuriously at this point as self-will and arbitrary measures may in 
connexion with the ministrations of the public worship. Such 
differences can only exist, however, where the life of the church is 
hampered in some direction, either because the liturgy has been im- 
posed without the consent of the congregation, or the liturgist has 
intruded himself into his place. When the minister ceases to be 
the organ of his congregation and of the Church he is no longer 
in his proper place. But where he possesses the confidence of the 
con tJ-re oration it Avill not be difficult for him to decide how far he 
may go in any given case. The being governed by forms, laid 
down by the legislative authority of his Church, will not be regarded 
as a burdensome constraint, but as a duty imposed on him by his 
own convictions as a servant of the spirit rather than the letter. 
He will thus be enabled to move with freedom and dignity even 
w^hen guided by such authority. 

After all that has been said, however, the question may yet be 

raised whether Protestantism can recoo-nise a science of „ ^ ^ ^ 

o , Protestant reo- 

liturgics at all ? and whether we are not to be guided ognition of li- 
in such matters, also, simply by the Holy Scriptures? '^^^^^• 
The latter must certainly be the authoritative standard here as 
everywhere. Principles such as are contained in John iv, 24, and 
Matt, vi, 7, will ever continue to be governing principles, and the 
Lord's Prayer will remain a model for all other prayers. But this 
does not imply that the liturgical forms of the apostolic age, which 
are not even well understood by our age, should be retained as an 
inalienable heirloom for all subsequent time. A literal retention of 
this kind would even destroy the higher conception of worship. 
The idea of the Lord's Supper would be entirely lost if, for exam- 
ple, it were maintained that exactly twelve should be seated at one 
table whenever it is administered. What could be more erroneous 
than the assumption that, since the early Christians did not yet 
possess the New Testament Scriptures, it is requisite that only Old 
Testament Scriptures be made the subject of preaching and Old 
Testament psalms be sung ? On this view it would be wrong to 
celebrate Christian festivals, and we should be obliged to observe 

^ The above follows a distinction made by Schleierraacher, and has been opposed by 
V. Colin and Schulz (Leips., 1831). Comp. Schleiermacher in Stud. u. Krit., 1821, 
Xo. 1, and tlie replies of the above, Leips., 1831. 



506 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

the ancient Sabbath with the Jews and the Sabbatarian sects. It 
is, therefore, with entire propriety that Ehrenfeuchter observes,^ 
that it certainly is the aim of Protestantism to restore primitive 
Christianity, not, however, in the sense of actualizing its begin- 
nings, but rather its principles. Hence "the sphere of worship in- 
cludes more than that of the Holy Scriptures."^ Hence, also, Prot- 
estant liturgies is presented with the great and far-reaching task of 
" ascertaining and representing the eternal forms of worship." ^ 



SECTION XL 

FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATIOlSr TO ART. 

The essential elements of Protestant worship are the sermon, 
Elements of which is based upon the word of God, the united prayer 
worsbip. g^jj^ singing of the congregation, and the benediction, 

which concludes the service. The highest point of Protestant wor- 
ship is attained in the periodical celebration of the Lord's Supper, 
whose leading characteristic is that of a feast. The distribution of 
the various liturgical observances, the relation they are to sustain 
toward each other, and the more or less festal character they are to 
bear, will be determined by the ecclesiastical year, the periodically 
recurring festal seasons which it includes, and the wisdom and care 
of the pastor. All forms of art which have no immediate relation 
to the living Word are referred to the background at this point, 
and are designed at most to promote an auxiliary object, not directly 
aiming at an increase of devotion. 

It must be conceded that not all Protestant liturgists are agreed 
The eucharistic upon the above statements. Many have maintained 
element. -^i^.^^ ^]^q eucharistical feature especially should not be 

wanting in any form of divine service, and that all else should, as 
in the Roman Catholic Church, tend to give prominence to it as 
the principal end in view, even the sermon being made to occupy 

* Page '72. 

2 Ibid., p. 166: " The sphere of worship is always extended over an existence of 
actual joy in God, over a present filled with the consciousness of God, while the sacred 
writings always, by their form, refer back to what is past." 

^ Ibid., p. 75 : The ancient Church in general deserves, next to the apostolic age, to 
be consulted, together with its forms of worship, whenever a reconstruction of the 
worship is in question, but it is not necessary that their example be anxiously imi- 
tated. It should be discriminately used with reference to the needs and conditions of 
the present time. Comp. Simon, Die apostol. Gemeinde-u. Kirchenverfassung, Poted., 
1851 ; Abeken, Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche, Berl., 1853; Harnack, Der christl. 
Gemeindegottesdienst im apostol. Zeitalter, Dorpat, 1853. 



FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 507 

a secondary position in this regard/ It cannot be denied that the 
Lord's Supper constitutes the summit and crown of the common 
worship. But it is to be questioned w^hether its too frequent repe- 
tition would, not lead to a loss of real solemnity and fervour of dis- 
position, and to its being degraded into an ojyus operatum. This 
assertion of the eucharistical feature with which the demand for a 
purely liturgical service, without the sermon, is connected, has its 
excuse in the one-sided view which led Protestantism, particularly 
of the Reformed type, to lay stress for a time upon the sermon as 
being the only element of worship which is absolutely essential. 

That the sermon should constitute the central feature _,, 

Plan of the ser- 

of the service, even though but in a formal way, is mon in wor- 
entirely proper, and in harmony with the position every- ^ ^^" 
where assigned to the word of God in the organism of Protestant 
worship. But it should be remembered that the word of God 
does not secure a proper recognition through the sermon only, 
and that the latter is not in any sense its only exponent.^ The 
original representative of the word of God is the Bible itself. 
For this reason the reading of a section from the Scriptures is 
included among the elements of public w^orship.^ But it is neces- 
sary that the congregation be afforded opportunity for self-edifica- 
tion, upon the basis of God's word, for giving expression to the 

^ E. y., by Kliefoth, Die ursprlmgliche Gottesdienstordnung, Rostock, 1847, 2d ed., 
2 parts, 1858-59, and since then by many others. 

^ Bahr, uhi supra, has directed attention upon this point with emphasis, and often 
with keen irony ; bnt he goes too far in the direction of undervaluing the sermon. 
Ehrenfeuchter (§ 87) assigns to the latter its true position among the different ele- 
ments of the worship by conceiving of it as their formal centre. Comp. also Vinet : 
It is being recognised with increasing clearness in the Reformed Church that the at- 
tention is not to be fixed alone upon the hearing of a sermon in connexion with the 
public worship, but that the direct participation of the congregation is absolutely 
requisite. Comp. Coquerel (fils) : What is adoration and worship but an art by which 
he who adores puts himself in true and actual relation with Him whom he adores ? . . . 
Nothing which is passive alone constitutes the highest worship. The being present 
and listening is not an act, and consequently not worship. Le Culte tel que Dieu le 
demande (Paris, 1853). This is a rationalistic view, and should be qualified. 

2 These lessons are not simply needed for the purpose of acquainting the people 
with the Scriptures, although this was formerly the case, when the Bible was not so 
generally circulated as at the present. But the united listening in the Church is very 
different from the private reading at home. Comp. Palmer, Homiletik, p. 370. R. 
Rothe wrote from Rome, " The mere listening to the reading of the Scriptures in the 
Christian congregation has always been a rich blessing and enjoyment, to me at least, 
although I have not unfrequently been deprived of them by their discussion pro and 
con." In Nippold, p. 360 : In the Reformed Church it is usual, in some localities, to 
read the Decalogue, but it is better to make independent selections suited to each 
separate occasion. The ancient Church had its lectors. 



508 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

impressions received, and to elevate itself into immediate com- 
munion with God. 

Prayer and singing are exponents of the word of God equally 
Prayer and with the sermon, in so far as they are based upon, and 
singing. originate in, that word. Even the sermon can only be 
a w^ord of God to the congregation when it is not only based upon 
the Bible, but is supported by the common devotion, and, so to 
speak, grows from it as its appropriate soil. It is necessary, there- 
fore, that prayer and singing on the part of the congregation should 
both precede the sermon, for the purpose of exciting devotion and 
collecting the minds of the people, and follow it, to reproduce and 
fix the impressions received.^ They form a species of antiphony to 
the sermon, while the benediction which follows constitutes the 
symbolical conclusion of the whole.^ 

It is for liturgies to decide what is the relation sustained by 
prayer and singing to each other and to the sermon, and in what 
order the several parts are to succeed and support each other. 
Probably a hymn of general character, not directly related to the 
sermon, will furnish the most appropriate introduction for divine 
service, to be followed by the prayer. The prayer should conclude 
with the Lord's Prayer. Its character involves that it should be 
introductory, and calculated to excite devotion, but at the same 
time adapted to call forth that contrite disposition whence sj^rings 
Order of ser- ^ ^^^^ desire for salvation. Then follow Scripture selec- 
vice. tions, and then singing, with special reference to the 

sermon, and afterward the sermon. The closing prayer may have 
direct bearing on the sermon, and be shaped by its thought. It is 
designed to fix the impression wrought by the sermon, but must 
lead over into the general worship again. At this point inter- 
cession is in place. The closing hymn and benediction form 
the end. 

It is of advantage to the nature of devotion that the different 
services of the Church be not equal in the extent and fulness of 
their liturgical elements. The average medium is found in the 
Sunday services, which are more extended than the week-even- 
ing services. The more joyous a divine service is designed to 
be, the more largely may forms of art be drawn upon in its ar- 
rangement, though under the presumption that such forms will 
possess a strictly religious character. If we examine the available 

^ " The singing falls chiefly to the lot of the congregation, and the preaching is the 
service of the clergyman ; while the functions of both are combined in the prayer, as 
in a common centre." — Marheineke, ubi supra, § 250. 

2 Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 340. 



FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 509 

forms of art we shall find them to consist in discourse, music, and 
action. 

A large field is open to music. Should it be employed only 
when connected with words, under the form of singing? ^^^^^ ^^ ^q^- 
Should it be congregational only? Ought it to be in- s^^ip- 
terspersed with solo and choir singing, or accompanied with instru- 
mental music, and to what extent?^ How far may instrumental 
music be allowed without the accompaniment of song? The limit 
lies here. As action may, as a rule, be regarded only as an auxil- 
iary to speech, so instrumental music may be regarded only as an 
aid to the singing. 

Religious architecture ^ also deserves a prominent place among the 
arts connected with Protestant worship, and beside that sacred arcw- 
of discourse and that of song, not only for reasons of tecture. 
propriety, but also because of the religious and symbolical idea 
which the edifice is to embody and express.^ But a church edifice, 
even when the embodiment of an idea, together with the symbolical 
features introduced into the structure, is not to be regarded as in- 
volving any essential element, but merely as an aid to the exciting 
of devotion, and as exercising an influence to stimulate and support, 
rather than to direct and govern, the worship. The architectural 
symbol, therefore, stands upon the border line, upon the same foot- 
ing as the music of the organ and the ringing of church bells. For 
it is possible to conceive of a truly elevating Protestant worship 
from which all of these are wanting, while such worship could find 
no expression at all in the absence of the sermon, singing, and 
prayer, and the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The essential 
feature, in which Protestant worship differs from Roman Catholi- 
cism, is simply its inward nature, freedom, and life — qualities which 
must not be allowed to give way before any degree of agsthetical 
refinement. However, it would be equally improper to renounce 

^ " It may be said of the Christian Church, that in the organ it has invented an in- 
strument which combines within itself all the tones which existed singly in separate 
instruments before its discovery." — Rosenkranz, p. 837. Comp. Herder's poem, Die 
Orgel. Harms pronounced against the organ, as did also the ancient usage of the 
Reformed Church, which had no better name for it than the "pope's lyre " (!). Comp. 
Bahr, ubi supra, p. 112, sq. 

■^ Vetter, ubi supra. " There is no grander cathedral than St. Peter's Church in 
Rome ; but more beautiful than this, says the cherished Neander, is that Church which 
consists of two or three Christian souls assembled in the name of Christ." — Merle 
d'Aubigne in the Yerhandlungen des sechsten evangel. Kirchentags zu Berlin (Berl., 
185.3), p. 48. 

' Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 290, sqq. " This field embraces also the external sur- 
roundings of the church edifice, particularly burial grounds and their monuments. 



510 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

all natural connexion between worship and art, in so far as the latter 
enters modestly into the service of the Church.^ 

Lange says : " Worship is the festal representation of the ideal in 
the real; while art is the festal representation of the real life in the 
ideal;" or, "art represents the manifestation of the new world in 
symbolic form, while longing that it shall come into being; and 
worship represents the hidden character and the growth of the new 
world with a yearning that it may appear." Ehrenfenchter shows 
ingeniously how man becomes in worship both the material and the 
manager of it: "The art of comprehending himself in the inner- 
most relations of his life, and of entering into relations with God, 
is what we demand of every human being. This constitutes the 
profoundest and truest element of life." F. W. Krummacher beau- 
tifully remarks, in one of his sermons, that "art is entitled to a 
place in the Church. This admits of no doubt; but it is the 
product, and not the creator, of the new life. The promise is 
restricted altogether to the word, and the word is accompanied 
by the generating, while art has only the preserving and refresh- 
ing, spirit. Art, moreover, belongs rather to a Solomonic period of 
the Church than to a Davidic. In the latter it is necessary that 
the sword of the word should first perform its work. Not until 
the victory was achieved did the harp and psaltery ring out their 
notes." ^ 

It follows from this, that worship through the Word still consti- 
tutes the heart of Protestant liturgies. To deal with the Word in 
preaching is the ofiice of homiletics; and liturgies, accordingly, is 
Limitations of restricted: 1. To the word as connected with the sing- 
liturgics. ing (Church hymnology) ; 2. As emanating from the 

common feeling in the form of prayer (Church prayer) ; and 3. As 
it introduces and accompanies the performance of sacred actions, 
as in the benediction and the sacraments. The two latter form the 
ritual. Hence hymn books and the ritual constitute the liturgical 
apparatus which each Church government is required to provide for 
the use of the ministrations of the Church, and liturgies is required 
to furnish the fundamental principles by which the work of provid- 
ing such apparatus is to be governed. With reference to hymn 
books, or the text of hymns, it is by no means a question how to 
provide the Church with hymns which should be modelled upon 

^ *'Art," remarks a Swiss pastor (Ritter of Schwanden), "is that St. Christopher 
who seeks out a lord, serves him faithfully, and does not admit into his mind the 
thought of being lord himself ; and yet so feels his own worth as to be resolved to 
remain with him only who is the strongest." 

2 Die Sabbathglocke, Berl., 1853, pp. 1T8, 1*79. 



F0R:\IS of worship and their relation to art. 511 

any particular liturgical theory. On the contrary, liturgies boldly 
and gladly makes use of the existing treasures of hymnology in the 
Church.^ Hengstenberg says : " The poetry of Protestantism evi- 
dently finds its culmination in the Church hymn. In „ ^ ^ 

, , "^ . Hen.^stenberg 

opposition to 'the widespread notion which still con- on religious 
trols many weak natures, that the worship of Romanism p^^^^^- 
is more poetic than that of Protestantism,' it is asserted, and with 
truth, that this would be a correct opinion 'if poetry consisted in 
all manner of mechanical forms and outward ornaments.' But 
poetr}^ is spirit which speaks to spirit, and the unadorned sing- 
ing of one of Luther's or Paul Gerhard's hymns with the heart of 
a living congregation is more poetical than all the allurements 
which attract the eye and ear in the splendid worship of Roman 
Catholicism.^ 

To sift our hymns, and discover the gold contained in them, is one 
of the highest arts of theology. Here, again, it is easy ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
for a view that is based upon the taste of individuals necessarily 
to assert itself, whether it be the fanciful pedantry of ^^° 
affecting what has the flavour of antiquity or the rationalistic 
soberness which eliminates everything that breathes the aroma 
of poesy. Not everything that is old is 'also good. Even 
among the old there is much that is antiquated, either because 
it is involved in a dogmatical or ethical conception of the world 
which has passed away, or because it can no longer be compre- 
hended and enjoyed.^ The thing demanded is, accordingly, that 
hymns of a truly sterling character be sought out with accurate 
judgment, and that the heart of this class be discovered. But the 
claims of the new are also to receive due recognition beside the 
old, though the purity of tone and colour in the latter should be 
preserved. The Church hymns of the former days often become 
mongrel forms through an "improvement" which results to their 
damage, and through their being dressed up a la mode, by which 
means they assume a character which cannot be approved either 
by good taste or historical judgment. Changes are required in 
occasional instances, no doubt, but they should be executed 
with the utmost caution, and it is one of the principal problems 

' The Reformed Church has long been content to use psalms only. Here, too, it 
would be a misapprehension of the idea of scriptural worship were the text of spirit- 
ual songs to be confined to psalms only. Many of the most beautiful Church hymns 
are usually revised psalms. 

^ Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, vol. Ixxiv, Xo. 4, p. 3Y4. 

^ See Marheineke, iM supra^ p. 256, and Stier, Erneuerte Rechenschaft liber das 
evangelische Gesangbuch, Brunswick, 1852. 



512 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

in liturgies to determine the principles on which they are to be 

introduced,^ 

If the Church hymn belongs to the department of poetry, the 

prayer involves a form of lan^uaffe which expresses the 
Public prayer. . „ o & r ^ 

unity of poetry and prose " ' — that is to say, of free 
and yet elevated speech. Every infusion of merely reflective, dog- 
matizing, moralizing, and logically connecting elements, is to be 
avoided. The older written forms of Church prayers, while con- 
taining much that is strong and robust, were yet often pervaded 
with a dogmatizing and polemical spirit which could not be edify- 
ing; and modern forms often include much sentimental verbiage, 
or are couched in the tone of merely moralizing preaching. It 
will be necessary that the appropriate manner and tone of the 
Church prayer, by which it secures an aspect of due veneration, be 
retained, and that all eifeminacy and insipidity be excluded, while 
at the same time the structure of sentences is kept sufiiciently flex- 
ible to avoid the impression of stiffness.^ 

With reference to the administration of the Sacraments, we may 
say that they constitute the most fixed and immovable element of 
worship, especially with regard to the words of institution and con- 
secration, which lifurgics is not at liberty to change. The addi- 
tions, such as preliminary and supplementary prayers, exhortations, 
and the like, are not so immovably fixed. Such other formulas as 
relate to specific occasions may receive a more independent and 
flexible treatment, though the true spirit of the Church may always 
be retained even in the framing of such formulas. 

^ The preface to Knapp's Liederschatz contains valuable directions for this work. 
Comp. also Herder's preface to the Weimar Gesangbuch. I^umerous discussions of 
this question have been had in recent days at Church conferences and synods, and in 
periodicals, but without arriving at any agreement respecting the principles on which 
a hymn book for the common use of the evangelical Churches should be composed. 

2 Ehrenfeuchter, § 81. 

^ Kapp (in the work mentioned below) has set forth some excellent principles. 
Comp. also Hebel, Ideen zur Gebetstheorie (in Werke, vol. vii) ; we are not to pray 
" as the awkward members of a guild, and the foremen address each other in a sworn 
form of greeting, but as dear children approach their beloved father." There is dan- 
ger, however, that the Church prayer express too great familiarity, as if addressing 
a mere " friend of the family." 



THE METHODOLOGY. 513 

SECTION XII 

THE METHODOLOGY. 

The nature of liturgies forbids that facility in its use should be 
acquired by practice, as may be done with catechetics and homi- 
letics. But the liturgical sense may be variously cultivated, and 
especially by making of the divine service a vital element for the 
pastor, in which he feels himself at home. The understanding of 
liturgical matters is likewise aided in a special degree by familiarity 
with the older and more recent liturgies, though we may not use 
them, and particularly by familiarity with the treasures of hym- 
nology which belong to the Church. To this may be added personal 
practice in singing, — if we have the gift, — an acquaintance with 
the theory of Church singing, and also an insight into the nature of 
Christian architecture. 

Practice in the leading of the prayers of the congregation may 
be connected with practice in preaching, but the true The necessity 
anointing of the liturgist must be derived from a Higher °^ divine help. 
Power. Fessler says: "The school and extensive reading, industry, 
and practice, may, when joined to distinguished ability, produce 
excellent orators, but the forming of a divinely inspired liturgist, 
who holds full communion with God, is exclusively a work of grace 
— I. e., of the illuminating, inspiring, and anointing influence of the 
Holy Spirit."^ Froelich observes, with striking truth, that "to 
strike the proper tone with a certainty which shall excite the congre- 
gation to join heartily in prayer, and to fill it with devotional feel- 
ing, and to hold it fast, and harmonize it with the different turns of 
the prayer, demands not only all the fervour of which the leader is 
capable, but also all his skill." ... In the biography of Spleiss, 
superintendent at Schaffhausen, he is credited with having prepared 
himself for the conduct of his liturgical services with the same indus- 
try and care which he bestowed upon a sermon; and thus, while 
his sermons frequently burst forth with excessive vivacity, his li- 
turgical delivery was quiet and restrained. But each word Avas em- 
phasized with the proper degree of force, and made to express its 
full meaning, especially in the more important passages. 

Every part of the service connected with the worship, and not 
the sermon alone, must be minutely studied. An expressive and 
unaffected presentation of these various parts is very rare. Even 
the ablest preacher may utterly destroy the good influence of the 
sermon by carelessness in the conduct of the other portions of the 

' Riickblicke auf meine TO jahrige Pilgerschaft, Breslau, 1826, p. 416. 
33 



514 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

service, while the lack of personal eloquence may be readily over- 
looked in the case of a faithful administrator in holy things. 

The proper reading of the Scripture lessons is highly essential. 

^ , They should be selected with ffreat care, their spirit 
The preacher s \ ^ , o > r 

relation to the studied, and then read with calm fervour.^ With re- 
smgmg. gard to singing, the minister is not required to accom- 

plish more than any other member of the Church. But he is still 
expected to direct the singing to the extent of selecting the hymns 
which are to be sung. For this purpose, if for no other, a thor- 
oughly intimate acquaintance with the hymn book, unfortunately 
so rare an acquirement, is of great advantage. Luther went too 
far when he said, " I will not look at a preacher who cannot sing." 
The pastor should do all he can, in his appropriate sphere, toward 
the improvement of the singing by seeing that the congregation 
are supplied with hymn books, and all possible helps. He cannot, 
therefore, permit himself to remain in ignorance of the poetical 
and musical treasures of the hymnology of his individual denomi- 
nation, or of that of the Church as a whole. 

The opportunity of attending public worship while travelling 
should never be neglected, from religious as well as homiletical and 
liturgical considerations, the object being to enlarge one's spiritual 
and mental horizon, and the combatting of prejudices that were 
previously entertained. A visit, for example, to a congregation of 
the Moravian Brotherhood will yield to every mind a profitable 
picture of Christian propriety and liturgical simplicity. Besides, 
every opportunity for a better acquaintance with the better speci- 
mens of ecclesiastical art and architecture should be seized upon 
cheerfully. No preacher visiting the older countries should neg- 
lect any privilege, both in services in the churches and in observa- 
tion, to enrich his mind for better ministrations after his return 
home. 

With regard to every part of the service, and more especially the 
administration of the sacraments, everything depends upon a sense 
of propriety, which itself results from thorough moral culture. At 
the communion table and the baptismal font the most learned pedant, 
the keenest critic, and the profoundest speculator, may be put to 
shame sooner than a simple, properly trained, modest, and inwardly 
consecrated and anointed servant of God. Such a man as that the 
preacher — if not that already — should endeavour to become. 

^ Such reading should not, be declamatory, but suited to the spirit of the passage, 
and recitative. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 352 ; Bahr, p. '72. 



THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 515 

SECTION XIII. 

THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 

Christian worsliip has developed itself out of the Jewish worship. 
It was at first simple synagogue worship, then, to an christian wor- 
increasing extent, levitical priesthood and temple ser- jfoJ^^the^jew- 
vice, and, finally, a return to the simpler form through isn. 
the agency of the Reformation. From that point it is possible to 
distinguish three periods: "The stormy period of the Reformation; 
then the quiet and often stagnant intermediate period; and, finally, 
the active and struggling period in which we live."' 

Liturgies is conformed in its method to these successive stages: 
The apostles already furnished hints respecting the proper behav- 
iour at the time of worship (1 Cor. xi, 22; Eph. vi, 19; Col. iii, 16; 
James ii, 2, 3). The apostolical constitutions and the liturgies 
which were promulgated under the names of the Apostle James 
and the Evangelist Mark, of Jerusalem and Alexandria, are, as is 
well known, rejected by criticism. With them were connected, in 
the East, the liturgies of Basil and of Chrysostom, and, in the 
West, those of Gelasius and Leo L These last, however, were 
superseded by the Roman Missal of Gregory I. Milan alone pre- 
served its special liturgy.'^ When the Romish worship, under the 
supervision of the papacy, had developed into the ritual of the 
Romish mass, and the functions of the priesthood had extended 
over a v/ider area, it became necessary to provide guides for their 
conduct, such as Durandus (died 1296), in his Reason for Divine 
Offices, and similar works. 

Luther transformed the mass into a simple observance of the 
Protestant ceremony of the Lord's Supper, and the Reformed theo- 
logians rejected both the name and the thing.^ The symbolical 
books contain the earliest liturgical principles, and they reappear 
occasionally in dogmatical works in connexion with the Church and 
the sacraments. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the flour- 
ishing period of German Church hymnology, did more in the way 
of furnishing a liturgical apparatus, such as hymn books and form- 
ularies, than in that of discussing the worship itself. It was not 
until a beginning was made, from the standpoint of modern ration- 
alism, in the work of setting aside the ancient, or of conforming it 

^ Lange, ubi supra, p. 109. 

2 Comp. Assemani, Codex liturgicus, Rom., 1649-65; xiii, fol. ; Renaudet, Collectio 
Litui-giarum orientalium, Paris, 1'716; Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecclesise universse, 
Lips., 1847, sqq. 

2 Comp. J, C. Funk, Geist u. Form des von Luther angeordenten Cultus, Berlin, 1818. 



616 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

to the so-called " demands of the spirit of the times," or the period 
of diluting the hymnology of the Church, that new theories were 
Rationalistic provided to accompany the new liturgical forms. This 
works. ^as done by Zollikoffer, Seller, Diterich, Hufnagel, Wag- 

nitz, and others, first in the journals of the period, and afterward 
in books. Specimens of these works may be seen in Bastholm's 
Improvement of the Outward Worship (Leips., 1786); Spazier's 
Frank Thoughts on the Protestant Worship of God (Gotha, 1788); 
Woifrath, Questions on Liturgical Subjects (Hamburg, 1793-94); 
Burdorf's Hints for the Improvement of the Festivity of Public 
Worship (1795); Jenisch's Worship of God and Ecclesiastical Re- 
form (Berlin, 1803), and Reinhold's Ideas on the Outward Worship 
(Neustrelitz, 1805). To these may be added Tzschirner, in his 
Cautious Improvement of Sacred Services (1815), who demands a 
natural worship of God, and Hebel, in his Liturgical Contributions, 
who admits the emotional element, but too strongly from a subjec- 
tive point of view. The mystical and Romanizing tendencies, stim- 
ulated by the romantic school, likewise asserted themselves by the 
side of the rationalizing and sentimental tendencies in worship, in 
Horst's Mysteriosophy, and in the works of Fessler, and others. 

Gass (died 1831), stimulated especially by Schleiermacher, was 
the first to provide a really scientific basis for evangelical liturgies, 
of which the writers mentioned in the literature below availed 
themselves in the further development of this branch, though gen- 
erally governed by s|)eculative rather than practical motives. Kapp 
was more largely practical than any other author. The latest 
Recent diver- movements within the ecclesiastical territory have given 
sity of views, pjgg ^q ^ great diversity of views. This we see in the 
union of the two Protestant Churches of Germany, and the con- 
nected dispute, extending into ecclesiastical laAv, respecting the 
ritual, in which Schleiermacher took part. We observe it also in 
the reaction against the Prussian service book, which emanated from 
the Old Lutheran party. To these must be added Puseyism, which 
originated in the Oxford School, and whose fundamental views in 
relation to ecclesiastical law and liturgies found acceptance in Ger- 
many as well. We see it also in Irvingism, which sought to restore 
a levitical worship. 

In the Reformed Church it was felt to be necessary that at least 
a justification of the peculiar form of worship be furnished. Greater 
sobriety and caution were manifested from that point, in opposi- 
tion to an sestheticising, mystifying, and speculative transcendent- 
alism, which does not exclude the recognition of whatever may be 
snore valuable among the possessions of other churches. It is in 



THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 517 

place here to recall the unfortunate dispute concerning the ritual in 
the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the hymn book contro- ^ 

*' . . ^ , *' . ^ Controversy ia 

versy in the Palatinate, in connexion with which such Baden and the 
a quiet discussion of principles as was to be desired, p^^^*^^'^^*®- 
and as would have yielded fruit to the Church and to science, was 
not, in all probability, secured — a proof that not all times are 
equally prepared to admit of liturgical reforms, and that some will 
warn against retrogression in matters where others see only prog- 
ress. Nor has the Roman Catholic Church been free from attempts 
to reconstruct the worship anew since the close of the last century. 
Not to dwell upon the Theophilanthropists of France (1796), who 
endeavoured to introduce a sentimental deism, and the church of 
the Abbe Chatel at Paris (from 1830), it may be sufficient to men- 
tion, in the theoretical department, the Principles of Liturgical 
Theology, of the Benedictine, Kohler (1788), and Winter's What 
the Liturgy should Be (Munich, 1809), together with the works of 
Schmidt, Hnogek, Ltift, and others. Ignatius of Wessenberg ren- 
dered especially meritorious service in the ennobling of the wor- 
ship and the introducing of a German hymnology. His ideal, at 
all events, was to build up a German Catholic Church, though not 
of the kind produced in the fourth decade of this century, to 
which that name was applied. It remains to be seen how far the 
Old Catholicism of Dollinger and others will succeed in construct- 
ing a liturgy. 

LITERATUKE OF LITURGICS. 
German and French. 

M. F. Scheibler, Josias seu de restituendo Dei cultu. Solisb., 1814. 

L. A. Kahler : Sendschreiben an einen Freund iiber die Erneuerung des Cultus. Lpz., 

1815. 
* J. C. Gass, Ueber den christlichen Cultus. Bresl., 1815. 
G. Kr. Horst, Mysteriosophie, oder iiber die Veredlung des protestantischen Gottes- 

dienstes. Frankf., 1817. 2 vols. 
J. H. Fritsch, Ueber die zweckmassigsten Mittel zur Wiederherstellung und fleissigen 

Benutzung des offentlichen Gottesdienstes. Magdeb., 1817. 
Philadelphus Alethes (J. A. C. Lohr), Die kirchlichen Dinge. Lpz., 1823. 
J. J. Fessler, Liturgisches Handbuch. Riga, 1823. 

*G. F. W. Kapp, Grundsatze zur Bearbeitung evangel. Agenden. Erl., 1831. 
*Sal. Vogelin, Welche Yeranderungen und Verbesserungen sollten in unserm evang.- 

reform. Cultus vorgenommen werden? Frauenfeld, 1837. 
J. W. F. Hofling, Von der Composition des christl. Gemeindegottesdienstes. Erl., 1837. 
*K. W. Vetter, Die Lehre voin christl. Cultus, naeh den Grundsatzen der evang. 

Kirche. Berl., 1839. 
G. A. F. Goldmann, Der sonntagl. Hauptgottesdienst. Hannov., 1840. 
*F. Ehrenfeuchter, Theorie des christl. Cultus. Hamb., 1840. 
F. F. Klopper, Liturgik oder Theorie der stehenden Cultusformen. Lpz., 1840. 



518 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

■J. D. Seisen, Genius des Cultus. Heidelb., 1841. 

*A. Ebrard, Versuch einer Liturgik vom Standpunkte der reformirten Kirche. 

Frankf. a. M., 1843. 
* Th. Kliefoth, Theorie des Cultus der evangel. Kirche. Ludwigslust, 1844. 
Die urspriingliche Gottesdienstordnung in den deutsehen Kirchen lutherischen 

Bekenntnisses. Kostock, 1847. 
K, Biihr, Der protestantische Gottesdienst vom Standpunkte der Gemeinde aus be- 
trachtet. Heidelb., 1850. 

E. Closter, Der Gemein-Gottesdienst und das Kirchenbuch. Lpz., 1853. 
K. A. Dachsel, Ordnung des evang. Hauptgottesdienstes. Berl., 1854. 

F. Nees v. Esenbeck, Der christliehe Gottesdienst naeh dem Bediirfniss der evang. 

Kirche. Kreuzn., 1854. 
L. Schoberlein, Der Evang. Gottesdienst nach den Grundsatzen der Reformation. 

Heidelb., 1854. 

■ Das Wesen des christl. Gottesdienstes. Gott., 1860. 

Ueber den liturgischen Ausbau des Gemeindegottesdienstes in der deutsehen 

evang. Kirche. Gotha. 1859. 
Th. Kliefoth, Liturgische Abhandlungen. Schwerin, 1854-61. 
K. R. Hagenbach, Grundlinien der Liturgik und Homiletik, Lpz., 1863. 

By Roman Catholics : 
F. X. Schmid, Liturgik der christkatholischen Religion. Passau, 1832. 
f Jos. Marzohl and Jos. Schneller, Liturgia sacra. Luzern, 1834-41. 4 vols, 
f Hnogek, Christkatholische Litui^gik. Pi'ag, 1835-42. 5 vols, 
f Liift, Kathol. Liturgik. Mainz, 1844, 1847. 2 vols, 
f Joh. Hepp, Der Gottesdienst der kathol. Kirche. Mainz, 1853. 
f M. Terklau, Der Geist des kathol. Cultus. Wien, 1853. 
f Fluck, Kathol. Liturgik. Regensb., 1853, 1855. 2 vols. 

Historical Works. 

H. Alt, Der christliehe Cultus, nach seinen verschiedenen Entwicklungsformen und 

seinen einzelnen Theilen historisch dargestellt. Berl., 1843. 
f Probst, Liturgie der drei ersten christlichen Jahrhunderte. Tiib., 1870. 
H. Jacoby, Die Liturgik der Reformatoren. Gotha, 1871. 

The hymns of the ancient Church are given in a collection by * H. A. Daniel, Thesau- 
rus hymnologicus s. hymnorum, canticorum, sequentiarum collectio amplissima. 
Lips., 1841-56. 5 vols. Comp. F. G. Lisco, Dies irae, Hymnus auf das Weltge- 
richt. Berl., 1840. 4. Ibid., Stabat mater. Berl., 1843. 4to. Simrock (Lauda Siou. 
1850. 2d ed., 1868). Mone, Lat. Hymnen des Mittelalters, etc. 1853, 1854. 2 vols. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

Each of the denominations has its own form of service, and its special collection 
of hymns. 

Architecture and Art. 

Joseph Bingham, Origines Antiquitates. 10 vols. Lond., 1843. 
M. Didson, History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1851. 
C. L. Eastlake, History of the Gothic Revival. Lond., 1872. 

C. I. Hemans, History of Ancient Christianity and Sacred Art in Italy. 3 vols. Flor- 
ence and Lond., 1866-72. 
Anna Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art. 2 vols. Lond., 1879. 
W. Liibke, Outlines of the History of Art. 7th ed. N. Y., 1878. 



THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 519 

C. E. Norton, Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1880. 

G. A. Poole, History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. Lond,, 1848. 

J. E. Riddle, Manual of Christian Antiquities. Lond , 1843. 

G. G. Scott, History of English Church Architecture. Lond., 1881. 



SECTION XIY. 
HOMILETICS. 

Liturgies determines the nature and form of worship. But 
homiletics has to determine the nature and form of the Christian 
sermon alone, and to furnish instruction respecting the mode of ex- 
pounding the word of God in the congregation, and of presenting 

it in discourse. Liturgies directs attention to the en- „ , ,. 

p ^ Relation of ]i- 

tire contents of Christian revelation, whence the sermon turgicstohom- 
is to derive its material ; and the latter operates partly ^ ^^^' 
in the field of hermeneutics and partly in that of rhetoric, though 
with constant reference to the peculiar nature of sacred discourse, 
as distinguished from other forms of oratory. 

The word homiletics is derived from biiiXta. It is usual to under- 
stand homilies as denoting only a single class of sermons, namely, 
those whose unity does not inhere in a theme which is propounded, 
but in the text, and which approximate to popular forms of speech 
in their language more than do those of other classes.^ The ancient 
usage covered a broader ground with this term, however, and in 
conformity therewith we use the term homiletics to designate not 
only the theory of this single form of discourse, but that of the 
sermon in general. At this point, however, we must fix the limit. 
Homiletics must not be expanded into a theory of sa- ^.^ ^ 
cred, or even Christian or religious, eloquence, in gen- a theory of sa- 
eral. It is possible to conceive of Christian addresses ^^® eoquence. 
which are. not included in the department of homiletics proper; for 
example, the missionary address (KTJpvyjia). The latter may be de- 
nominated a sermon, in the peculiar biblical meaning of the word ; 
but it, as well as the preaching of the apostles, is nevertheless un- 
like what our sermons can be, since they are not the product of the 
impulse of the moment, but bear the character of a regularly re- 
peated and integral part of public worship. Herder remarks,'^ that 
" as soon as the sermon ceased to be what it really was in the mouth 

^ Opinions differ greatly with regard to the propriety of homilies. While Herder 
has advocated their use. Harms has decided adversely to it, and says : "they fill, but do 
not satisfy." Schleiermacher was likewise not inclined to regard them with special 
favour. He considered homilies to be a mere aggregation of separate sermons. 

2 In Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 40, the whole of which should be 
read in this connexion. 



520 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

of the apostles, a message, it became an exposition of the word of 
God, its writings and teachings, and an application of what had 
been read in the midst of a quiet Christian assembly. This was 
termed a homily, and was not properly an oration." 

If it be desired to set forth a theory for the awakening preaching 
of an apostolic herald, or for the proclamation of the Word among 
the heathen, it will be found convenient to appropriate to it the 
name keryktics — a term first formed by Stier from the Greek word, 
KTjQVGCfG), to proclaim.^ Such preaching precedes, in point of time, 
even catechetics, while the sermon, as ordinarily understood, is ad- 
dressed to persons who already belong to the Christian community, 
so that homiletics carries forward the work of catechetics. 

We would not assert that the usual sei'mon should involve no ele- 

., . ment of keryktics, for many nominal Christians exist 

Necessity of con- j ^ j 

tinuai preaching to whom the Call to repentance need^ to be continually 
of repentance, addressed, and Schleiermacher pivoted the question 
upon too fine a point when he excluded all hortatory sermons of 
this kind. Vinet urges the reality, which is stronger than any the- 
ory. It is equally certain, however, that many of our most zealous 
hortatory preachers miss the mark by incessantly driving the plough, 
instead of pausing to sow the seed and water it, and cherish the 
growing blade. By preaching only repentance we always tarry in 
the court of the Gentiles, and never enter into the most holy place. 
The needs of advanced Christians and growth in grace should not 
be disregarded. The treatment accorded to cold and formal Christ- 
ians within the Church, moreover, is specifically different from that 
which the actual heathen, who " are without," can receive. An ap- 
peal may be addressed to their nominal Christianity, or, better, to 
the Christian name they bear. They may be reminded of their 
baptism, and everything may be j^resumed of them in an ideal sense, 
though it does not exist in a real form. Their conscience differs 
from that of the heathen, and discourse addressed to that conscience 
must differ from that which aims to reach the heathen mind. 

Still other forms of discourse might be mentioned which belong 

^ Comp. Nitzsch in Stud. u. Krit., 1832,»No. 3, p. 725: "Since it must be admitted 
that the word homily — whether so used in the New Testament or not, is immaterial 
in this connexion — does yet, when historically considered, and taken in the meaning 
assigned to it in the early usage of the Church, denote the function which embraces 
the whole of the service of the T^oyo^ mv ■&eov^ it follows that homiletics is always to 
be regarded as a leading branch of practical theology by the side of catechetics. The 
combination of the two is, only in the case of the missionary, however, to be denomi- 
nated keryktics, provided it is still necessary to retain the Greek designations for the 
sake of brevity, and of associating the conditions of the present with those of antiq- 
uity and history." 



HOMILETICS. 521 

to the keryktical, and not the homiletical, department; for exam- 
ple, the preaching of the crusades in the Middle Ages, and such 
free discourses in the open air as the mediaeval friars were wont to 
deliver, or the bazar and street preaching of the most recent period. 
There is also a class of discourses which belongs within the circle 
of parliamentary speech, such as conference and occasional addresses. 
Occasional discourses stand at the very boundary line, and are in- 
cluded more especially under the pastoral or the liturgical function, 
as they are directed to the peculiar condition and religious needs of 
the respective persons concerned, or relate entirely to the particular 
occasion to be utilized. The ordination sermon, for example, 
grows out of the position held by the ordaining minister under the 
economy of Church government. 

We, therefore, confine our attention to the sermon within the 
limits of the regular services of the Church, in which it assumes 
various characters in accordance with the solemnity, be it more or 
less, of the particular service, being either a Sunday morning or 
evening sermon, or a more popular discourse in familiar language, 
as the homily, or a practical exposition of some Scripture. The 
feature which makes a sermon of the sermon, and distinguishes it 
from other forms of religious or Christian discourse, is the text ^ or 
passage of Scripture which does not serve merely as a motto, but 

is the root from which the sermon must srrow. This 

The text. 
determines not only the contents of the sermon, which 

must be scriptural in any case, but also its form. The preacher is 
not simply a speaker, but also an expounder, with the single quali- 
fication that at one time the former function will be more promi- 
nent, and at another time the latter. The art of preaching has its 

* Textus (from texo), a texture. Applied to the texture of discourse in Quinct., 8, 6 ; 
Ammian. Marcellin., 15, 7. Comp. Stephani Thesaur. In the Middle Ages the term 
textus was applied to the Bible itself; comp. du Frene. It is here given to a partic- 
ular section taken from the Scriptures, which Campe not inappropriately renders by 
" Grundspruch " (fundamental theme). Examples are not wanting, in the history of 
homiletics, of sermons which have no other texts than verses from hymns or sections 
from the Catechism. But such discourses do not belong within the range of the ser- 
mon as fixed by the requirements of a fully developed Protestant worship. They may 
be serviceable for the work of edification in other directions, but they cannot replace 
the sermon. Addresses not founded upon a text are, as a rule, better adapted for 
occasional discourses, but they are termed occasional discourses for that very reason. 
Texts taken from secular books are even worse than no texts at all. In the Middle 
Ages sermons were based on Aristotle, later, in the fifteenth century, on Brandt's 
Ship of Fools, and the Rationalist Unitarians of England still draw their texts from 
Schiller and Byron. An instructive discussion as to whether a text is needed or may 
be dispensed with, and concerning the special difficulties involved in the being re- 
stricted to a text, is contained in Vinet, Homiletics, chap. 3. 



522 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

field of exercise both in the department of hermeneutics and in that 
of rhetoric. With regard to the former branch we refer to the 
department of exegesis, treated in this work. With reference to 
the oratorical branch it is important to assure to pulpit discourse 
its special field. As religion itself is neither a formal know- 
ing nor a doing, religious discourse likewise differs from those 
forms of discourse which direct their aim chiefly upon knowing or 
upon doing. The former class, of course, are not discourses, in a 
strict sense of the word, but approximate in character to treatises, 
such as academical addresses or lectures. 

The sermon should not be a lecture or treatise. It aims to 
The sermon not enlarge and correct the religious apprehension, but 
a lecture. only in order that the religious state of the soul may 

be more clearly understood and be more unimpeded in its expres- 
sion. The preacher may not rest satisfied with having wrought 
conviction in the mind unless it make itself felt upon the heart. It 
should also pass over into action. The pulpit discourse differs, 
however, from all such addresses as aim directly to produce action, 
and in connexion with which the speaker is content with having 
the object realized which he has in view, without regard to tlie 
motive from which it is performed. This is the case with parlia- 
mentary and juridical addresses. The older homiletical writers of 
France distinguished between " eloquence of the bar " and " elo- 
quence of the pulpit." It will be apparent, from this consideration, 
to what extent Demosthenes and Cicero may be regarded as our 
models. " The person," says Herder, " who, without qualification, 
regards the forensic orations of Demosthenes and Cicero as models 
to which our sermons are to be conformed, has no proper idea of 
the nature of either the sermon or the forensic address; he has not 
apprehended the design of either."^ He elsewhere says: "Pi-each- 
ers cannot, like Demosthenes and Cicero, call forth sudden decis- 
ions and resolves to action; they cannot, because they should not; 
and they should not, because they cannot. There are no Philips 
before our walls that we should at once rush in wild enthusiasm to 
guard our gates — this is true, and who has ever wrought to secure 
that end? There are no felons to be instantly condemned or ac- 
quitted — who has ever spoken as if this were the case ? But let it 
be supposed that something of this kind were yet to be devolved 
upon the speaker, then, teacher, you are compelled to perform the 
work, and will need to display ability in its accomplishment, or 
you speak but poorly. If a Christian duty, of whatever kind, ought 
to be instantly performed, and it were devolved upon you to make 

* Brief e, No. 40, Werke x, p. 18. 



HOMILETICS. 523 

it clear and urge to action, it were weak not to do this despite 
whatever theory might be employed to furnish an excuse." ^ 

Should the sermon then aim simply to influence the religious 
feeling ? By no means. A mere gush of feeling is not j^^. 
at all a discourse. The sermon should not be a mono- sermon to the 
logue, an expanded prayer, a meditation in which the ^^^^srega ion. 
preacher appears only in his relation to God and Christ (after the 
manner of the ancient " speaking with tongues," 1 Cor. xiv^ 2), and 
not in that sustained toward the congjreo-ation. This is a fault in 
which many emotional persons become involved, whose discourses 
soar upon the air, instead of being directed upon the heart like ar- 
rows from the quiver. A discourse is distinguished from the poem 
by the very fact that it is not a mere outburst of the feelings, but 
rather a homily, in the etymological meaning of the word — that is, 
a conversation with the hearer, who is to be regarded as not merely 
a recipient, but as joining with thought and feeling in oratory a con- 
the discussion, and possibly as replying to it and raising ^ersation. 
doubts. Vinet says: "Oratorial discourse thus appears as a con- 
test, a combat; this idea is essential to it. At one time the orator 
combats an error by a truth, at another he opposes one sentiment to 
another sentiment. In its just' use oratory is a combat waged 
against errors of the mind and heart with the warfare of speech! " ^ 
" The oratorial discourse is a drama, each word of the preacher is a 
question to which the auditor replies in himself, and his reply be- 
comes a new question to which the orator replies. There is an in- 
terior in every oratorical art." Cicero, when asked to point out the 
result of rhetoric, replied: "Actio, actio, actio." 

We must, accordingly, include the dialectical element also, al- 
though this, again, must rest upon a profounder basis, namely, the 
common feeling of Christianity. But we must not resolve every- 
thing into dialectics. The sermon must necessarily be of a pare- 
netic or hortatory character, and aim to excite to resolve and action. 
But such resolution must likewise grow out of the feeling which 
has been excited, and out of definite convictions. The sermon is a 

testimony of Christ and of life in him, and at the same ^^ 

•^ , ... The sermon a 

time a proclamation of that life.^ It is discourse to an testimony to 
extent, perhaps, not equalled by any other form of ad- ^^^ " 
dress, inasmuch as it addresses the entire man, takes hold upon the 
inmost depths of his being, discloses that being to his thought, and 
raises him above himself.* 

^ ProYinzialblatter, p. 3*74. ' Horailetics, Skinner's edition, p. 26. 

2 Ehrenfeuchter, p. 358, assigns the latter only to the sermon, the former to prayer. 
■* Comp. Herder, Der Redner Gottes (Werke zur Relig. und Theol., x, p. 475, sqq.). 



524 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

The individuality of tlie speaker is, doubtless, more fully dis- 
played in the sermon than in the liturgy. But this must not be 
understood as implying that his individuality, in the form of per- 
sonal views, should assert itself in this work, or that the preacher 
should preach simply himself, or merely human doctrine. Christ 
attains to a distinct form in each separate individual, and it follows 
that the individual life can only be properly manifested in the 
higher peculiarities which it involves, and for the benefit of the 
common life of the Christian community. We will not, therefore, 
say that the preacher is required to renounce his individuality. 
This view presumes a conflict, which, unfortunately, arises in many 
cases between the convictions of the preacher and those of the 
Church. It should, rather, be the aim of the preacher to make the 
asserting of his individuality subserve the spiritual elevation of the 
congregation, and his human teaching reflect the word of God. 
For the preacher's individuality is not, in point of fact, to be con- 
sidered a channel through which water flows, or a glass for the pas- 
sage of the rays of light. On the other hand, we hold that the 
preacher is not to annihilate, but to perfect and idealize, his indi- 
viduality. The speaker, carried along by the peculiarity of his 
Christian life, pours out upon the congregation what has been de- 
veloped into life in his own personal experience, and thereby awak- 
ens new life in his hearers.^ 

But he does this in an artistic form by first stripping off the evil 
features attaching to his individuality, including everything that is 
merely subjective and accidental, by permitting the product of his 
mind to become clear to himself through the process of meditating 
upon it, and to become, in a true sense, a part of his inner life, and 
by assuring himself, with an inward certainty that extends down 
to the individual expression, that he is justified in appearing in this 
precise manner, and not otherwise, before the congregation, as its 
speaker, and that he is called to labour precisely in that form. We 
do not question whether the preacher, by virtue of his ofiicial posi- 
tion, is alone competent to perform this function, and 
not other members of the Church as well. Laymen 
officiated as speakers in the early Church. We consider it proper 

^ Beyer, ubi supra^ p. 25, separates the idea of the sermon into three parts : (1) The 
creative ; (2) The receptive ; and (3) the mediating principle. He finds these three in 
(1) The word of God ; (2) The congregation ; and (3) The person of the preacher. " The 
word of God furnishes the sermon with its hfe-giving and saving contents, the life 
derived from God ; the adaptation to the congregation gives to it historical and local 
form ; and the mind of the preacher, in which the preceding elements are combined 
into unity, bestows upon it the power and colouring of personal life." 



HOMILETICS. 525 

that our worship be so expanded as to admit of other than settled 
and stationed ordained preachers. Lay preaching, however, should 
have clearly defined limits. To judge of the sermon altogether 
from the pastoral, instead of from the liturgical and lay, point of 
view, and to consider the pulpit simply as an elevation upon which 
the one shepherd stands to feed his flock, appears to us an entire 
misunderstandinor of the nature of the sermon. We do not disre- 
gard the benefits arising from the bond which joins pastor and peo- 
ple together, but all the gifts and graces for preaching are not con- 
fined to him who may be pastor. 

SECTION XY. 

HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 

Homiletics is divided into two parts, the General and the Si^ecial. 
The latter embraces, 1. Invention; 2 Disposition; 3. The Division of 
elaboration and delivery of the discourse. Care is re- J^omiietics. 
quired, however, to avoid the danger of regarding such division in 
thought as having brought about a real separation in the concrete, 
and to guard in general against losing sight of the essential charac- 
ter and meaning of pulpit discourse, because of the influence of the 
arbitrary rules of the schools which have intruded themselves into 
the different divisions of homiletics. 

The theory may be divided in conformity with the two questions, 
What shall be preached? and How shall it be preached? The limit of sa- 
This was the plan pursued by Augustine in his Christ- ^red eloquence. 
ian Doctrine. The matter may be considered in its general and its 
particular aspects, the general inquiry being. How far does the limit 
of sacred eloquence extend? That limit is determined by the 
Christian character. Nothing but what is connected with the 
Christian life as such,^ and aims to establish, purify, and perfect 
that life, may properly be made the subject of homiletical discourse. 
But nothing that belongs within that circle can be excluded from 
the range of such discourse. This is, consequently, the place for 
determining the character of Christian preaching. The sermon 
should be pervaded by both doctrinal and ethical preaching. The 
two should interpenetrate each other, though the doctrinal element 
may at times predominate, and at other times the ethical. To what 
extent may political matters be discussed? How far may the course 
of nature, as the changes of the seasons, be regarded? In all these 

^ We assume as self-evident the fact that the standard to which such Christian life 
is to be conformed is given in the word of God, and particularly in the teaching of 
Christ and the apostles. 



526 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

matters good taste and sound wisdom must be observed. There is 

a time for everything. 

The first division of homiletics is thei theory of invention. ISTo 

direct invention, in the ordinary meaning: of the word. 
Invention. ^ -, t rrt, ^ i . 

must be understood, ine matter tor our preaching 

was invented long ago. But the duty is devolved upon us of de- 
ciding what portion of the existing treasure shall now be presented 
to the congregation. With what subject should the preacher deal 
on this day, at this hour, in this particular instance ? At this point 
we again meet the opposing elements of the prescribed and the 
free. There are certain great general topics, such as Christmas, the 
new year, Easter, important national days, and public events of par- 
amount interest, which require special treatment, but the device of 
the text and mode of treatment are the province of the preacher in 
his individual capacity. To what degree may a preacher be guided 
by his personal mood? How far may outward circumstances gov- 
ern his choice ? Should he, in his regular ministrations, undertake 
a doctrinal or an exegetical series ? Which parts and books of the 
Scriptures deserve to be separately treated ? Should he select his 
texts chiefly from the Old or the New Testament ? Should he pre- 
fer historical to doctrinal passages? Should he choose parables; 
larger or smaller sections; texts from the gospels, or the epistles, 
or the apostolic history? Guiding principles are needed in all these 
matters. There should be no accident or personal whim. Even 
eminent preachers have allowed themselves to be misled into the 
effort of exciting curiosity either by selecting peculiar texts or dis- 
cussing piquant themes. Reinhard and Draseke in Germany, and 
many preachers in both England and America, have erred in differ- 
ent directions upon this point; the one being misled by his ingenu- 
ity, the other by his wit. Reinhard, however, was tempted to go 
astray because of the restriction imposed by the topics prescribed 
by the ecclesiastical calendar. The custom of selecting abbreviated 
texts, mere starting points of texts, so to speak, prevails especially 
in the Reformed Church of France. This is very prominent in the 
sermons of Adolph Monod and Alexander Vinet. 

A frequent and living intercourse with the Scriptures, the obser- 
vation of its practical features, an acquaintance with 
Conditions nee- ^ . / , r, > 

essary for prop- the human heart, a correct estimate ot the preacher s 

er texts. personal disposition, and especially a candid observa- 

tion of the time and its needs, and of the Church at large as well 
as the local church, comprehend the secret of homiletical invention, 
and protect against the intellectual bankruptcy of being preached 
out, while they also cut off, at the beginning, all temptation to 



HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 527 

make use of un\\'orthy artifices, such as an attempt to surprise by 
novelty and originality. A text that has been judiciously selected 
is worth half a sermon, and brief and striking texts are certainly 
very effective. Palmer remarks: " It is a beautiful and grand thing 
for the preacher to have succeeded in striking the proper chord in 
the very enunciation of his text, and an electrical effect is often 
produced when the congregation is made to realize at the outset 
that this is to be the subject which ought to be discussed to-day." ^ 

When the theme and text have been selected the work of arrange- 
ing is in order. It is, first of all, necessary to determine the exact 
relation sustained by the text to the theme, and this decision will 
govern the further progress of the sermon, the theme being either 
at once evoked from the text, and then developed more extensively, 
or, being gradually developed before the hearer's mind, the dis- 
course is strung upon the thread of the text. The former method 
is synthetic preaching; the latter, analytical. The two g ^.j^ ^ ^ 
methods may frequently be combined and interpene- analytical 
trate each other, especially when but little attention is °^^ ° ' 
bestowed upon unnatural and inflexible divisions, and more regard 
is had for a natural and attractive grouping of ideas. Arrange- 
ment is certainly needed, but not arrangement only. Connexion is 
also requisite. By this we mean a just distribution of effective 
points, not only in harmony with the laws of logic, but also with 
those of rhetoric and art. 

Herder strikingly observes, of a true disposition of the sermon: 
*' There must be no figure, no clause, no comma, which does not 
grow, as it were, necessarily out of the theme as a branch and its 
limbs, or a flower and a leaf of the tree grow out of the root or the 
trunk. If it be not in this place it is nowhere, and the discourse is 
incomplete; it has a gap, a vacant phice, as we say of paintings. 
A totally different question is that which asks whether the disposi- 
tion should be set forth like a naked skeleton. Nature does not fol- 
low that plan, and the sermon should be the last to adopt it. 
Natural arrangement, and a continued analysis of the word of God, 
form the best disposition for its use." ^ The best mode of division, 
however, will always be that in which the connexion of the text 
determines the structure of the sermon, and where the latter grows 
out of the text. This, likewise, settles the question concerning the 
relative value of synthetical or analytical sermons. 

The sermon should not be a mere unorganized agglomeration and 
aggregation of saws and sentences any more than it should resem- 
ble a skeleton. A fine human figure is resolved into its component 
^ Page 384, ' Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 45. 



528 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

members before tbe observer, but the members have an elastic con- 
nexion, and are not articulated with wires. The bones may no 
more stand out than they may be buried in obesity from sight. So 
with the sermon. This involves the entire secret of so-called ser- 
monic division. Much pedantry has taken root in this field, but it 
is once more dying out. The aim Avas to divide off with the aid of 
Artistic divis- ii"© and compass, and an external symmetry, as in the 
*^^- closely clipped French gardens, came to be considered 

the law of beauty. A Procrustean bed was made ready, and every- 
thing was stretched or cut off until the parts, and secondary parts, 
were all of equal length. The utmost conscientiousness was em- 
ployed in measuring and weighing whether a sermon should be 
divided into two or three parts, or whether more than three could 
be allowed, and how much space should be allotted to the introduc- 
tion and every other member. Many preachers even made use 
of an arrangement obtained from others, as if theft were not a 
crime, and as if the arrangement and the execution did not mutu- 
ally determine each other. A master must be competent to fit his 
own goods; only a bungler will construct a patchwork article. 
Much has been said upon the delivery of the sermon. It cannot 

be denied that the pulpit has its own peculiar stvle, anv 

The delivery. . . . ^ 7 j 

more than it can be denied that there is a special style 

of praying or singing, or of architecture, in the Church. The 
preacher should not talk, but speak, and speaking is an art. His 
tone should not be simply argumentative, nor merely hortatory, nor 
yet merely pathetic. The beauty of the discourse is dependent on 
its truthfulness. Beyer well says: "If the idea of the beautiful 
requires that thought should find its adequate expression in the con- 
crete form, a sacred beauty must always be ascribed to the sermon. 
Its divine substance is to be presented to view under the form of 
human speech, and, therefore, must penetrate with glorifying power 
through the whole discourse, and appear in its structure, and even 
in the separate words. But the beauty of the sermon is for this 
very reason not such as may be intentionally sought out and arti- 
ficially manufactured. It is no tinsel ornamentation." ^ 

The more fully justice is done to the sermon the richer will it be 
in fulness of expression, resembling the word of God, in which it 
has its origin. In its moments of elevation it may approximate to 
the poetical character, but without becoming poetry.^ Everything 

^ Uhi supra^ p. 348, and also p. 567. 

2 Comp. Palmer, Ueber das Malen in den Predigten, p. 85, sqq. We would not 
agree with him in designating Krummacher absolutely as a model, since his colours are 
at times altogether too glaring. 



HOMILETICAL ATIRANGEMENT AND MATERIi\ L. 529 

that is unworthy, all that resembles the Capuchinade, all meretri- 
cious ornamentation, both that which recalls to mind the grosser 
affairs of ordinary life and that which involves the terminology of 
the schools and books; in a word, all that is purely tech- „ , 

' ' 1 / Useless orna- 

nical, should be carefully excluded from the sermon, ment to be 
All foreiorn terms which are not contained in the Bible ^^^^*^®^- 
are, therefore, to be avoided whenever possible. Dignity and sim- 
plicity should combine in it into the higher unity of Christian ear- 
nestness. Popularity of style should not be carried to the extreme 
of triviality. The language should be select, but not strained. A 
true popularity, an adaptation to the level of common minds,' may 
most readily be secured by the study of the Scriptures and of the 
good, robust preachers of the earlier days. Such older forms of 
thought need to be recast into modern phraseology, however, in 
order that an adventurous pulpit jargon, having no affinity with 
actual life, may be avoided. 

Whether the sermon should be written and memorized, or merely 
elaborated in the mind, will depend upon personal considerations, 
and theory has but little concern with the question. Palmer says: 
" The congregation does not ask, and has no right to ask, how you 
prepare to speak readily, whether by writing your sermon or other- 
wise. Your mode of occupation while in the study is your business 
alone. You may, if you choose, compose your sermons in Latin or 
in French; if you employ your language, the tongue of the congre- 
gation, readily while in the pulpit, the other processes involved in 
the sermon concern yourself alone." Schleiermacher has expressed 
the opinion that persons of placid disposition may venture upon ex- 
temporaneous speech, while emotional natures would do better to 
fix both thought and its expression by previous writing. The old 
Zalansky says a blunt word: "A young preacher should sit out and. 
sweat out his sermons; first write them, and when they have beeni 
thoroughly finished present them to the people. . . . Shame upon 
them who even make it their boast that they have not in many 
years devoted a sheet of paper to the writing of their sermons." 
It does not follow from this that sermons should smell of the lamp. 
Artis est artem eel are. 

The internal process of preparing the sermon must never be al- 
lowed to appear in the delivery. The sermon, even ^^ 

^ \ •' ' The sermon tO' 

though a written one, must always be mentally con- be mentally 
structed with a view to its being spoken, and not as if ^^^^ ^"^*® ' 

^ The popularizing of preaching was never more strongly urged than at a time when 
the true Christian life of the people had been wholly lost sight of. The best discus- 
sion of unction, is given by Yinet, in his Pastoral Theologv, pp. 214, 215. 
34 



530 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

it were an article to be read.^ It must lie in the mind as a speech, 
and be continually upon our tongues; the imagination must always 
picture us, as was always Guthrie's method, as standing in the pul- 
pit with the open Bible before us, and the congregation assembled 
iu our presence. Only thus shall we be able to retain sufficient 
freshness of mind to prevent the sermon from becoming stale in the 
process of protracted preparation, and to cause it to be constantly 
new and fresh while we meditate upon it, so that the time of deliv- 
ery may become the real natal hour of the sermon, and the hearer 
may be impressed that it comes freely and directly from the heart 
at that moment. It is self-evident that a sermon which must be 
read, as a whole, can produce no such effect. Rosenkranz says: 
" The unfortunate habit, begun in early life, of relying uj^on read- 
ing and writing, and the fact that people have not been sufficiently 
accustomed to think, form the reason why free speech, which can 
only arise from an assured state of the mind, is kept down, espe- 
cially in the case of persons of liberal culture." But a school-boy-like- 
and poorly memorized sermon, and also one that is so completely 
extemporized that the pangs of labour under which the speaker 
brings forth his thoughts may be observed, will produce a painful, 
and, even if joined with much facility of speech, a repulsive im- 
pression. 

As a final direction, it must be observed that the various opera- 
tions of invention, arrangement, and elaboration are not to be sepa- 
rately employed in a mechanical way, but each must be made to ex- 
ert a determining, supplementing, and correcting influence over the 
others, if the sermon is to retain its vital colouring. The entire sermon 
must already be present in the moment of mental composition, as the 
plant exists in the germ. It is simply to be resolved before the mind 
into its elements, and be precipitated and clarified, as in some chemical 
process. The arrangement often leads to a more exact fixing of the 
theme, and the elaboration reacts upon the disposition, while the 
written word cannot be corrected until the spoken word has been 
heard. A sermon may be excellent in point of style, and yet read 
by the preacher to himself to better advantage than it can be heard 
by a congregation. It is, therefore, necessary that the preacher 
Possible effect should not only think himself into the sermon, but also 
be^studieTby ^^^® ^ ^^^^ estimate of the effect it will produce upon 
the preacher, the ear. Often the repeating of the sermon aloud, or 
at any rate its imaginary delivery in thought, instead of merely 

^ Gossner remarks that the Holy Ghost at Pentecost distributed tongues of fire, but 
not pens for writing. Bengel's motto was, " Think much, and write little ; " and yet 
he conscientiously wrote down at least the plan. 



HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 531 

thinking it over, will be very beneficial. Bishop Burnet was accus- 
tomed, when riding or walking, to speak upon a given text in a loud 
tone of voice, and without any preparation, by which practice he 
attained to such readiness that he became able to speak appropri- 
ately upon any subject without much previous thought. The sermon 
should be transfigured and spiritualized to its very centre down to the 
moment of delivery, in which it is thrown off as a ripened fruit from 
the mind of the preacher. If a sermon be delivered a second time, 
or many times, it should be improved for every new delivery. Thus 
only can there come the joy of creating with each repetition. To 
ride an old sermon to death is a sad business. " Dissatisfaction 
with old sermons," says Palmer, " should continue while life re- 
mains." Augustine was always dissatisfied with his sermons after 
they had been delivered. When shall the immorality of presenting 
in numberless churches a fossil sermon that has once, like a part in 
a play, been committed to memory, come to an end? 

The rules with reference to delivery are generall}'' of a negative 
character. Harms fancifully comprehends the whole under the 
three L's, " langsam, laut, lieblich " — slow, loud, pleasant. Canon 
Kingsley said : " Keep sacredly to the habit of breathing at every 
stop. Read and speak slow; and take care of the consonants, and 
the vowels will take care of themselves." ^ Upon the subject of 
gestures especially, in which much depends upon the 
speaker's individuality, it is possible only to indicate 
precautions of the most general kind. Much depends upon the 
theme. The gesture should be the outgrowth of the thought and 
feeling. It is only effective when unconscious, like the breathing of 
a child. Be sure the gesticulation is imperfect, unnatural, if the^ 
speaker can remember afterward what it was. Herder had no ges- 
ticulation, and Schleiermacher next to none. The elder Edwards 
had almost none, even in his most overpowering discourses. The 
young preacher should guard against imitating some favourite ges- 
ticulator. Some use the mirror as a help in preparation. But a 
faithful friend, who directs attention upon our mistakes of emphasis 
and our faulty gestures, is the best kind of mirror within reach. 
Goethe's words, in Faust, will cover all our remaining ground: 

If feeling does not prompt, in vain you strive; 

If from the soul the language does not come, 

By its own impulse, to impel the hearts 

Of hearers, with communicated power, 

In vain you strive — in vain you study earnestly. 

* Letters and Memoirs of the Life of Charles Kingsley, p. 384. The entire letter 
addressed to Miss is on Stammering, but will apply well to pulpit elocution. 



532 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Toil on forever; piece together fragments; 

Cook up your broken scraps of sentences, 

And blow, with puffing breath, a struggling light, 

Glimmering confusedly now, now cold in ashes; 

Startle the schoolboys with your metaphors ; 

And if sucli food may suit your appetite, 

Win the vain wonder of applauding children! 

But never look to win the hearts of men, 

And mould the souls of many into one, 

By words which come seductive from the heart! 

Be honest, if you would be eloquent; 

Be not a chiming fool with cap and bells ; 

Reason and genuine feeling want no arts 

Of utterance — ask no toil of elocution; 

And when you are in earnest, do you need 

A search for words ? O, these fine holiday phrases, 

In which you robe your worn-out commonplaces, 

These scraps of paper which you crimp and curl, 

And twist into a thousand idle shapes, 

These filigree ornaments, are good for nothing. 

Cost time and pains, please few, impose on no one; 

Are unrefreshing, as tlie wind that whistles, 

In autumn, 'moug tlie dry and wrinkled leaves. 



SECTION XVI. 

THE METHOD OE HOMILETICS. 

Exercises which afford a preparation for preaching are: (1) The 
Preparations for Cultivation and quickening of the practical faculty in 
the pulpit. lY^Q general study of the Bible; (2) The preserving of 

particular thoughts in writing, which contain the germs of future 
themes; (3) Practice in delivery. Constant and devotional listening 
to sermons in the services of the Church, and also the reading of 
homiletical productions, whether old or new, aid greatly in the form- 
ing of the future pulpit speaker. 

Exegesis should not be studied alone with a view to the pulpit. 
But practical exegesis should, nevertheless, always be enjoined with 
critical. The person who studies the Scriptures as a preacher 
should must often be struck by their flashes of light even when 
engaged upon the driest subjects. Such flashes indicate fruitful 
seasons. Every preacher should keep a notebook, upon which to 
enter the seedthoughts gained from the Scrij)tures, together with 
brief hints with regard to disposition and elaboration. In all his 
walks and most leisurely moments his eye should be on his pulpit. 



THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. 533 

The most useful scrapbooks for preachers are those which each 
man compiles for himself. Exegesis in preaching can- ^ 

not be conducted on the same plan as surgical prac- ways before 
tice upon a skeleton. It is a skeleton, indeed, when a ^^^^^ 
student is required to preach in the presence of his fellow students 
and a faculty of theologians, who are to personate the absent con- 
gregation. We suppose there is necessity for this in theological 
seminaries, but no student is expected to do full justice to himself 
under such circumstances. Young Rothe, in his student days, 
wrote this to his father: "Frankly stated, it appears to me that 
an experiment of this kind is a questionable matter. It is surely 
a repulsive thought that a Christian congregation should sit like 
a sort of wig-block upon which a young bungler is to try his 
sermon; and yet in another direction such an exjjeriment can, in 
view of the entire nature of the sermon, be undertaken nowhere 
but in the congregation, and it must, therefore, be carried through 
in that way." A sermon may be read, or recited, or gone through 
somehow, before an audience of critics, but it cannot be delivered 
in the highest sense. Might it be proper in like manner to pray 
by way of test ? or to exhort, or to censure or comfort, all by way 
of practice ? 

But there ought to be practice in delivery ? Yes, and the more 
the better, provided it is rightly done. The school should aim to 
promote this end, and do this work. Student associations for prac- 
tice in speaking will also render valuable aid. But when it is re- 
quired that a sermon should be j^reached by way of practice — and 
this should come to pass in the last year of the course — let it be 
undertaken with the help of God, and with full allowances for all 
the disadvantages of the hour. 

Many preachers attempt to display the whole of their theology in 
their first sermon; many others endeavour to concen- Defects of first 
trate in it all the feeling of their hearts. A wdse re- sermons. 
straint is highly needed at this point. Persons who have not yet 
passed beyond the period of theological conflict should beware of 
troubling the congregation with their doubts, or with the questions 
of the schools in g'eneral. Let them select themes which they are 
able to discuss, which have become transparent and concrete to 
their minds, and which they are competent to manage. Herder's 
paternal counsel has a general application here: "O friend, friend, 
do not hasten into the pulpit while too young or too thoughtless. 
You are not without other exercises which, though conducted in 
private, will forward you further on your way. If you insist on 
preaching, at least clothe yourself in modesty from head to foot. 



534 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Nothing is more attractive in a youthful speaker, and especially a 
pulpit speaker, than this." 

Many, however, are restrained from entering the pulpit by exces- 
^ . . ^ . ^ sive timidity, and by the fear of breaking; down. Such 

Timidity no ,^ , . . .. ° 

ground for dis- difficulties, which have their origin as frequently in self- 
couragemen . ^^r^ pride as in a really sacred awe respecting the char- 
acter of the office, can only be overcome in a moral way. The true 
7Tapf)7]GLa is a gift of grace. The best young preachers, however, 
have always been most alarmed. Pliny says: "Quod M. Cicero de 
stilo, ego de metu sentio. Timor est emendator acerrimus. Hoc 
ipsum, quod nos recitaturos cogitamus, emendat; quod auditorium 
ingredimus, emendat; quod pollemus, horrescimus, circumspicimus, 
emendat." Luther preached his first sermon in the convent of the 
Augustine monks before venturing to present himself before the 
public. Spener says that when he entered the pulpit for the first 
time he felt as though he were being led to the place of execution. 
Moeves testifies that he trembled far more while preaching his first 
sermon than when listening to the thunder of his first battle. 

Criticism may follow the sermon of the young preacher, but it 
should not be allowed to intimidate him beforehand. It is, more- 
over, a fact that he only is able to feel and hear himself into the 
real spirit of a sermon who gladly and frequently listens to the ser- 
mons of other men. One of the faults of our surfeited age consists 
in its unwillingness to hear other than distinguished orators. Some- 
Every sermon thing may be learned from every sermon, even though 
a lesson. [^ })q ^ poor one. But there is no objection to our be- 

coming acquainted with what is best and most perfect whenever 
opportunity is afforded. In this direction the rich sermon litera- 
ture of our English theology is of" great assistance. The reading of 
a sermon is not, of course, equivalent to hearing it, but it possesses 
advantages of its own. Criticism may be applied with much less 
restraint in this case than w^hen listening during the hour of wor- 
ship in the church. The reading of sermons should be elevated into 
a study to a much greater extent than is actually the case. Artists 
are directed to examine works of art, and poets are obliged to read 
the works of other poets. Why should not a similar rule apply to 
sermons? To construct anew a sermon that has been read by a 
master in the pulpit, and to search out its effective points, penetrate 
into the mystery of its profound connexion with the Christian life, 
and compare its method with that of another, constitutes a valuable 
exercise for young ministers of the Gospel, and one upon which 
teachers of homiletics should lay greater stress. Such critical read- 
ings, moreover, afford the surest defence against the danger of 



THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. 535 

slavishly imitating so-called " sermon skeletons," in which undertak- 
ing it generally happens that the imitators copy precisely their faults 
and excesses. Better study a great sermon than any skeleton. But 
do not steal either, or from either. 



SECTION XYH. 
THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 

I. History of the Christiak Sermon. 

Schuler, Gesch. der Verandenmgen des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1792-94, 3 vols. ; and 
ibid., Beitriige zur Gesch. d. Verand. des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1799; Ammon, 
Gescb. d. Homiletik, etc., Gottingen, 1804, Part I. (the first period from Huss to Luther, with 
historical introduction to the history of homiletics, from the rise of Christianity down to the be- 
ginning of the fifteenth century) ; Schmidt, Kurzer Abriss d. Gesch. d. geistl. Beredsamkeit u. 
Homiletik, Jena, 1790; Schuderoff, Vers, einer Kritik d. Homiletik, Gotha, 1797; Lentz, Gesch. 
d. christl. Homiletik, Brunsw., 1839 ; Paniel, Pragm. Gesch. d. christl. Beredsamkeit u. d. Hom- 
iletik, Leips., 1839 ; Schenck, Gesch. d. deutsch-Protest. Kanzelberedsamkeit von Luther bis auf 
d. neuesten Zeiten, BerJ., 1841 ; Doering, Die deutschen Kanzelredner des 18ten u. 19ten Jahr- 
hunderts, Neustadt a. d. Oder, 1830; Leopold, Predigtamt im Urcbristenthum, etc., Liineburg, 
1846 ; Marbach, Gesch. d. deutschen Predigt vor Luther, Berl., 1873 ; Beste, Die bedeutendsten 
Kanzelredner d. altern Lutherischen Klrche, von Luther bis Spener (2 vols.), Leips., 1856-58 ; Al. 
Vinet, Histoire de la predication parmi les Reformes de France au dix septieme siecle, Paris, 
1860 , Sack, Gesch. d. Predigt in d. deutschen evangel. Kirche, Heidelberg, 1866 ; Schmidt, 
Gesch. d, Predigt i. d. evangel. Kirche Deutschlands von Luther bis Spener, etc., Gotha, 1872. 

For English and American bibliography, see below. 

The earliest preaching was a KTJpvy/xa, a declaration, a heralding, 
and the formal homily w^as not developed until a sys- The early hom- 
tem of Christian worship had been constructed, although ^^^• 
it did not entirely supersede free discourse even then. Either hom- 
ilies or free discourses were handed down by Origen, Eusebius of 
Csesarea, Eusebius of Emisa, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, 
Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of l^azianzen, Cyril of 
Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus, Macarius, Amphiloc-hius, and John 
Chrysostom. These were not always free from the influence of the 
ancient rlietoric learned from heathen schools. In the Latin Church 
the discourses of Zeno of Verona, Ambrose, Gaudentius, Augustine, 
Leo L, and others, are worthy of note. 

Preaching declined in the Middle Ages. In the Greek Church 
John of Damascus and Photius delivered addresses in Medieval 
honour of the Virgin Mary and of images; but the preaching. 
Trullan Council (692) had already directed the clergy to make use 
of old and approved homilies. In the. Western Church recourse 
was likewise had at first to collections, postils, i. e., post ilia seil. 
verba Domini sive Scripturae Sacrae, the earliest of which were 
undertaken by Paul Warnefried and Alcuin, and followed by the 
similar collections of Raban Maur, Haymo of Halberstadt, and 
others. These collections were designed to serve as models for 



536 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

imitation in the vernacular. But this design was gradually laid aside 
as the growth of the hierarchy and of externality in the worship 
became more pronounced. The power of Christian oratory was 
henceforth less apparent in the church than in the open air, frequent- 
ly in the public streets. The preaching in convents was conducted 
in the Latin language. St. Bernard (Doctor mellifluus), and also 
the great scholastic Thomas Aquinas, attained to special eminence in 
this regard. The Begging Friars, from the thirteenth century, gave 
a new impetus to preaching. According to the historians, Bertholdt 
of Regensburg (died 1272), a Franciscan monk, preached to sixty 
thousand people. 

Among the Mystics special importance attaches to Master Eckart, 
The Mystic Heinrich Suso, and particularly to John Tauler. John 
preachers. Melicz, the forerunner of Huss, and the latter reformer 
himself, likewise brought a beneficial influence to bear upon the 
work of preaching. Chancellor Gerson preached in both Latin and 
French, and the great Florentine, Girolamo Savonarola, was espe- 
cially powerful of speech. The fifteenth century brought with it 
some strange contrasts, the comical being closely connected with 
the serious. This reflection will serve to explain the burlesque 
mode of preaching followed by Gabriel Barletta, Olivier Maillard, 
Michael Menot, and, to some extent, by the excellent Geiler of 
Kaisersberg. The Brothers of the Common Life, on the other 
hand, contributed toward the promotion of Protestant preaching. 

The Reformation of the sixteenth century, however, was pre- 
eminently a regeneration of the Christian sermon as based on the 
Preaching by word of God, Luther himself being distinguished above 
the Reformers, all others, although Zwingli does not need, upon the 
whole, to take a much lower place. The personal traits and situa- 
tion of these men were very different. Calvin was also peculiar, 
and most of the remaining reformers, as (Ecolampadius, Bullinger, 
and Haller, were good preachers. The time, however, when men 
attained to eminence in such labours soon came to an end. Luther's 
"postils" were followed by others, of which still others availed 
themselves with more or less benefit. Of writers of postils we may 
mention Anton Corvinus, Brentz, Avenarius (Habermann), Chem- 
nitz, Osiander (Peasant Postils), Matthesius (Mountain Postils), 
and Dietrich (Children's and Home Postils). 

Much insipidity prevailed at the close of the sixteenth century 
and during the seventeenth, and it was especially common to intro- 
duce disputes into the pulpit, and to chastise heretics. But worthy 
and edifying preachers were not wanting, of whom we name espe- 
cially Arndt (died 1627), the author of the treatise on True Chris- 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 537 

tianity, Herberger (died 1627), Andrea, and others. The structure 
of the sermon was now subjected to critical treatment, and all 
manner of artificial divisions were introduced ; for example, the 
five different usus: (1) didascalicus; (2) elenchticus; (3) paracleticus; 
(4) epanorthoticus; (5) paedenticus. In the end there were, literally, 
a hundred different methods, and all imaginable fancies raucifui divis- 
with regard to theme, exordium, and division. The ^o"^- 
want of taste reached its culmination — not, however, in a pedantic 
form so nmch as in a mere disposition to drift — in the Roman 
Catholic Church of Germany, in the person of the eccentric preacher, 
TJlric Megerle (Abraham de St. Clara, court preacher at Vienna, 
died 1709), who displayed many excellent qualities, but carried the 
effort to popularize his sermons to the extreme of triviality, and in- 
dulged his scurrilous method until his name became proverbial. 

A very different state of things existed in France, where both 
the Reformed and the Catholic Churches were served by the most 
celebrated of their pulpit orators at this time. We may mention^ 
of those belonging to the former Church, Mestrezal ^he French 
(died 1657), du Bosc (died 1692), Claude (died 1687), P^ipit- 
and especially Saurin, who preached at the Hague, and died 1730. 
Of Roman Catholic preachers we may name: Mascaron (died 1703), 
and pre-eminently, Flechier (died 1710), Bossuet (died 1704), Bour- 
daloue (died 1710), and Massillon. The fame of these preachers is 
based upon their classic style, Chrysostom being their model, more 
than upon the depth and consistency of their Christian sentiments. 
Fenelon (die<l 1715), on the other hand, was distinguished for his 
fervour. After the Huguenots, expelled under Louis XIV., had 
settled in Germany, the French style, as represented in Ancillon, 
Abadie, Jacquelot, Lenfant, and especially in Saurin, came to be 
regarded as a model also in that country. To this must be added 
the English model, found in the perspicuous and moderate Tillot- 
son, who died 1694. 

The preaching now became more mild in its doctrinal character, 
and gave greater attention to moral questions, besides making use 
of greater elegancies of style, its leading representatives being 
found in the Swiss preachers, Osterwald and Werenfels. The piet- 
ism of Spener and Francke led, in Germany, to a re- sermons of the 
newed recognition of the profound conditions upon Pietists. 
which the life of the Christian sermon depends. But it was im- 
possible that its influence should conduce to give it an artistic form. 
Spener's style was heavy. AVolfianism, too, was not favourable to 
the easy movement of discourse. The mania for definition and 
demonstration became highly ridiculous, in many instances of even 



538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

this kind of labour. Rambach (died 1735) represents, in Germany, 
the transition from the pietistic to the philosophical method fol- 
lowed by Reinbeck, who died in 1741. Modern pulpit oratory, in 
that country, had its origin with Mosheim (died 1755), who was 
termed the German Bourdaloue, and whose model was Tillotson. 
He was followed by Cramer (died 1788), the elder and the younger 
Sack, Jerusalem, Spalding, Zollikofer, Resewitz, Teller, Bartels, 
and others. The reflective and moralizing elements constituted the 
predominant quality in most works emanating from these, in some 
instances, very celebrated preachers. They also gave increasing 
expression to the utilitarian theory. Under such influence sermons 
came to be degraded not only into dry disquisitions upon morality, 
but even into popular lectures on agriculture, hygiene, and simi- 
larly inferior topics. The more strictly evangelical method was not 
left without representatives, however, who continually asserted its 
claims in the face of such aberrations. In Wurtemberg, Rieger 
(died 1743) was considered a model, and in Prussia the "divine 
orator " Willamovius became an ideal for the imitation of Herder. 

Herder and Lavater apprehended the task of sacred oratory anew, 
Herder and ^^^ came into decided contrast, not only with the more 
Lavater. strictly evangelical, but also with the rationalistic, method 
of preaching, which had its origin in Kantianism, and whose repre- 
sentatives appear in the persons of Loflier (died 1816) and others. 
Both Herder and Lavater were rather guided by their own genius 
than by the methods of any school. Reinhard (died 1812) became 
the founder of such a school, and the representative of a strictly 
logical method. His sermons, collected in thirty-five volumes 
(1793-1813), were long regarded as models. They were charac- 
terized by richness of thought, especially upon moral questions, 
clearness and definiteness of expression, force and dignity of style. 
Their deficiencies are, a farfetched and indirect treatment of the 
text, and, coupled with a degree of religious warmth, a certain 
dryness and prosaic rationalism. The method of Zollikofer and 
Reinhard found supporters among both rationalists and supranatu- 
ralists, and, in fact, occupies a theological position in which the con- 
trast between their different principles has not yet been thoroughly 
overcome. 

The more eminent preachers who, while retaining more or less of 
personal freedom and individuality, followed in the track of these 
earlier models, were Marezoll, Ribbeck, Hanstein, Ehrenberg, Ey- 
lert. Kief eker, Ammon, Bretschneider, Tzschirner, Schuderoff, Rohr, 
Zimmermann, Schmalz, Bockel, Alt, the Strasburgers Haffner and 
Blessig, the Swiss Muslin, Stolz, Hafele, Heer, Fasi, and others. 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 539 

Tlie oratory of many of these men attained to a higher elevation 

than that of their models. 

Schleiermacher (died 1834) introduced a new life into the method 

of preaching:,' as, indeed, he did into theoloe^y srener- 

ojo Schleiermaclier. 

ally. The prevalent moralizing method predominates 

in his earlier sermons, the First Collection. But the specifically 
Christian element comes into greater prominence in his later eif orts, 
though in the manner which was peculiar to himself. His dialectic 
method has been frequently imitated to the injury of his followers. 
His sermons deserve rather to be studied than imitated. The ser- 
mons of Claus Harms, of Kiel — Sermons and United Postils — are 
constructed with a larger recognition of the condition and needs of 
the people, and are genuine models of Christian addresses in popu- 
lar form, althouQ'h it is necessary to distinguish between 

1 T / \ Til / .^u.\TT Glaus Harms. 

the earlier (1808-11) and the later (1824-27). Harms 

concedes that " much rationalistic sin still attaches " to the former. 
But this cannot be said of the latter class, or of his " Christological 
Sermons" (1821), since the controversy that called forth his Theses 
gave to Harms a place among the most advanced defenders of Lu- 
theran orthodoxy. It is also necessary to separate between an earlier 
and a later period in the case of Draseke, whose atfectation of orig- 
inality often destroys the profound impression otherwise produced, 
although a noble enthusiasm, akin to that of Herder, exhales from 
his sermons. 

Originality, carried to the verge of extravagance, and sometimes 
of insipidity, attains its highest point in the sermons of F. A. 
Krummacher. Theremin's sermons are characterized by great rhe- 
torical talent and perfection of style. It may be stated, as a general 
fact, that the renewed infusion of life into theology restored life 
and individuality to preaching as well. A long list of names might 
be furnished of persons who are distinguished by logical keenness, 
or depth of thought, by intensity or elevation of feeling, or by the 
power of evangelical conviction and the fire of a newly awakened 
zeal, which, in some instances, assumes forms of every variety and 
with every degree of colour. It will be sufficient to recall the 
names of the more or less venerated persons without dwelling upon 
the different tendencies they represent — for example, Menken, 

^ Schweizer, Schleiermacher's Wirksamkeit als Prediger, Halle, 1834; Rhenlus, 
Magdeb., 1837; Rienacker, in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, No. 2, pp. 240-54; Sack, ibid., 
pp. 350-85; Liicke, Erinnerungen an Schleiermacher, ibid., 1834, No. 3, p. 745, sqq. ; 
concerning Sehleiermacher's political sermons, see Wehrenpfening in the Prot. Kirchen- 
Zeitung for September, 1859 ; Baur, Schleiermacher als Prediger in d. Zeit von 
Deutschland's Erniedrigung und Erhebung, Leips., 1871. 



540 PRACTICAL TPIEOLOGY. 

Emmerich, Hossbach, Jonas, Sydow, de Wette, Al. Scliweizer, Grtin- 
eisen, Tholiick, Nitzscli, Strauss, Harless, Jul. Mtiller, Tob. Beck, 
Arndt, the two Hofackers, Krummacher, Ahlfeld, Schenkel, Rust, 
Palmer, Ehrenfeuchter, Ebrard, Steiiimeyer, Conrad, Gerock, Hoff- 
mann, Kohlbriigge, Sander, Mallet, Bernet, Btichsel, Kogel, Harms 
(of Hermannsburg), Langbein, Petri, Milllensiefen, Kapff, Bey- 
schlng, Rothe, Bruckner, Kahnis, W. Baur, and others. 

Modern rationalism is represented, though with various modifica- 
tions, by Schwarz of Gotha, H. Lang of Zurich, and Hausrath of 
Carlsruhe. 

The sermons of the French pulpit orators, Adolph Monod, Alex- 
ander Vinet, Grandpierre, Bersier, and Pressense, and, as represent- 
ing freethinking tendencies, Colani, Coquerel, father and son, 
deserve to be studied. 

Among Roman Catholics, in addition to those already mentioned, 
the names of Sailer, Mutschelle, Boos, Brand, Forster, and Kalin 
deserve to be noted. Werner, of Vienna; Lacordaire; Father 
Hyacinthe, now practically separated in all but name from the 
Romish Church, and bearing the name of Loyson; Ventura, of 
Rome, Gavazzi, and the preachers of Protestant doctrines in Italy, 
have each, in his day, arrested attention. 

For the American and the Englishman their models must be the 
successful preachers in the English language. In modern times 
none have equalled the masters in English theology as the makers 
of sermons. In the earlier English period may be mentioned Far- 
indon, Atterbury, South, Tillotson, Charnock, Baxter, Hall, Taylor, 
Beveridge, and Howe, while in the more recent we may mention the 
Wesley s, Whitefield, Heber, Simeon, Robert Hall, Robertson, 
Spurgeon, Punshon, Kingsley, Dean Stanley, Farrar, and Liddon. 

II. History of the Theory of Preaching. 

Christ preached with authority, and not as the scribes. The 
apostles proclaimed in Christ's stead, "Be ye reconciled to God." 
No human instruction was needed for their guidance; the Spirit 
taught them what they ought to say. " It is, therefore," as Beyer 
says, " a leading duty of theological science to thoroughly deter- 
mine the nature of apostolic preaching in order to provide a stand- 
ard for Christian preaching in general." After the Church had 
been founded, however, and conditions of human arrangement had 
Art of preach- been introduced, the art of preaching was developed 
theoiogfca^sd- ^^ *^^ ®^^^ ^^ theological science. Origen laid down 
ence. the proposition, and secured its recognition, that the 

didactic sermon is a work of art. The teachers of Christianity, 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 541 

moreover, were generally the pupils of heathen rhetoricians, such 
as Libanius and Themistius, and the theory was accordingly devel- 
oped on the ground of the old time rhetoric, much in the same way 
as the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies were at first 
applied to the science of Christian theology. Augustine, starting 
with the recognition of the authority of rhetoric, gave instructions 
respecting the proper mode of presenting the doctrines contained 

in the Scriptures. In his Christian Doctrine he called 

. . , . . , Augustine, 

attention to mvention and expression m the sermon, 

and followed Cicero in many respects, though with an intelligent 
apprehension of the real task of Christian oratory. He was suc- 
ceeded by Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and Raban Maur, in the 
latter's Clerical Institutes. Alanus, of the Island (died 1203), wrote 
a Summary of the Preacher's Art, and Humbert the Roman, a 
Dominican (died 1277), wrote on the Learning of Speakers. The 
homiletical views of Thomas Aquinas were collected from the writ- 
ings of himself and others under the title of Treatise for Preachers, 
upon which followed Leonard of Udine's (died 1470) Tractate on 
the Fundamentals for Preachers (Ulm, 1478), and Nicholas Bari- 
anus of Milan's Sixty-Seven Questions on the Matter of Preaching, 
which appeared in Boulogne in 1511. 

Reuchlin published a work upon the same subject, bearing the 
title of Book of Treasures in the Preacher's Art (Pforzheim, 1504). 
The Curate's Manual of the pastor Surgant of Basle, which imme- 
diately preceded the Reformation, and discussed the method of 
preaching in its details, is especially deserving of mention. 

Luther was more practical than theoretical in everything, and 
we obtain only scattered hints from his works, the most valuable 
of which, in this respect, is Table Talk. This was collected for the 
first time by Porta, pastor at Eisleben, toward the close of the six- 
teenth century, and subsequently by Walch. Luther made the dis- 
criminating demand that the preacher should be both a dialectician 
and a rhetorician, but he also recommended that such Luther and 
a mode of preaching be adopted as would edify even Meianchthon. 
servants. In 1519 Melanchthon published his Rhetoric, and in 1535 
he wrote his Office of Speakers. The Ecclesiastes of Erasmus was 
also extensively used. Directions for the art of preaching were 
given, among Protestants, by Hyperius, on the Function of Sacred 
Assemblies, or the Popular Interpretation of the Scriptures (1553); 
by Weller, a pupil of Luther, on the Mode and Reason of Address 
(Norimb., 1562); by Hemming, a pupil of Melanchthon, on Pastoral 
Instruction, and How the Flock of Christ should be Fed with Sound 
Doctrine; by Osiander, on the Reason of Address (Tub., 1582); by 



542 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Andrea, on the Method of Address (Tub., 1595); and by Panera- 
tins (1571). We find similar directions in The Speaker, by Reb- 
han (1623), and the works of Hunnius, Hiilsemann, Schleupuer, 
Forster, the elder Carpzov, and Zalansky, the Lutheran pastor at 
Prague ; Mtiller, in his Ecclesiastical Orator (Rostock, 1670, 4to), 
Baier, a pupil of Arndt, in his Compendium of Homiletical Theol- 
ogy (1677), and Leyser, in his Course of Homiletics (Viteb., 1701). 

Among Reformed theologians we may mention Gaussen, on the 
Reformed writ- Reason of Address (1678), and the Hollanders van Til 
ers- (died 1713), Vitringa (died 1722), and Hollenbeck, in 

the latter's Best Kind of Address (1668; 2d ed., 1770). We may 
also recall Fordyce, an Englishman, who wrote on the Art of Preach- 
ing (1745). 

After Spener had, in Pious Desires, directed attention toward a 
truly awakening and edifying mode of preaching, his exposition 
speedily led to the publishing of textbooks written in harmony 
with his views, which, in their turn, called forth the opposition of 
the old-school writers. Thus Loscher wrote his Homiletical Brev- 
iary (Viteb., 1720) in reply to Lange's Sacred Oratory (Francof., 
1707). There was also a supply of insipid guides to flowery preach- 
ing, an example of which is furnished in the Elegancies or Flowers 
of Orations, written by Christian Weiss, rector at Zittau, whom 
others followed in a similar direction. Hallbauer, of Jena, on the 
other hand, became noteworthy at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century by the writing of his Necessary Instruction in Wisdom in 
The woiflan Edifying Preaching. The Wolfian school produced 
school. Rambach, who wrote the Elucidation on Llomiletic 

Precepts (Giessen, 1736), Reinbeck, the author of the Outline of a 
Method of Edifying Preaching, and Baumgarten, the author of Direc- 
tions on Edifying Preaching (Frankf., 1752). This school carried 
the mania for definitions in the pulpit to an extreme, and was op- 
posed by G. F. Meier of Halle, himself a Wolfian, in his Thoughts 
by a Philosophical Preacher (1762). Teller (1741), Kortholdt (1748), 
Simonetti (1754), Fortsch (1757), and others, issued additional 
works in this department about the middle of the century. The 
theories of Mosheim, in his Advice on Edifying Preaching (1771); 
of Teller, in his Outlines of Homiletical Lectures (Helmstedt, 1763); 
of Gruner (Llalle, 1763); Bahrdt (1773); Steinbart (2d ed., Ziilli- 
chau, 1784); Marezoll, On the Destination of the Preacher (Leips., 
1793); Schmidt, Guide for Popular Pulpit Oratory (3 vols., Jena, 
1795-1800); Thym (Llalle, 1800), and Thiess (1801), all bear the 
stamp, in various degrees, of this same tendency with regard to 
preaching. 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 543 

This, too, was the period to produce the largest number of jour- 
nals, magazines, archives, sketches of sermons, and the like. " For," 
as Palmer observes, " no mercantile house has sent out into the 
world a larger number of commercial travelers, intended to traffic 
with the article ' sketches of sermons,' than has the firm ' Rational- 
ism & Co.' " ^ The conclusion of the old, and more especially rhet- 
orical, theory, is formed by the work of Schott, the scientific com- 
plement to Keinhard, which, in its own way, is not without value. 

Theremin directed attention more especially to the inward source 
whence oratory has its rise, and a majority of the works, mentioned 
below, of recent times, have likewise treated homiletics in connexion 
with the ideas respecting the nature of religion, Christianity, the 
Church and its worship, as they have been brought out by philosophy 
and recent theology, and also in relation with the religious concep- 
tions of art. The first among Roman Catholics, subsequent to the 
Reformation, to construct an Ecclesiastical Rhetoric, was Valerius of 
Verona (1574). He was followed by Alexander (1701); Gisbert, in 
Roman Catho- ^li^ Idea and Practice of Christian Eloquence (1728); 
lie writers. Fenelon, in his Dialogues on Eloquence in General, and 
that of the Pulpit in Particular (1788); and Maury, in his Principles 
of Pulpit and Forensic Eloquence (1789). Of German Roman 
Catholics, those deserving of mention are Ignatius Wurz (1769, 
2 vols.), Rudolf Graser (died 1787), Brand, and Zarbl. 

THE LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS. 

GERMAN AND FRENCH. 

*A. H. Schott, Entwurf einer Theorie der Beredsamkeit. Lpz., 1807. 
Theorie der Beredsamkeit, mit besonderer Anwendung auf die geistl. Beredsam- 
keit. Lpz., 1815-28. 
C F. Ammon, Handbuch der Anleitung zur Kanzelberedsamkeit. Gott., 1799. 
J. A. H. Tittmann, Lehrbuch der Homiletik. 2d ed. Lpz., 1824. 
Ph. Marheineke, Grundlegiuig der Homiletik. Hamb., 1811. 
J. Ch. W. Dahl, Lehrbuch der Homiletik. Lpz. and Rostock, 1811. 

F. Theremin, Die Beredsamkeit eine Tugend, oder Grundlinien einer systematischen 

Rhetorik. 2d ed., 1837. Amer. ed. by Shedd. N. Y., 1850. 

G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Entwurf eines Systems der geistlichen Rhetorik. Erl., 1817. 

J. G. Grotesend, Ansichten, Gedanken und Erfahrungen iiber die geistl. Beredsam- 
keit. Hannov., 1824. 

J, J. Cheneviere, Observations sur I'eloquence de la chaire. Geneve, 1834. 

A. G. Schmidt, Die Homilie, eine besondere geistliche Redegattung, in ihrem ganzen 
Umfange dargestellt. Halle, 1827. 

W. H. van Hengel, Institutio oratoris sacri. Lugd. Batav., 1829. 

G. A. F. Sickel, Grundriss der christl. Halieutik. Lpz., 1829. 

R. Stier, Kurzer Grundriss einer bibl. Keryktik, oder Anweisung durch das Wort Gottes 
sich zur Predigtkunst zu bilden. Halle, 1830. 

ijHomiletlk, p. 38< 



544 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

•)• J. Brand, Handbuch der geistl. Beredsamkeit. New ed. Const, 1850. 2 vols. 

f J. B. Zarbl, Handbuch der Katholischen Homiletik. Landshut, 1838. 

J. K. W. Alt, Kiirze Anleitung zur kirchl. Beredsamkeit. Lpz., 1840. 

*Ch. Palmer, Evangel. Homiletik. Stuttg., 1842. 5th ed., ibid., 1867. 

*A1. Schweizer, Homiletik der evang. -protest. Kirche, systematisch dargestellt. Lpz., 
1848. 

Gust. Baur, Grundziige der Homiletik. Giessen, 1848. 

f J. Lutz, Handbuch der Kathol. Kanzelberedsamkeit. Tiib., 1851. 

A. Vinet, Homiletique ou theorie de la predication. Par., 1853. Amer. ed. by Skin- 
ner. N. Y., 2d ed., 1855. 

* J. H. F. Beyer, Das Wesen der christlichen Predigt nach Norm und Urbild der apos- 
tolischen Predigt. Gotha, 1861. 

English and American Literature. 
Lyman Abbott, A Layman's Story. N. Y., 1873. 
J. W. Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching. N. Y., 1867. 
John A. Broadus, A Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons. Phila., 

1870. 
E. L. Dabney, Sacred Rhetoric. Richmond, 1866, 
Daniel P. Kidder, A Treatise on Homiletics. N. Y., 1864. 
Austin Phelps, The Theory of Preaching. N. Y, 1881, 

Ministerial Culture. Andover, 1868. 

Henry J, Ripley, Sacred Rhetoric, Boston, 1849. 

W, 0. T. Shedd, Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, N. Y., 1867. 

Abel Stevens, Essays on the Preaching Required by the Times. N. Y., 1856. 

R. S. Storrs, Conditions of Success in Preaching without Notes, N, Y., 1875. 

J, B. Sumner, On Apostolic Preaching and Ministerial Duty. N. Y., 1846. 

L. T. Townsend, The Sword and Garment. N. Y, 1871. 

C. Wordsworth, Outlines of the Christian Ministry. Lond., 1872, 

Yale Lectures on Preaching, by Various Authors, on the Sage Foundation, beginning 

1872, 

For further literature, see Hurst's Bibliotheca Theologica, p. 304, ff. 

SECTION xvin. 

PASTORAL THEOLOGY (llS^ THE LIMITED MEANING OF THE TEEM). 

American Presbyterian Review, Vol, III, 333. 

While Liturgies and Homiletics are concerned with the functions 
Objects of Pas- oi the clergyman in the sphere of public worship, Pas- 
toral Theology, toral Theology in its limited meaning has to do with 
the direction of the life of the Christian society and of individu- 
als, or, in other words, with pastoral care and the cure of souls. 
Here, again, it is possible to distinguish between functions whose 
exercise is largely governed by official restrictions, and others 
which admit of a greater personal freedom. The former serve to 
display the faithfulness of the pastor, and the latter his love and 
devotion. The rules which apply to the former may be grounded 
in Church government, but those which control the latter must be 
derived from Christian Ethics. In the case of either it is requisite 



THE FUNCTION OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 545 

that experience and practice should complete what the science is 
able to present only in its most general outlines. 

The terra is not definitely fixed.^ Many embrace the whole of 
Practical Theology within its scope, but incorrectly. 
Catechetics is most nearly allied to it of all the torai Theology 
branches hitherto considered, being the common basis ^° ® ""®' 
of the entire body of ecclesiastical functions; while Homiletics and 
Liturojics are not to be reararded as Pastoral sciences. Harms cor- 
rectly distinguished the preacher from the pastor. Only what has 
respect to the latter is Pastoral Theolosry. But to ^ „ ^ 

^ ^ o./ ^ Is Pastoral 

what extent is Pastoral Theology included in the do- Theoiogyasci- 
main of science? When Rosenkranz asserts'^ that there ^°^^' 
can be no Pastoral Theology in the evangelical Church because 
there are no special Ethics for the clergyman, and because the care 
of souls cannot be comprehended under a system of rules, and 
when he even terms it "a beginning of priestcraft," and charges it 
w4th amounting simply to " a guide to hypocrisy," and to " a sys- 
tem of belittling tricks which destroy the life of a true devotion," 
or " a low desire for the display of priestly greatness," his mind is 
evidently fixed upon the abuse of Pastoral Theology. There is 
certainly no special system of Ethics for the clergy; but a circle of 
special duties belonging to his calling exists for the minister as for 
any other man — duties devolved on him by reason of his office, or 
by a proper estimate of the position to which God has assigned him. 
The function of Pastoral Theology is to determine what may be 
justly required of the ministei-, and what he must accept, as be- 
longinn^ within the sphere of his calling. This reaches over into 
Ecclesiastical Law. But matters which the clergyman in the exer- 
cise of his independent choice imposes on himself also need to be 
more specially and thoroughly discussed than is possible in the field 
of Ethics, where only the general principles which bear upon snch 
matters are set forth. The chapter on good judgment, or, if it be 
preferred, on wisdom, i. g., genuine moral skill in conducting 
matters with reference to known ends, or in laying hold upon the 
appropriate means, covers a very broad field, which ad- 
mits of being described in conformity with ethical prin- beT'leaS 
ciples, even though it cannot be comprehended within f^o™ expert- 
abstract rules. Mere book-lenrninor will not, of course, 
be sufficient for that end; the individual judgment is required to 

^ On the word pastor, see Vinet, Pastoral Theol., Int., p. 1. 

2 Preface to the first edition of the Eneyklopadie, p. xxxi, and second edition, p. 352. 
On the other hand, compare Schleiermacher, § § 299-308 ; Harms, HI, p. 26-27, and 
especially Vinet, Theol. Past., p. 236, sag. 
35 



546 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

perform most of the work. But the judgment may be directed and 
quickened, and in this the experience of other ministers becomes a 
valuable aid, though it cannot by any means be regarded as abso- 
lutely regulative. 

A collection of clerical anecdotes is, however, not yet a Pas- 
toral Theology. Cases are never exactly parallel to each other, 
and a method which was adapted to the circumstances of a partic- 
ular time and place will not be appropriate to a different time and 
place. But it is meritorious to point out hoio experience may be 
utilized, even to the student. If the name of science be denied to 
this loving apostolical service, which the gray-haired veteran in the 
office renders to inexperienced youth, we shall not delay to argue 
the question. We personally believe that at this point the wisdom 
of the professional chair reaches its limit, and that Pastoral Theol- 
ogy may be learned to better advantage at the hands of a guide 
who has been tested in the spiritual office than in the lecture-room. 
It will perhaps be necessary, after all, to admit, with Palmer, that 
Pastoral Theology, as such, is not a science, and that its substantial 
difference from Practical Theology consists in that fact. It con- 
tains consilia rather than pcercepta, and " its partially casuistical 
nature prevents its incorporation with any well-constructed organ- 
ism." Theological science is required, nevertheless, to mark out in 
their broad outlines the paths over which the Pastoral life must 
move.^ This becomes so much the more necessary at the close of 
the course of theological study, because so many students fail to 
find the bridge which leads over from the school into actual life. 
Pastoral Theology is required to build that bridge, and to furnish 
the future shepherd with staff and ring or confer upon him his 
spiritual investiture. 

If it be now required that the field of pastoral duty belonging 
Pastoral func- to the minister be outlined in so far as it may be the- 
tions distribu- oreticallv determined in advance, it will be necessary 

tp(i 1 nto thrpo ^ »f 

departments, to distribute his functions over three distinct depart- 
ments, in each of which a further distinction may be made be- 
tween the predominantly official and the free individual action, 
although the one reaches over into the other, as in the following 
scheme : . 

"'A better Pastoral Theology will be produced only when the Christian and the 
systematic interests shall mutually recognize and support each other." — Schweizer. 



THE PASTOR AND THE PEOPLE. 547 

1. THE RELATION OF THE PASTOR TO THE CONGREGATION AS A 

WHOLE. 

a. The pastor as the ordained head of the congregation. 

As presbyter, Kar' h^oxf\v^ the pastor is placed at the head of the 

congrreofation, and to him, therefore, belong^s the guid- „^ 

^ '=' ^ ' ' ^ . . The pastor as 

ance {icvj3epvr]mg) of the Church, and the administra- tbe head of the 
tion of Church order and discipline, in which work he <^o°sregation. 
must have the co-operation of the Church, subject to the provisions 
of the laws in force in his particular communion. Here we enter 
upon the department of Ecclesiastical Law. But where the laws 
do not come to his assistance, the free impulses of love will lead 
him to let his light shine as he walks before his people and to ap- 
prove himself as a faithful shepherd of the flock. Especially will 
he rejoice in every thing that is good which springs up among his 
people, even though it be not prescribed by superior authority; 
and, while he will take his stand in opposition to the unhealthful 
manifestations of a misled piety he will gladly co-operate in every 
work which gives shape to religious life, and will assist in prepar- 
ing the way for such work. 

b. The pastor in his personal relation to his people. 

The Christian minister in charge of a congregation has duties to 
perform as important as preaching. He is the shepherd of his 
flock, and should know his people in their wants, cares, burdens, 
and griefs. It is his dut}^ to show a reasonable personal interest 
in them; he, of- all men, should rejoice with them that rejoice, and 
weep with them that weep. Hoppin lays down the principle that 
the " minister should become personally acquainted with every one 
of his people." This is not in every case practicable, especially in 
large cities, but at least he " should strive to know something of 
their varieties of character, their peculiarities of disposition, their 
mental maladies and speculative opinions, as well as their external 
history and circumstances." ^ Such thorough acquaintance with the 
people is secured by means of pastoral visitation, which can never 
be neglected without injury to the minister's usefulness. Shedd 
reminds us that the minister is apt to be deficient on the one or the 
other side of this double character of preacher and pastor, but ad- 
vises him to make it his aim to "perfect himself in both respects." ^ 

c. The minister as related to the administration of charities toithin 
the territory of his congregation. 

How far should ministering to the necessities of the poor ((5m- 

1 Office and Work of the Christian Ministry. By Jas. M. Hoppin. Pp. 533, 534. 

2 Pastoral Theology, p. 390. 



548 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Kovia TTig Tparre^Tjg) be placed in the hands of him who is charged 
with the ministry of the word? (Compare Acts vi.) The 
mechanical duties may more readily be performed by other per- 
sons which was the original work of the diaconate; but he will 
not be able to withdraw from the work of general supervision. In 
cases, moreover, in which he is relieved from the keeping of ac- 
counts, he will show himself so much the more efficiently a father 
to the poor from choice. 

2. THE RELATION OF THE PASTOR TO THE FAMILY. 

This, too, is partly official, and determined by his position in the 
Church, and partly indej^endent. The relations of the minister to 
the family assume an official form most frequently in connection 
with special events, which belong properly to this section, and only 
in part to the departments of Liturgies and Homi- 
letics. The solemnizing of marriage, for instance, is a 
public ecclesiastical ceremony. Baptism, more than other ser- 
vices connected with the family, passes beyond the 
limits of the home circle, and becomes a public service 
of the Church. If baptism be administered at the house, the cere- 
mony should not degenerate into a mere sentimental family fes- 
tival, but should confer upon the Christian home the higher conse- 
cration of a temple. In the case of a death the sympathy of the 
congregation is also largely enlisted; but members of 
the family are as a rule affected more than others, and 
the position of the minister thus leads him not only into the 
Church and to the grave, but also to the house of mourning 
and into the circle of the bereaved. The address delivered 
should be primarily adapted to the condition of the latter com- 
pany; for which reason more extended funeral sermons should only 
be preached when demanded by the extraordinary nature of the 
case.^ The more nearly perfect the development of piety in a 
family, the less inclination will there be to avoid the clergyman 
until a casus inortis shall demand his services in an official ca- 
pacity; free intercourse with the clergyman will develop itself 
naturally, whose influence will tend to crowd out of sight more 
and more the distinction between clerus naturalis and positivus. 
When, on the other hand, the Christian home is yet upon a low 
level of piety, even the official visits of a clergyman will be pro- 
ductive of good; and in case such visits should not be formally 

^ Palmer, HomiJetiTc^ p. 889, has adduced an illustration, which shows in a pointed 
way how contrary to good taste it is to select far-fetched texts for funeral sermons : 
^* And the king said unto Barzillai, . . . Who desires to hear about Barzillai now ? " 



THE SPIRIT OF THE PASTOR. 549 

required, a faithful pastor will know how to secure admission to 
such homes, not for the purpose of asserting his official character, 
but in order to aid the family in attaining to that freedom of action 
which is needed in all the occurrences of life by exciting its love 
and confidence. 

3. THE pastor's relation TO THE MASSES OTTTSIDE OF ALL 

CHURCHES. 

The problem of reaching the masses is very simple, if ministers 
have the disposition to preach the Gospel to all sorts Reaching the 
and conditions of men. As the masses, so called, con- masses, 
stitute in every country the bulk of the population, it is as easy to 
find them as it is to find the sun or the sea; and they can be reached 
by a sincere Christian sympathy, even if at the first they repel our 
attempts to do them good. 

Professor Phelps, of Andover, quotes as one of the sayings of his 
honored father : " The man who belongs nowhere belongs to me, 
and I must give account of him;" and Payson showed his readi- 
ness to serve all men by adopting as his motto: "The man who 
wants to see me is the man whom I want to see." All things are 
not possible to the minister, but the recognition of the fact that 
the people of all classes and conditions, dwelling in one neighbor- 
hood, are a community should be unmistakably made by every 
pastor and Church. 

It may even be said in a certain sense that the aim of Pastoral 
Theoloo-y should be to render the specific office of pas- „ , , 

^"^ \ ^^ Pastoral work 

tor more and more unnecessary; for if the co-operation demands a 
of the congregation is required in the public worship, ^"^ ® ^^"^ * 
it is far more necessary here. Such co-operation must of course be 
conceived of as analogous in character to the work of the pastor, 
and not as counteracting the latter in a separatist spirit. In this 
field, as everywhere, one extreme leads to the other. Any over- 
straining of the idea of office can only lead to evil consequences in 
one way or another. A distinction exists between the shepherd 
and the sheep in the economy of nature, but not in the spiritual 
field. The shepherd must not forget that he is himself a sheep be- 
longing to the great flock, and that One alone is the Good Shep- 
herd. And even he is designated in Scripture as " the Lamb ot 
God, which taketh away the sin of the world." There are endless 
modifications, however, with reference to what has now been said. 
The duties of a rural pastor will differ from those of the city pas- 
tor, and further differences arise from the contrast of conditions in 
farming villages as compared with those of manufacturing towns, 



550 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

those of inland towns with those of large commercial cities. And, 
finally, there are also special fields of labor, such as those occupied 
hj the chaplains of hospitals, prisons, orphanages, and of troops in 
garrison or in the field, all of which require a special theory, and 
all of w^hich likewise require a suitable man, endowed with all the 
necessary qualities for his position. 

SECTION XIX. 
rHACTICAL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO PASTOEAL THEOLOGT. 

A true insight into the conditions of the different spheres of life, 
and a scientitic apprehension of their character, are necessary to 
the clergyman, because his duties everywhere reach over into the 
various relations of life. He will therefore need to become ac- 
quainted with various forms of knowledge which lie outside of the 
different departments of strictly theological science, and hence out- 
side of Pastoral Theology as well, but which nevertheless involve 
a practical cliaracter. Among such forms we reckon 
e agogics. ^-j^^ theory of education, the theory of public charities, 

psychical, and, to some extent, also physical, therapeutics. 

These matters certainly lie beyond the range of studies prescribed 
for the theologian, as such, and remarks like the above cannot, 
therefore, be intended to urge the incorporation of such branches 
with the theological course.^ But it is important, in view of the 
practical nature of the future calling, that the conditions among 
which that calling; must be exercised should at least be 

The pastor o 

should be a known. If the clergyman should be required to share 

practical man. • - 1, • • £ /-^i • , • i ^ -, . 

m the supervision oi Christian schools, and to express 
his judgment upon school matters in general, it will be necessary 
that he should be acquainted with the principles involved ; and an 
additional argument arises from the fact that catechetics stand 

^ It has been wittily observed that they constitute " Pontius in the Credo " (comp. 
Graf, Prakt. Theol., p. 114). Very well; but a hint which prevents the inquirer 
from being sent from Pontius to Pilate, and gives him the necessary information at 
once, can do no harm. Our idea does not require that lectures should be delivered 
upon all such topics ; many things may be preserved for the future ad notam. 
Harms asks his hearers (Pastor, p. 16): "Can you estimate architectural plans cor- 
rectly ? Can you draft a lease ? Do you know what amount of clover seed should be 
sown to the acre ? Can you deal roughly with lazy artisans employed upon your house 
at the expense of the Church ? " We are entirely agreed with Schweizer that Theology 
proper has no answer to give to questions of this kind ; but such questions are not 
so much out of place as may at first sight be supposed, and constitute interrogation 
points which in their appropriate sphere serve to show the way beyond the borders of 
a different territory. 



PRACTICAL CHARACTER OF THE PASTORATE. 551 

connected with pedagogics. If he is to render substantial aid in 
the department of public charities he will not lind questions relat- 
ing to pauperism, now so frequently discussed, to be wholly foreign 
to his position. It will be necessary that he should learn to know the 
sources of poverty which lie in existing social conditions, if he is to 
aid in bringing it to an end ; and for this reason a course in Political 
Economy, for instance, might be recommended to the theologian, 
in so far as it relates to the amelioration of pauperism. The 
clercryman will also need to understand the nature of „^ ,, , 

°^ . . Should know 

the forms of business if he would be competent to es- the forms of 

timate their influence over the physical, social, and ^"^^''^• 
moral welfare of the people. The opinion of religious teachers 
respecting the mighty progress of industrial enterprises in our day, 
for instance, is not an unimportant matter, for the latter not infre- 
quently come into conflict with the Christian life, in appearance, 
at least, as appears from the low degree to which interest in the 
Church has sunken in a majority of manufacturing towns, the ne- 
glect of the Sabbath, and of Christian schools, and the exclusive 
attention given to business, the fashions, luxury, and recreations. 
Can any thing be accomplished with reference to such matters by 
merely protesting against the spirit of the age, while unable to resist 
its progress? And is not the cultivated clergyman compelled to 
learn the character of the time, with its requirements and its needs, 
if he would successfully deal with its excrescences and perverted 
tendencies ? Will he not be compelled to devise methods of relief 
for breadless sufferers who complain that they lack remunerative 
employment ? But all this can be accomplished only when he has 
obtained an insight into the conditions of the time. 

SECTION XX. 

THE METHOD OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 
The Seminary and Vicariate. 

L. Hiiflell, fiber die Errichtung praktischer Institute zur Ausbildung der angehenden evangel- 
christl. Geistlichen; Eine Vorarheit fur die bevorstehende badnische Generalsynode und 
zugleich alien Regierungen gewidmet, denen das Wohl der protestantischen Kirche am Herzen 
liegt. Karlsruhe, 1831 ; Hupfeld a. a. O. S. 53-55 ; Derselbe : "1st die Bildung, welche Theologen 
auf der UnlversitRt erhalten, auch ausreichend fur ihren Seelsorgerberuf ? " in den Annalen 
der gesamraten Theologie und christl. Kirche, Jahgr., 1833 ; Sprague's Annals of the American 
Pulpit ; one of the best exhibitions of practical pastoral life extant in English. See also J. W. 
Alexander's Thoughts on Preaching, p. 125, et seq. 

The student will not be able to do more in the period devoted to 
academical instruction than to secure a clear understanding of the 
task of Pastoral Theology in its general outlines, and to cultivate a 
sympathy for its work. The appropriate school for this, and all 



552 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

other practical accomplishments, will be found either in the semi- 
nary or in the period of candidature which opens the way to the 
Aids to a prep- ^^^^^ise of official functions. A practical school afford- 
aration for the ing valuable aid in the work of preparation during the 
pa^ ora e. years of candidacy, is found in frequent intercourse with 

people belonging to different classes in society, and particularly in 
associating with experienced clergymen, in observing the signs of 
the times, in aiding to carry forward the objects of the numerous 
associations for Christian work; and a further special aid will be 
found in the reading of the biographies of eminent pastors. 

To provide a bare sketch of Pastoral Theology is all tliat theory 
h 11 b ^^^ accomplish ; and it is therefore a question what 
done for prac- shall be done to furnish a thorough practical training 
ticai training? supplementary to that of the schools? Medical men 
have their hospitals and their clinics ; should not something sim- 
ilar be provided for theologians ? The proposition is not devoid of 
difficult considerations. At this point we come to consider the 
practical or professional seminary which may exist under diverse 
conditions, either as forming a part of the university, or as entirely 
distinct from it. It might be asked whether the monastic aspect 
which seminary training may assume does not tend to unfit rather 
than to qualify for actual life; whether theory does not in this, 
as in other respects, predominate over j)ractice. Every thing will 
depend upon the spirit which pervades the different seminaries. 

The testimonies of persons who are familiar with such institutions 
Value and lim- ^^^ ^^ their favor. But it is certain that even the semi- 
itations of the nary can produce no ready made preacher and pastor, 
seminary. j^ merely serves to lead over from the college or uni- 
versity into practical life ; and lectures upon practical branches of 
study, which are often entirely too inadequate as delivered at the 
university, are certainly in place here. But who is to lead the 
seminary student to the bedside of the sick, or to the dwellings of 
the poor ? Who will furnish him with opportunities for intercourse 
with farmers, or for studying life in its manifold conditions ? Such 
considerations have led some minds in Europe to discuss the idea 
of founding seminaries in rural regions which should not be placed 
under the direction of professors, but of experienced and practical 
pastors. Such seminaries for Protestant clergyman would become 
a kind of model and metropolitan pastorates, from which surround- 
ing villages and dependent churches might receive spiritual service, 
and to which the preachers might return, bringing new experiences, 
as bees bring honey to their cells. But it is to be questioned 
•whether such a scheme could be carried practically into effect. 



THE HISTORY OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 653 

Every candidate for the ministry should consider it a duty to visit 
clergymen in their fields of labor, and to be made ac- 

• i. 1 '^i 1 T , • n ^ ' ' , , . Association 

quamted with the duties of his station, though it should with ex peri- 
be at first merely as a non-participating observer. The ^^^^ed pastors, 
preaching of a trial sermon, or the conduct of a catechization will be 
sufiicient to entitle the youthful clergyman to enter a Christian home 
in the company of the resident pastor, or to visit the sick. Journeys 
of limited extent, and simple excursions, even, may likewise vield 
fruit, when it is sought after ; and upon this, as other points, read- 
ing must be employed to take the place of personal observation 
when the latter is deficient. The reading of good popular authors 
will create an interest for the life and manners of the people, their 
needs, prejudices, and modes of thought; but it is necessary to 
guard against the forming of false ideals regarding the life of the 
people, and also concerning the life of the shepherd of the people. 
Least of all should one give way to the idyllic dreams of former 
days in an age like ours, which drives them even from the mind of 
the dreamer himself. The biographies of faithful pastors which 
describe their joys and sorrows, their lives, labors, and aspirations, 
are of greater value than the romantically tinged and imaginary 
pictures of model clergymen. The former constitute the true legends 
of saints for the evangelical theologian. 



SECTION XXL 

THE HISTORY OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

The earliest pastoral instructions are those which were given by 
Christ to his Apostles (Matt, x), and those which they, mj^ g + . 
in their turn, addressed to their pupils, especially structionsfrom 
through the pastoral epistles. Scattered elements are ^^^^' 
to be found in the early teachers of the Church, and in their works. 
When the care of souls became a priestly and hierarchical function, 
chiefly through the institution of auricular confession, the instruc- 
tions provided for the use of confessors took on a similar character. 
The Reformation urged the importance of the pastoral work in addi- 
tion to the work of preaching, with special emphasis. Zwingle wrote 
his Shepherd according to the Image of Christ and the Word of 
God, and many of Luther's letters afford rich materials for the use 
of pastoral learners. The literary and more or less systematic 
treatment of the subject begins with the Pastorale of First system- 
Erasmus Sarcerius (1558), which was followed by the atic treatise. 
Pastor of Nicol. Hemming (1566) and the Pastorale Lutheri com- 
piled by Conrad Porta (1582). The guides to pastoral work which 



654 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

appeared at a later day were again of a casuistical character (comp. 
Quenstedt, Ethica Pastoralis, 1678). Gottfried Olearius brought 
out a direct Pastoral Theology in his Collegium Pastorale, etc., 
which was written by him at the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury (Leipsic, 1718). Spener's Theologische Bedenken^ unquestion- 
ably originated in the recognition, according to the true spirit of 
Protestantism, of a priesthood which is common to all Christians ; 
but the later Pietism led the way back into the casuistical discussion 
of clerical ethics, and thereby introduced many inappropriate ele- 
ments into the practical administration. The Sammlungen by Stem- 
metz, abbot of Klosterbergen, and the Sammlungen zur Pastoral- 
theologie by Philip David Burk (1771-73) furnish a beautiful testi- 
mony in favor of the better Pietism and its tendencies, especially as 
displayed in its Wurtembergian representatives. Rationalistic Pas- 
toral Theology took gound in opposition to the Pietistic treatment, 
making of the clergyman a philanthropic educator of the people, 
and restricting his field of labor principally to the banishing of 
prejudices and the elevating of social conditions, and, in the loftiest 
theories, to the improvement of the schools for the people (Sebaldus 
^N^othanker, by Nicolai). Modern Pastoral Theology is based on 
more correct views respecting the nature of religion and the spirit- 
ual office, and must, therefore, be conceded to have divested itself 
of much of what Rosenkranz stigmatizes as savouring of priestcraft. 
English literature abounds in practical treatises upon the duties of 
ii h and *^^ pastor, although the discussions of pastoral theol- 
American ogy on its theoretical side are not very many. Proba- 
works. i^iy ^^^ ^^^ work which has made the deepest impression 

is Richard Baxter's Gilclas Salvianus, or Reformed Pastor (1656). 
It was prepared by a most successful pastor for a conferen(?e of 
pastors, and is still a model of its kind. Doddridge advised the 
reviewing "of the practical part of it every three or four years," and 
John Wesley made the reading of it one of the duties of his lay 
preachers. Bishop Burnet wrote A Discourse on the Pastoral 
Care, and John Fletcher of Madeley, The Portrait of St. Paul. 
Among modern works may be named The Ministry of the Gospel, 
by Francis Wayland ; Office and Work of the Christian Ministry, by 
Francis M. Hoppin ; Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, by William 
G. T. Shedd ; and The Christian Pastorate, by D. P. Kidder. The 
Yale Lectures on Preaching contain, both directly and incident- 
ally, valuable suggestions for the right oi-dering of the pastorate.* 

' Comp. the collection for the times made by Hennicke, Halle, 1838. 
5 For the English Literature of this subject, see M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopae- 
dia, vol. vii, p. 757. 



FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES, 555 

SECTION XXII. 
THE FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 

The study of theology can never be exhausted,' more than that 
of any other science, and hence constant progress in its gtudy never to 
development is required. The germs of knowledge c^^^^- 
imparted by the schools are to be thoroughly elaborated, and espe- 
cially in the years subsequent to graduation. Much, therefore, de- 
pends on a faithful improvement of the years of candidacy ; but 
intercourse with the science is never to cease, even after the pas- 
torate has been reached. Theological science can only retain its 
vitality, however, so long as it is sustained by theological views 
which have been tried and approved in the conflict of life. Much 
has been said with reference to the tendency of clergyman to dete- 
riorate as students. There was a time in Germany and Switzer- 
land when more good bee keepers than Church guardi- go^ie wastefiu 
ans, more capable florists and cattle raisers than capable occupations. 
trainers of human beings, were to be found among the clergy. They 
were more skilful in the plant nurseiy than in the village school, 
and more at home in their cattle stalls than in the sheepfold of 
Christ. But the Church derives no greater benefit from one sided 
philologists and critics, nor from authors in the department of 
belles-lettres, or even of theology or ethics, if such employments 
cause the interests of the congregation to be neglected. A pastor 
who has not yet completed his studies in this regard should prefer 
not to be a pastor. His studies, in one word, ought not to be sepa- 
rated from liis practical life so as to assume the appearance of dA- 
Aorpm, but ought rather to be enlisted in the service of the practical 
life. 

This does not imply that he should read only devotional 

works ; at no time is he to remain unacquainted with the progress 

of theological science, because his entire efiiciency must rise and fall 

with the Church, and Theology is the finger on the dial of the latter. 

But let him not study merely as a scholar or an amateur, but as a 

pastor, who has an eye to his congregation, and also to the Church, 

of which the cono^rearation forms simply a part. Let ,„ , ^ , 
^ ,^ , r J 1 ^n study for 

him carry his people in his heart, and cause them to profit the profit of 
by all which he secures, and let him know how to obtain * ^P^^P^e. 
new seed for the field he has to cultivnte from among the finest 

' I have always been unable to regard the period of the university course other- 
wise than as a time of sowing and collecting materials, and have believed that the 
collecting must precede the digesting. — Rothe (Studienjahre, iu Nippold, i, p. 70). 



556 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

fruits that science affords. The best means for preserving the vitality 
of scientific pursuits among clergymen are found, aside from socie- 
ties for reading, in the conferences of preachers and pastors, and in 
the more extended ministerial associations which have been spring- 
ing up in increasing number in recent years. The object for which 
such associations have been established differs from that of the 
synods. The latter are directly engaged in the service of the 
Church, the former in that of the clergy ; the latter fall within the 
department of Church government, the former in that of Church 
ministrations, to which they contribute a further incitement. The 
more thoroughly the two elements interpenetrate each other, the 
better it will be. The school affords training that fits for life, and 
life in turn becomes a school ; and thus it should ever be with each 
one. Life ripens through conflict, and character, disposition, with- 
out which, beyond dispute, there can be no real theological science, 
are likewise steeled and purified by the heat of conflict.^ 

THE LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 

GERMAN AND FRENCH. 

I. In General. 

C. W. Oemler, Beitrage zur Pastoraltheoligie fiir Landprediger. Jena, 1783. 

P. F. Ach. Nitsch, Anweisung zur Pastoralkluglieit fur kiinftige Landpfarrer. Lpz., 

J. Kriinitz, Der Landprediger nach seinen verschiedenen Verhaltnissen. Berl., 1794. 
C. B. Kindervater, Ueber niitzliche Verwaltung des Predigtamtes. Lpz., 1802-6. 

2 vols. 
Sam. Baur, Repertorium fiir alle Amtsverrichtungen eines Predigers. Halle, 1805-18. 

12 vols. 
Ch. L. Mirow, Der Prediger in seinen verschiedenen Verhaltnissen. Hannov., 

1808. 
J. F. Jacobi, Ueber Bildung. Lehre und "Wandel protest. Religionslehrer. Frankf. 

and Heidelb., 1808. 
Fr. Strauss, Glockentone. Erinnerungen aus dem Leben eines jungen Geistlichen. 

Elberfeld, 1815. 7th ed., Lpz., 1840. 8 vols. 
J. G. Tobler, Gotthold oder der wackere Seelsorger auf dem Lande. Aarau, 1820. 

^ The pastor needs to possess a real creative faculty, a certain poetic element 
{noLTjTLKov tl). This Creative faculty is primarily related to the sermon, of course, but 
afterward also to the other departments of clerical labor, to instruction and pastoral 
care. The clergyman needs to understand the requirements in either field, and must 
know how to meet them all. If, therefore, he does not carry about with him an ade- 
quate fund, he can be, in his capacity as clergyman, only a sorry comforter, a chatterer, 
or a silent dog. Subordinate, unproductive, and otherwise contracted characters are 
usually able to make themselves useful in all offices, in some form, at least, but they 
are not qualified for the spiritual office. To be required, and yet not able to produce, 
is the most terrible torture conceivable by man. — Vilmar, p. 30. 



LITERATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL LAW. 557 

f J. M. Sailer, Yorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie. 3 vols. 5th ed. Sulzb., 1835. 
W. Schroter, Lebens- und Amtserfahruiigen in ihren psychologisch-geschichtlicheu 

Zusammenhange dargestellt. Altona, 1827. 
C. Wyss, Ueber Antiiiomien im Berufe des Geistlichen. Bern, 1828. 
f F. S. Hiiglsperger, Festabende im priesterlichen Leben, gefeiejt mit Betrachtungeu 

und Erinnerungen. Sulzb., 1828-30. 3 vols. 
*Fr. Hoffmann, Pastoral-Grundsatze. Stuttg., 1829. 

* J. C. F. Burk, Evangel. Pastoraltheologie in Beispielen, aus den Erfahrungen reue. 

Diener Gottes zusammengestellt. Stuttg., 1838, 1839. 2 vols. 

E. L. Fecht, Der christliche Geistliche. Lahr, 1849. 

fF. Yogi, Pastoraltheologie. 6th ed. Regensb., 1851. 2 vols. 7th ed., 1855. 

F. Ch. H. Schonheit, Fingerzeige fiir junge Geistliche bei ihrem Eiutritt iu das Laud- 

predigerleben. Weim., 1853. 
0. Miiller, Die pastorale Seelsorge. Berl., 1854. 
f F. Herbst, Lebensbilder aus der Seelsorge. Augsb., 1854. 
C. Wyss, Etwas vom Kern und Stern der Seelsorge. Basel, 1858. 

* Palmer, Evangelische Pastoraltheologie. 2d. ed. Stuttg., 1863. 
Emil Ohly, Vademecum pastorale. 3d ed. Wiesb., 1872. 

W. Lohe, Der evangelische Geistliche. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1866. 2 vols. 
A. W. Schlag, Der Landpfarrer, oder Erfahrungen und Beobachtungen, Ansichten und 
Wiinsche. Lpz., 1865. 

* A. F. C. Vilraar, Lehrbuch der Pastoraltheologie. Giitersloh, 1872. 

Kirche und Welt oder die Aufgabeu des geistlichen Amtes in unserer Zeit. Zur 

Signatur der Gegenwart und Zukunft. Gesammelte pastoraltheolog. Aufsatze. 
Yol. 1. Giitersloh, 1872. 

*H. Guth, Pastoralspiegel. Erlangen, 1873. 

II. Ecclesiastical Polity. 
J. H. Boehmer, Jus ecclesiat. Protestantium. Hal., 1714 ss. Vols, i-iv, 5tlied., 1756- 

89 ; vol. V, 3d ed., 1763; vol. vi, 6th ed., 1760. 4. 

Institutiones Juris canonici. Hal., 5th ed., 1770. 

Ch. M. Pfaff, Juris eccles., libb. v. 2d ed. Tiib., 1727. 

J. L. Mosheim, Allgeraeines Kirchenrecht der Protestanten. Helmst., 1760; new ed. 

by Ch. A. Giinther, Lpz., 1800. 

G. L. Boehmer, Principia jur. canon, speciatim jur. eccles. publ. et priv. quod per 

Germaniam obtinet, Gott., 1762; 8th ed., cur. Ant. Baur, 1819. 
A. J. Schnaubert, Grundsatze des Kirchenrechts der Protestanten u. Katholiken in 

Deutschland. 3d ed. Jena, 1805. 2 vols. 
G. Wiese, Grundsatze des gemeinen in Deutschland iiblichen Kirchenrechts. Gott., 

1793. 5th ed., by Kraut, ibid., 1826. 
Handbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland iiblichen Kirchenrechts. Lpz., 1799- 

1804. 8 vols. 
J. Schuderoff, Grundziige zur evangel.-protestant. Kirch enverfassung und zum evan- 
gel. Kirchenrechte. Lpz., 1817. 
Th. A. H. Schmalz, Das natiirliche Kirchenrecht. Konigsb., 1795. 
Handbuch des kanon. Rechts und seiner Anwendung in den deutschen evangel. 

Kirehen. Berl., 1815. 34. 
f S. Brendel, Handbuch des kathol. und protestant. Kirchenrechts. 3d ed. Hamb., 

1839, 1840. 2 vols. 
f Ferd. .Walter, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts aller cbristlichen Confessionen. Bonn, 

1822. 13th ed., 186L 



558 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

H. Stephani, Das allgeraeine kanonische Recht der protestantischen Kirche in Deutsch- 

land. Tub., 1825. 
Chr. A. V, Eschenmayer, Grundlinien zu einem allgem. kaiion. Rechte. Tiib., 1825. 
W. T. Krug, Das Kircheiirecht nacli den Grundsatzeii der Yernuuft und im Lichte 

des Christenthums dargestellt. Lpz., 1826. 
J. G. Palil, Das offentl. Recht der evangel.-luther. Kircbe in Deutschland kritisch 

dargestellt. Tllb., 1827. 
f C. A. V. Droste-Hillshoff, Grundsatze des gemeinen Kirchenrechts der Katholiken 

und Evangelischen. Miinster, 1832-35. 2 vols. 
C. Hase, De jure ecclesiastico cominentarii historici. Lips , 1828, 1832. 
*K. Fr. Eichhorn, Grundsatze des Kirchenrechts der kathol. und evangel. Religions- 

partei in Deutschland. Gott., 1831-33. 2 vols. 
*H. C. M. Rettig, Die freie protestant. Kirche oder die kirchlichen Yerfassungs- 

grundsatze des Evangeliums. Giessen, 1832. 
J. A. V. Grollmann, Grundsatze des allgem. kathol. und protestantischen Kirchen- 
rechts. 2d ed. Frankf. a. M., 1843. 
fE. W. Klee, Das Recht der einen allgemeinen Kirche. Magdeb., 1839, 1841. 

2 vols. 

F. J. Stahl, Die Kirchenverfassung nach Lehre und Recht der Protest. Erl., 1840. 

2d ed., ibid., 1862. 

G. F. Puchta, Einleitung in das Recht der Kirche. Lpz., 1840. 

* Aem. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des kathol. und evangel. Kirchenrechts. 2 vols. 6th ed. 

Lpz., 1867. 

Geschichte der evangel. Kirchenverfassung in Deutschland. Lpz., 1851. 

Otto Mejer, lustitutionen des gemeinen deutschen Kirchenrechts. Gott., 1845. 2d ed., 

1856. 
*Ch. J. F. Bunsen, Die Yerfassung der Kirche der Zukunft. Hamb., 1845. Eng. ed., 

Lond., 1847. 
H. Thiele, Die Kirche Christi in ihrer Gestaltung auf Erden. Zurich, 1844. 
Die Knechtsgestalt der evangelischen Kirche, oder Roth und Hiilfe. Ziir,, 1846. 

* (Weisse) Ueber die Zukunft der evangel. Kirche. Reden an die Gebildeten deutscher 

Nation. 2d ed., 1849. 
J. W. F. Hofling, Grundsatze evangel.-luther. Kirchenverfassung. Erl, 1850. 3d ed., 
1853. 

* G. Y. Lechler, Geschichte der Presbyterial- und Synodalverfassung seit der Refor- 

mation. (A prize essay.) Leyden, 1854. 
C. Trummer, Aphorismen iiber das christHche Kirchenrecht. Frankf., 1859. 
f G. Philipps, Kirchenrecht. Regensb., 1848-64. 6 vols, 
f J. F. Schulte, Catholisches Kirchenrecht. L 1-3. IL 1, 2. Giessen, 1860-67. 
J. A. Ginzel, Handbuch des neuesten in Oesterreich geltenden Kirchenrechts. Wien, 

1857-62. 2 vols. 
K. Kuzmany, Lehrbuch des allgemeinen und osterreichischen evangel.-protestant. 

Kirchenrechts. Wien, 1856. 2 vols. 
Fr. Bluhme, System des in Deutschland geltenden Kirchenrechts. Bonn, 1858. 
Th. Harnack, Die Kirche, ihr Amt, ihr Regiment. Grundlegende Satze mit durch- 

gehender Bezugnahme auf die symbolischen Biicher der lutherischen Kirche. 

Niirnb., 1862. 
C, F. Rosshirt, Beitrage zum Kirchenrecht. Heidelb., 1863. 

Encyklopadie des Kirchenrechts. Heidelb., 1865. 

R. W. Dove, Sammlung der wichtigsten neuen Kirchenordnungen des evangel. Deutsch- 

lands. Tub., 1863. 



THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 559 

F. Brandes, Die Verfassung der Kirche nach evangelischen Grundsatzen. Elberfeld, 

1867. 2 vols. 
0. Mejer, Grundlagen des lutherischen Kirchenregiments. Rostock, 1864. 

English and American Literature. 
I. Pastoral Office. 

Alfred Barrett, Pastoral Addresses : Adapted for Retirement and the Closet. 2 vols., 
3d ed., 16mo, pp. 384. 

Richard Baxter, The Reformed Pastor : Showing the Nature of the Pastoral Work. 
8vo. N". Y., 1860. New ed., 12mo, pp. xvi, 311. Lond. 

John Henry Blunt, Directorium Pastorale. The Principles and Practices of Pastoral 
Work in the Church of England. 8vo, pp. 456. Lond., 1865. 

The Acquirements and Principal Obligations and Duties of the Parish Priest ; 

being a Course of Lectures delivered at the University of Cambridge to the Stu- 
dents in Divinity. 12mo, pp. 394. Lond., 1869. 

Chas. Bridges, The Christian Ministry ; with an Inquiry into the Causes of its Ineffi- 
ciency. 8vo. N. Y., 1868. 

John Brown, The Christian Pastor's Manual. A Selection of Tracts on the Duties, 
Difficulties, and Encouragements of the Christian Ministry. 12mo. Phila., 183Y. 

Henry F. Burder, Mental Discipline ; or. Hints on the Cultivation of Intellectual and 
Moral Habits. Addressed Particularly to Students in Theology. 12mo. N. Y., 1830, 

J. W. Burgon, A Treatise on the Pastoral Office, Addressed chiefly to Candidates for 
Holy Orders ; or to Those who have Recently Undertaken the Care of Souls. 
8vo, pp. xxiv, 470. Lond., 1864. 

Gilbert Burnet, a Discourse on Pastoral Care. 32mo. Lond., 1849. 

Geo. Campbell, Lectures on Systematic Theology, Pulpit Eloquence, and Pastoral 
Character. 8vo. Lond., 1840. 

J. S. Cannon, Lectures on Pastoral Theology. N. Y., 1853. 

St. John Chrysostom, On the Priesthood. In Six Books. Translated by B. H. Cow- 
per. 12mo, pp. 239. Lond., 1866. 

Adam Clarke, A Letter to a Preacher on his Entrance into the Work of the Ministry. 
18mo. Lond., 1868. 

A. F. Douglass, The Pastor and his People : Discussions on Ministerial Life and 
Character. 12mo. Lond., 1868. 

C. J. EUicott, Homiletical and Pastoral Lectures. Delivered in St. Paul's Cathedral 
before the Church Homiletical Society. Edited by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. N. Y. 

R. W. Evans, The Bishopric of Souls. 4th ed., 12mo. Lond., 1856. 

P. Fairbairn, Pastoral Theology. A Treatise on the Office and Duties of the Christian 
Pastor. 12mo, pp. 386. Edinb., 1865. 

Micaiah Hill, The Principles of the Pastoral Function in the Church. 12mo, pp. 458. 
Lond., 1855. 

James M. Hoppin, The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry. 8vo, pp. 620. 
N. Y, 1869. 

Alvah Hovey, The Christian Pastor, his Work, and the Needful Preparation : a Dis- 
course, etc. 18mo. Boston, 1857. 

Heman Humphrey, Thirty-four Letters to a Son in the Ministry. 12mo. Amherst, 1842. 

John Angel James, An Earnest Ministry the Want of the Times. 12mo. N. Y., 1849. 

Daniel P. Kidder, The Christian Pastorate : its Character, Responsibilities, and Duties, 
12mo, pp. 569. N. Y, 1871. 

Wm. Meade, Lectures on the Pastoral Office : Delivered to the Students of the Theo- 
logical Seminary at Alexandria, Va. 8vo, pp. 241. N. Y., 1849. 



560 PKACTICAL THEOLOGY. 

Thomas Murphy, Pastoral Theology ; the Pastor in the Yarious Duties of his Office. 
8vo, pp. 509. Phila. 

Ashton Oxenden, The Pastoral Office: its Duties, Difficulties, Privileges, and Pros- 
pects. 12mo. Lond., 1864. 

Edwards A. Park, The Preacher and Pastor, by Fenelon, Herbert, Baxter, and Camp- 
bell. Edited and Accompanied by an Introductory Essay. 12mo. K Y., 1849. 

Joseph Parker, Ad Clerum ; Advices to a Young Preacher. 16mo, pp. 266. Boston, 
1871. 

Pastoral Letters from the House of Bishops to the Clergy and Members of the Prot. 
estant Episcopal Church in the United States. 12mo. Phila., 1845. 

W. S. Plumer, Hints and Helps in Pastoral Theology. 12mo, pp. 381. N. Y., 1874. 

Enoch Pond, The Young Pastor's Guide ; or, Lectures on Pastoral Duties. 16mo, 
pp. 377. Bangor, 1844. 

William G. T. Shedd, Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. 8th ed,, Svo, pp. 429. 
N. Y., 1870. 

George Smith, The Doctrine of the Christian Pastorate. Svo, pp. 123. Lond., 1851. 

Edward Spooner, Pastor and People ; or. Incidents in the Every-Day Life of a Clergy- 
man. 16mo, pp. 260. N. Y., 1865. 

James Stewai-t Wilsoa, The Life, Education, and Wider Culture of the Christian 
Ministry : its Sources, Methods, and Aims. Lectures delivered at Aberdeen, etc. 
8vo, pp. 284. Lond., 1882. 

Henry Thompson, Pastoralia. A Manual of Helps for Parochial Clergy of the United 
Church of England and Ireland. 2d ed., 12mo, pp. 263. Lond., 1832. 

Tracts on Ministerial Duties. 5th ed., 8vo, pp. 443. Oxford, 1843. 

J. J. Yan Oosterzee, Practical Theology. N. Y., 1879. 

A. Vinet, Pastoral Theology. 12mo, pp. 387. N. Y., 1854. 

Francis Way land, Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel. 16mo, pp. 210. Boston, 1863. 

William Wisner, Incidents in the Life of a Pastor. 12mo, pp. 316. N. Y., 1851. 

II. Ecclesiastical Law. 

L. Coleman, Manual on Prelacy and Ritualism. Phila., 1867. 

W. J. Henry and W. L. Harris, Ecclesiastical Law and Rules of Evidence. Svo, pp. 

511. Cin., 1879. 
Charles Hodge, Discussions in Church Polity. From Contributions to the Princeton 

Review. Svo, pp. xi, 532. N. Y., 1878. 
Murray Hoffman, The Ritual Law of the Church ; with its Application to the Com- 
munion and Baptismal Offices. N. Y., 1872. 

Ecclesiastical Law in the State of New York. N. Y., 1868. 

Sandford Hunt, Laws Relating to Religious Corporations. A Compilation of the 

Statutes of the Several States in Relation to the Incorporation and Maintenance 

of Religious Societies. N". Y., 1876. 
James W. Joyce, The Civil Power and its Relations to the Church ; Considered with 

Special Reference to the Court of Final Ecclesiastical Appeal in England. Svo, 

pp. xii, 240. Lond., 1875. 
William Strong, Two Lectures upon the Relation of Civil Law to Ecclesiastical Polity 

Property, and Discipline. 12mo, pp. 141. N. Y., 1875. 
R. H. Tyler, American Ecclesiastical Law : the Law of Religious Societies, Church 

Government and Creeds, Disturbing Religious Meetings, and the LaAV of Burial 

Grounds in the United States. Svo. Albany, 1866. 
F. Yinton, Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the Prot 

estant Episcopal Church in the United States. N. Y., 1870. 



APPENDIX. 



■4*»- 



I. 

RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

The following titles, chiefly of English and American works, upon the relations of Religion 
and Science, may be useful to theological students. The list, though large, does not profess 
to be complete. 

Ackland, T. S. The Story of Creation as told by Theology and Science. 16nQO. 

London. 
Agassiz, Louis. Contributions to the Natural History of U. S. of America. (An 

essay on classification. Vol. I, pp. 232. Boston, 1857. 

Methods of Study in Natural History. Pp. 313. Boston, 1871. 

The Structure of Animal Life. 8vo, pp. 128. New York, 1870. (The last 

lecture is entitled: Evidence of an Intelligent and Constantly Creative Mind in 

the Plans and Variations of Structure.) 
Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natursrt History. 1830-1880. Boston. 

(Contains a Critique of Darwinism by Prof. Hyatt.) 4to, pp. 635. 
Annual of Scientific Discovery. Edited by Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution ; formeiiy by David A. Wells. New York and London, 1860-62, 

(Gives frequent notices of the discussions of the antiquity of man, origin of life, 

etc.) 
Argyll, The Duke of. Primeval Man. An Examination of some Recent Speculations. 

Pp. 200. New York, 1869. 
Bain, Alexander. Mind and Body, Theories of their Relations. 12mo. New York. 
Bascom, John. Science, Philosophy, and Religion. 12mo, pp. 311. New York, 

1871. 
Bastian, H. C. Evolution, and the Origin of Life. New York, 1880. 
The Beginnings of Life. Being some Account of the Nature, Modes of Origin, 

and Transformations of Lower Organisms. With Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols., 

12mo. New York, 1872. 
Beale, Lionel S. Protoplasm; or, Life, Matter, and Mind. 12mo, pp. 160. 2d ed. 

London, 1870. (A scientific refutation of Huxley's protoplastic theory.) 
Birks, T. R. The Difficulties of Belief in Connection with the Creation and Fall. 

12mo. Cambridge, 1855. 
The Scripture Doctrine of Creation, with Reference to Religious Nihilism and 

Modern Theories of Development. 16mo. New York, 1875. 
Brace, Charles L. The Races of the Old World. A Manual of Ethnology. 12mo, 

pp. 540. New York, 1863. (Discusses the geological question of the antiquity 

of man.) 
Bruntin, T. Landon. The Bible and Science. London, 1881. 12mo, pp. 415. (Aims 

to show the agreement of evolution with the Pentateuch.) 
Biichner, Louis. Force and Matter. Empirico-Philosophical Studies, intelligibly 

rendered. Edited by J. Frederick Collingwood. 12mo, pp. 374. London, 1870. 
36 



563 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 



• 



Biichner, L. Man in the Past, Present, and Future. A Popular Account of the Re- 
sults of Recent Scientific Research as regards the Origin, Position, and Prospects 

of the Human Race. 8vo. London, 1872. (Atheistic.) 
Cabell, J. L. The Testimony of Modern Science to the Unity of Mankind. 12mo, 

New York, 1860. 
Calderwood, Henry. The Relations of Science and Religion. The Morse Lecture, 1880. 

12mo, pp. xiii, 323. New York, 1881. 
Chadbourne, P. A. Instinct : its Office in the Animal Kingdom, and its Relation to 

the Higher Powers of Man. 16rao, pp. 30*7. New York, 1872. (Argues that 

man has an instinctive belief in the existence of God.) 
Chapin, James H. The Creation and the Early Developments of Society. 12mo, 

pp. 2*74. New York, 1880. 
Christianity and its Antagonisms : Evangelical Alliance, Conf. of 1873. Division III. 

8vo. New York, 1874. 
Christlieb, Theodor. The Best Methods of Counteracting Modern Infidelity. A Paper 

read before the Evangelical Alliance, 1873. 18mo, pp. 89. New York, 1874. 

(Discusses scientific unbelief.) 
Church and Science (The). The Debate between ; or, the Ancient Hebraic Idea of the 

Six Days of Creation ; with an Essay on the Literary Character of Tayler Lewis. 

Andover, 1860. 
Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence betAveen a Layman and the Rev. 

F. D. Maurice on some Questions arising out of the Controversy respecting the 

Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1863. 
Clark, Edson L. Fundamental Questions : Chiefly Relating to the Book of Genesis and 

the Hebrew Scriptures. 12rao, pp. vi, 217. 
Clark, Henry James. Mind in Nature ; or, the Origin of Life and the mode of 

Development of Animals. With over Two Hundred Illustrations. 8vo. New 

York, 1865. 
Cook, Joseph. Biology. 15th ed., 12mo, pp. 325. Boston, 1878. (Wholly popular in 

its treatment of the subject.) 
Creation, Vestiges of. 12mo. New York. 
Dabney, R. L. The Sensualistic Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century Considered. 

8vo. Edinburgh. 
Dana, James D. Manual of Geology ; with Special Reference to American Geological 

History. 8vo, pp. 814. Philadelphia and London, 1863. (Discusses the An- 
tiquity and Unity of the human race.) 2d ed., pp. 828. New York, 1875. 
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex. 2 vols., 

12mo, pp. 409, 436. New York, 1875. 
The Origin of Species by Natural Selection ; or, the Preservation of Favoured 

Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th ed., pp. xx, 458. London, 1873. 
Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2 vols., pp. 494, 568. 



New York, 1875. 
Dawk ins, W. B. Early Man in Britaiji, and his Place in the Tertiary Period. Pp. 

xxiv, 537. 
Dawson, J. W. Archaia ; or, Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the 

Hebrew Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. Montreal, 1860. 
Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives. An Attempt to Illustrate the 

Character and Condition of Prehistoric Men in Europe by those of the American 

Races. 12mo. New York. 
Nature and the Bible. Lectures delivered in Union Theological Seminary on 



the Morse Foundation. New York, 1875. Pp. 257. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 563 

Dawson, J. W. The Chain of Life in Geological Time. London, 1880. Pp. 272. 

The Story of the Earth and Man. 12mo, pp. 493. New York, 1873. 

Dick, Thomas. Christian Philosophy ; or, the Connection of Science and Philosophy 

with Religion. Revised edition. Illustrated with upward of 50 Engravings, 

12mo. New York, 1857. 
Draper, John "William. History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. New 

York, 1875. Pp. 373. 
Duns, John. Biblical Natural Science. Being the Explanation of all References in 

Holy Scriptures to Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Physical Geography. Super- 
royal 8vo, pp. 1152. London, 1864. 
El am, Charles. Winds of Doctrine. An Examination of Modern Theories of Atoma- 

tism and Evolution. Pp. 163. London, 1877. 
Farrar, Adam Storey. Science in Theology. Sermons preached in St. Mary's, Oxford. 

12mo, pp. 250. Am. ed. Philadelphia, 1860. 
Figuier, Louis. Primitive Man. Revised Translation. Illustrated with Thirty Scenes 

of Primitive Life, etc. 8vo. New York, 1870. 
The To-morrow of Death ; or, the Future Life According to Science, translated 

by S. R. Crocker. 16mo, pp. 395. Boston, 1872. 
The World before the Deluge. Edited by H. W. Bristow. 12mo, pp. 518. 



New York, 1872. 

Fiske, John. Darwinism, and other Essays. 12mo, pp. viii, 283. London, 1879. 

Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution. 2 vols., 

pp. 465, 523. Boston, 1875. 

Fly, E. M. The Bible True ; or, the Cosmogony of Moses compared with the Facts of 
Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1871. 

Fowle, T. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science. Being Essays on Im- 
mortality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. 8vo, pp. 404. London, 
1873. 

Eraser, William. Blending Lights ; or, the Relations of Natural Science, Archaeology, 
and History to the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. 

Geikie, Cunningham. Hours with the Bible ; or, the Scriptures in the Light of Mod- 
ern Discovery from the Creation to the Patriarchs. • (Discusses the geological age 
of the world and the antiquity of man.) New York, 1881. (Vol. II is from 
Moses to Judges.) 

Geikie, James. The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man. 
Pp. XXV, 545. New York, 1874. 

Gibson, Stanley. Religion and Science : their Relations to each other at the Present 
Day. Three Essays on the Grounds of Religious Belief. 8vo. London, 1882. 

Gloag, Paton J. The Primeval World. A Treatise on the Relations of Geology to 
Theology. 12mo, pp. 194. Edinburgh, 1859. 

Gray, Asa. Darwiniana. Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism. 12mo, 
pp. 396. New York, 1876. (Aims to show that natural selection is not incon- 
sistent with natural theology.) 

Natural Science and Religion. Lectures to the Theological School of Yale 

College, 1880. 12mo, pp. 111. 

Haeckel, Ernst. The History of Creation ; or, the Development of the Earth and its 
Inhabitants from Natural Causes. (A. popular exposition of the doctrine of Evolu- 
tion.) Translated by E. Ray Lancaster. 2 vols., pp. 408, 374. London, 1876. 

Harcourt, L. V. The Doctrine of the Deluge, Vindicating the Scriptural Account 
from the Doubts which have been recently cast upon it by Geological Specula* 
tions. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1838. 



564 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Harris, John. Man Primeval ; or, the Constitution and Primitive Condition of the 

Human Being. 12mo. Boston, 1870. 
The Pre-Adamite Earth. Contributions to Theological Science. 5th ed., 12mo, 

pp. 300. Boston, 185Y. 
Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man: Spirit, Soul, and Body, 12mo, pp. xxiv, 

874. Edinburgh, 1870. 
Hedge, Frederic Henry. The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition. 12mo, pp. 283. 

Boston, 1870. 
Henslow, George. The Theory of Evolution and the Application of the Principles of 

Evolution to Keligion. Pp. 220. London, 1873. 
Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater 

Treatise. 3d ed. greatly enlarged. 12mo, pp. 109. Boston and New York, 

1882. 
Hitchcock, Edward. Religious Truth Illustrated from Science, in Addresses and 

Sermons upon Special Occasions. 12mo. Boston, 1857. 
The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 

1851. 
Hodge, Charles. What is Darwinism ? Pimo, pp. 178. New York, 1874. (Argues that 

Darwinism is Atheistic.) 
Homo versus Darwin. A Judicial Examination of Statements recently Published by 

Mr. Darwin regarding " The Descent of Man." 12mo. Philadelphia, 1872. 
Huxley, Thomas H. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. 12mo, pp. 184. New- 
York, 1862. 

Critiques and Addresses. Pp. 350. London, 1873. 

Lay Sermons, etc. London and New York, 1872. 

The Origin of Species ; or, the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. 

Pp. 150. New York, 1872. 
The Theorv of Evolution. Lectures delivered in New York. New York Trib- 



une Extra No. 36. Popular Science Monthly, 1876 and 1877. 

Janet, Paul. The Materialism of the Present Day: a Critique of Dr. Biichner's 
System. From the French. 12mo, pp. 202. London and New York, 1866. 

Jevons, W. Stanley. The Principles of Science. A Treatise on Logic and Scientific 
Method. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 463, 480. London and New York, 1874. (Argues that 
Science as well as Religion rests on probable evidence ; and that there is no 
necessary antagonism between Science and Theology.) 

Kurtz, John Henry. The Bible and Astronomy ; an Exposition of the Biblical Cos- 
mology, and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. 

Laidlaw, John. The Bible Doctrine of Man. The Seventh Series of Cunning- 
ham Lectures. 8vo, pp. 397. Edinburgh and New York, 1879. (Discusses 
Evolution.) 

Lange, F. A. History of Materialism. With a Criticism of its Present Importance. 
3 vols., 8vo. Boston, 1880. 

Le Conte, Joseph. Religion and Science. A Series of Sunday Lectures on the Rela- 
tion of Natural and Revealed Religion ; or, the Truths Revealed in Nature and 
Scripture. Pp. 324. New York, 1874. 

Lenormant, Francois, The Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the 
Traditions of Oriental Peoples. From the 2d French ed. 12mo, pp. 588. New 
York, 1882. 

Leslie, J. P. Man's Origin and Destiny Sketched from the Platform of the Physical 
Sciences. (Argues the consistency of evolution with theism, but rejects revelation.) 
Boston, 1881. 12mo, pp. 442. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 565 

Lewes, George H. The Physical Basis of Mind. Forming the Second Series. 8vo. 
Boston, 1880. 

Problems of Life and Mind. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 434, 48*7. Boston, 1874-5. 

Lewis, Tayler. The Bible and Science ; or, the World Problem. 12mo. Schenec- 
tady, 1856. 

The Six Days of Creation; or, the Scriptural Cosmogony. 12mo, pp. 41G. 

New ed., 1879. 

Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the 
Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. 8vo, pp. 640. New York, 1872. 

The Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and 

Social Condition of Savages. 8vo, pp. viii, 380. New York, 1870. 

Lyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology ; or, 'the Modern Changes of the Earth 
and its Inhabitants, considered as Illustrative of Geology. 2 vols., pp. 671, 652. 
New York, 1873. (Furnishes, in his " Unif ormitarian " theory, the ground for 
Darwinism.) 

The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories 

of the Origin of Species by Variation. 8vo, pp. 526. Philadelphia, 1863. Re- 
vised edition, pp. xix, 572. London, 1873. 
The Student's Elements of Geology. Pp. 624. London, 1871. 



Macdonald, Donald. The Creation and Fall. A Defense of the First Three Chapters 

of Genesis. 8vo. Edinburgh. 
M'Causland, Dominick. Adam and the Adamites ; or, the Harmony of the Scriptures 

and Ethnology. 12mo, pp. 324. London, 1868. 
Sermons in Stones ; or. Scripture confirmed by Geology. 16mo. London, 

1870. 
M'Cosh, James. The Development Hypothesis. Is it Sufficient ? 12mo, 104. New 

York, 1876. 
Martineau, James. Modern Materialism and its Relations to Theology and Religion. 

With an Introduction by H. W. Bellows. 18mo, pp. 211. New York, 1877. 
Maudsley, Henry. The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. From the London edition. 

8vo, pp. 442. 1867. (Resolves Psychology into Physiology, and holds that mind 

is the highest form of force.) 
Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Deductive. 8vo, pp. 600. 

New York, 1867. (Argues that we can give no account of the permanent causes 

in nature.) 
Miller, Hugh. The Testimony of the Rocks ; or. Geology in its Bearing on the Two 

Theologies, Natural and Revealed. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 1870. 
Mivart, St. George. Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. 12mo, 

pp. viii, 462. New York, 1876. (Anti- Darwinian.) 

Man and Apes. An Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences 

bearing upon questions of Affinity and Origin. 12mo, pp. 200. London, 1874. 

The Genesis of Species. 12mo, pp. 296. London, 1871. (An argument against 

Darwin for a Special Creation.) 

MoUoy, Gerald. Geology and Revelation ; or, the Ancient History of the Earth Con- 
sidered in the light of Geological Facts and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 380. 
New York, 1870. 

Miiller, Max. Chips from a German Workship. 5 vols., 12mo. New York, 1876. 
(The essays in Yol. IV are chiefly on the science of Language.) 

Murphy, Joseph John. Habit and Intelligence in their Connexion with the Laws of 
Matter and Force. 2 vols., pp. 349, 240. 

^ The Scientific Basis of Faith. 8vo. London, 1873 



566 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Nott, Josiah, and Gliddon, George R. Types of Mankind ; or, Ethnological Researches. 
8vo. Philadelphia, 1854. 

Indigenous Races of the Earth ; or, New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry. 

Including other valuable contributions. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 185 7. 

Ormathwaite, Lord. Astronomy and Geology Compared. 16mo, pp. 179. New 
York, 18'72. (An argument against Darwinism as atheistic.) 

Owen, Richard. Palaeontology ; or, a Systematic Survey of Extinct Animals and their 
Geological Relations. 2d ed., pp. 463. Edinburgh, 1861. 

The Anatomy of the Vertebrates. 3 vols. London, 1868. (Chapter 40 is 

especially important.) 

Paine, Martin. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct as distinguished from Material- 
ism. With supplementary demonstrations of the Divine Communication of the 
Narratives of the Creation and the Flood. 8vo, pp. 707. New York, 1872. 

Painter, R. B. Science a Stronghold of Belief ; or, Scientific and Common Sense 
Proofs of the Reasonableness of Religious Belief. 12mo. New York, 1880. 

Paul, William. The Scriptural Account of Creation Vindicated by the Teaching of 
Science. 12mo. 

Peabody, Andrew P. Christianity and Science. Lectures delivered before the 
Students of the Union Theological Seminary. 16mo, pp. 287. New York, 1874. 

Pendleton, N. W. Science a Witness for the Bible. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860. 

Peschel, Oscar. The Races of Man and their Distribution. From the German. 12mo, 
pp. 528. 

Phin, John. The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 12mo. New 
York, 1870. 

Poole, R. S. The Genesis of the Earth and of Man ; or, the History of Creation and 
the Antiquity and Races of Mankind. 12mo. London, 1860. 

Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at Variance. With Remarks on the His- 
torical Character, Plenary Inspiration, and Surpassing Importance of the Earlier 
Chapters of Genesis. 7 ed., revised and corrected. 12mo. London, 1872. 

Pratt, Henry T. A. The Genealogy of Creation, Newly Translated from the Unpointed 
Hebrew Text of the Book of Genesis. Showing the General Scientific Accuracy 
of the Cosmogony of Moses and the Philosophy of Creation. Svo. London, 
1861. 

Primeval Man Unveiled ; or, the Anthropology of the Bible. Crown 8vo. London, 
1871. 

Problems of Faith. A Contribution to Present Controversies. Third Series of Lect- 
ures to Young Men delivered at the Presbyterian College, London, by the Duke of 
Argyll, Professor Watts, Dr. Donald Fraser, and William Carruthers. Edited by 
Oswald Dykes. 12mo. London, 1875. 

Quarry, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Dissertations. 8vo, pp. 635. 
London and Edinburgh, 1866. (Argues that revelation was not designed to teach 
any system of science.) 

Ragg, Thomas. Creation's Testimony to its God. The Accordance of Science, Phi- 
losophy, and Revelation. A Manual of the Evidences of Natural and Revealed 
Religion. 12mo. London, 1867. 

Rawlinson, George. The Origin of the Nations. 12mo, pp. 272. New York, 1878. 
(Aims to show the harmony between Genesis and the science of Ethnology.) 

Recent Scientific Conclusions, (Thoughts on,) and their Relation to Religion. 12mo. 
London, 1872. 

Rigg, A. The Harmony of the Bible with Experimental Physical Science. A Course 
of Four Lectures. 18mo. London, 1869. 



APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 567 

Ritchie, A. T. The Creation. The Earth's Formation on Dynamical Principles, in 
Accordance with the Mosaic Record and the Latest Scientific Discoveries. 5th ed., 
revised, 8vo, pp. 680. London, 1882. 

Sandys, R. H. In the Beginning. Remarks on certain Modern Views of the Crea- 
tion. 2d ed., crown 8vo. London, 1880. 

Saville, B. W. The Truth of the Bible. Evidence from the Mosaic and other Records 
of Creation ; the Origin and Antiquity of Man ; the Science of Scripture ; and 
from the Archseology of Different Nations of the Earth. 8vo. London, 1870. 

Schmidt, Oscar. The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism. Pp. 334. London, 1875. 

Science and the Gospel ; or, the Church and the Nations. A Series of Essays on 
Great Catholic Questions. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Science and Revelation. A Series of Lectures in Reply to the Theories of Tyndall, 
Huxley, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Lectures delivered in Belfast in 1874-75. Belfast 
and. New York, 1875. 

Sewall, J. B. Evenings with the Bible and Science. 16mo, pp. 151. Boston and 
New York, 1864. 

Sewell, William. Christian Vestiges of Creation. 12mo. Oxford, 1861. 

Shields, Charles W. Religion and Science in their Relations to Philosophy. 8vo. 
New York, 1875. 

The Final Philosophy. A System of Perfectible Knowledge, issuing from the 

Harmony of Science and Religion. 8vo, pp. 609. New York, 1877. 

Smith, John Pye. Geology and Scripture ; or, the Relation between the Holy Script- 
ures and Geological Science. 12mo, pp. 364. New York, 1840. 

Smyth, Thomas. The Unity of the Human Races proved to be the Doctrine of Script- 
ure, Reason, and Science. 12mo. New York, 1850. 

Smyth, William W. The Bible and the Doctrine of Evolution. Being a Complete 
Synthesis of their Truth, and giving a Sure Scientific Basis for the Doctrines of 
Scripture. 12mo. London, 1873. 

Southall, James T. The Recent Origin of Man, as Illustrated by Geology and the 
Modern Science of Prehistoric Archaeology. 8vo, pp. 606. Philadelphia, 1875. 

Spencer, Herbert. First Principles of a New System of Philosophy. 12mo, pp. 503. 
New York, 1864. (The fifth chapter attempts a reconciliation of Religion and 
Science. 

The Principles of Biology. 2 vols., pp. 492, 569. New York, 1871. 

St. Clair, George. Darwinism and Design ; or, Creation by Evolution. Pp. 359, Lon- 
don, 1873. 

Stirling, James H. As Regards Protoplasm. In relation to Prof. Huxley's Essay on 
the Physical Basis of Life. 18mo, pp. 71. New Haven, 1870. 

Thompson, Joseph P. Man in Genesis and in Geology ; or, the Biblical Account of 
Man's Creation tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity. 12mo, 
pp. 149. New York, 1870. 

TuUidge, Henry. Triumphs of the Bible, with the Testimony of Science to its Truth. 
12mo, pp. 439. New York, 1863. 

Tyndall, Professor John. Fragments of Science for Unscientific People. A Series of 
Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. New York. 12mo, pp. 422. 1871. 
(The second essay discusses prayer and natural law ; the sixth, the scope and limit 
of scientific materialism.) 

Venn, J. On some of the Characteristics of Belief, Scientific and Religious. (Hulsean 
Lectures for 1869.) 8vo. London, 1870. 

Wallace, Alfred Russell. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. 2d ed., 
pp. 384. New York, 1869. 



568 APPENDIX— EELIGION AND SCIENCE. 

Wallace, Alfred Russell. The Geographical Distribution of Species, etc. 2 vols., pp. 
607, 503. New York, 1876. (Aims to apply certain facts in the distribution of 
species to the Darwinian theory of their origin.) 

The Malay Archipelago. Pp. 638. New York, 1869. 

"Warring, Charles B. The Mosaic Account of Creation, etc. ; or. New Witnesses to 
the Oneness of Genesis and Science. 16mo, pp. 292. New York, 1875. 

Warrington, George. The Week of Creation ; or, the Cosmogony of Genesis, con- 
side i-ed in its Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. London, 1870. 

Whewell, Wm. History of the Inductive Sciences. 3d ed., 2 vols., pp. 566, 648. 
New York, 1870. 

The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. 2 vols,, pp. 586, 523. London, 1840. 

Whitney, M. Dwight. Language and ihe Study of Language. 12mo, pp. 505. New 
York, 1868. 

Oriental and Linguistic Studies. First and second series. 12mo, pp. 416, 431. 

New York, 1873, 1874. 

Wight, George. Geology and Genesis. A Reconciliation of the two Records. Rec- 
ommendatory Note by W. L. Alexander. 12mo. London, 1857. 

Williams, Charles. The First Week of Time ; or. Scripture in Harmony with Science. 
12mo. London, 1863. 

Wilson, Daniel. Prehistoric Man, Researches into the Origin of Ciivlization in the 
Old and the New World. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1865. 

Winchell, Alexander. Pre-Adamites ; or, a Demonstration of the Existence of Man 
before Adam. 8to, pp. xxvi, 500. Chicago and London, 1880. 

Reconciliation of Science and Religion, 12mo, xvi, 403, New York and Cincin- 
nati, 1877. (Argues that there is no contradiction between evolution and direct 
creation,) 

Sketches of Creation. A Popular View of some of the Grand Conclusions of 

the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter and of Life. With Illustra- 
tions. 12mo, pp. xii, 459. New York, 1870. 
The Doctrine of Evolution. Its Data, its Principles, its Speculation, and its 



Theistic Bearings. 12mo, pp. 148. New York, 1874. 
Wiseman, (Cardinal,) Nicholas. Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science 

and Revealed Religion. 8vo, pp. xii, 404. London, 1837. 
Wright, G. Frederic. Studies in Science and Religion. 16mo, pp. 406. Andover, 

1882. (The seventh essay discusses the Bible and Science.) 

The Logic of Christian Evidences. 12mo, xiv, 312. Andover, 1880. 

Wythe, Rev. Joseph H. The Agreement of Science and Revelation. 12mo, pp. 290. 

Philadelphia and London, 1872. 
Yorke, J. F. Notes on Evolution and Christianity. 8vo, pp. 296. London, 1882. 
Young, J. R. Modern Skepticism Viewed in Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. 

London, 1865. 

See also J. W. Dawson's address before the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Montreal, 1875 ; John L. Leconte's address before the same, 
Salem, 1875 ; Huxley's article on Biology in ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Bri- 
tannica ; Professor Clerk Maxwell's article on Atoms in same ; Edward S. Morse's 
paper before American Association in Popular Science Review, 1876 ; Gold win 
Smith's article on Ascent of Man, in Macmillan's Magazine for January, 1877 ; M. 
A. Wilder's article on Natural Law and Spiritual Agency, in the New Englander 
for October, 1874, 

For an account of recent German works on Theology and Science, Darwinism, etc., 
see Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1877, pp. 386 and 387, and July, 1877, pp. 577-584. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY 569 

II. 

Histories of the Christian Churches in the United States. 

The histories of the Churches in the United States are of so much importance to the 
theological student that we offer here a list of those most accessible. As many of 
the denominational publishing houses, from which they are generally issued, art- 
not well known, the location of each has also been stated. 

General. 

Baird, Robert. Religion in America ; or, An Account of the Origin, Relation to the 
State, and Present Condition of the Evangelical Churches in the United States. 
With Notices of the Unevangelical Denominations. 8vo, pp. xvii, 696. New York: 
Harper & Brothers. 1856. 

Religious Denominations of the United States. Their past History, Present Condi- 
tion, and Doctrines, Accurately set forth in Fifty-three Articles by Clergymen and 
Lay Authors Connected with the Respective Persuasions. Svo. Philadelphia : 
C. Desilver & Sons. IS^l. 

Rupp, I. Daniel. History of the Religious Denominations in the United States. Svo, 
pp. vi, 734. Philadelphia : J. Y. Humphreys. 1844. 

Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit ; or. Commemorative Notices 
of Distinguished American Clergymen of Various Denominations, with Historical 
Introductions. 10 vols., Svo. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1859-69. 

Baptist. 

Anderson, Geo. W. The Baptists in the United States. ISmo, pp. 12. Philadelphia: 
American Baptist Publication Society, 1420 Chestnut Street. 

Backus, Isaac. A History of New England ; from 1629 to 1804. With Particular 
Reference to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. 2d ed., with Notes 
by David Weston. 2 vols., Svo, pp. x, 538 ; ix, 584. Newton, Mass. 1871. 

Bailey, G. S. The Trials and Victories of Religious Liberty in America. A Centen- 
nial Memorial, 1776-1876. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia: American Baptist 
Publication Society. 

Barrows, C. E. Development of Baptist Principles in Rhode Island. ISmo, pp. 104. 
Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society. 

Benedict, David. General History of the Baptist Denomination in America and 
Other Parts of the World. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 970. New York : L. Colby. 1848. 

Bitting, C. C. Religious Liberty and the Baptists. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia: 
Bible and Publication Society. 

Gramp, J. M. Baptist History. From the Foundation of the Christian Church to the 
Close of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 598. Philadelphia : American 
Baptist Publication Society. 1869. 

Crowell, W. Literature of the American Baptists During the Last Fifty Years. 
Missionary Jubilee Volume. New York. 1865. 

Curry, J. L. M. Struggles and Triumphs of Virginia Baptists. A Memorial Dis- 
course. ISmo, pp. 71. Philadelphia: Bible and Publication Society. 

Hovey, Alvah. Progress of a Century. ISmo, pp. 70. Philadelphia : American 
Baptist Publication Society. 

Minutes of the General Conference of the Free-will Baptist Connection from 1829 to 
1856. Pp. 444. Dover, N. H. 



570 APPENDIX— AMEEICAN CHURCH HISTORY, 

Moss, Lemuel, Editor. The Baptist and the National Centenary. A Eecord of 

Christian Work, I'ZVB-lS'Ze. 8vo, pp. 310. Philadelphia: American Baptist 

Publication Society. 1876. 
Stewart, J. D. History of the Free-will Baptists for Half a Century. 12mo, pp. 480. 

Dover, N. H., 1862. 

The Centennial Record of Free-will Baptists, 1780-1880. Pp. 266. Dover, N. H. 

Taylor, Geo. B. The Baptists and Religious Liberty. 18mo, pp. 36. Philadelphia : 

Bible and Publication Society. 
Taylor, G. B. Virginia Baptists. 18mo, pp. 35. Philadelphia : American Baptist 

Publication Society. 
Williams, A. D. Memorials of the Free Communion Baptists. 8vo. Dover, N". H. : 

Free-will Baptist Printing Establishment. 1852. 
Williams, William R. Lectures on Baptist History. Philadelphia. 1877. 

Also various biographies of Free-will Baptist ministers, to wit : John Colby, pp. 316 ; 
William Burr, pp. 208 ; Clement Phinney, pp. 190 ; John Stevens, pp. 120 ; 
Martin Cheney, pp. 471 ; David Marks, pp. 516 ; George F. Day, pp. 431. Dover, 
N. H.: Free-will Baptist Publishing House. 

Christian. 

Summerbell, K History of the Christians. Dayton, 0. : Christian Publishing 
Association. 

Congregational. 

Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. 8vo, pp. xvi, 485. 
New York : Harper & Brothers. 1874. 

Historical Discourses on the Completion of Two Hundred Years, from Begin- 
ning of the First Church in New Haven, Conn. 8vo. Boston: A. H. Maltby. 
1849. 

Cambridge (Mass.) Platform of (Congregational) Church Discipline, 1648. Confes- 
sion of Faith, 1680. Platform of Ecclesiastical Government, by N. Emmons. 
12mo, pp. ii, 20-84. Boston : Congi-egational Publishing Society, Beacon Street. 
1855. 

Clark, Joseph S. Historical Sketches of the Congregational Churches in Massachu- 
setts, from 1620 to 1858 ; with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 344. Boston : Congre- 
gational Publishing Society. 

Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut ; Prepared under the 
Direction of the General Association, to Commemorate the Completion of One Hun- 
dred and Fifty Years since its First Annual Assembly. 8vo, pp. 578. New 
Haven : W. L. Kingsley. 1861. 

Dexter, Henry M. Congregationalism: What it Is, Whence it Is, etc. 8vo, pp. 338. 
4th ed., Revised and Enlarged. 12mo. Boston : Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. 
1876. 

The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as Seen in its Litera- 
ture. With a Biographical Index. 4to, pp. xxxviii, 326. New York : Harper & 
Brothers. 1880. 

A Monograph. As to Roger Williams and his " Banishment " from the Massa- 



chusetts Plantation, with a Few Further Words Concerning the Baptists, the 
Quakers, and Religious Liberty. Boston : Congregational Publishing Society. 
Felt, Joseph B. The Ecclesiastical History of New England ; Comprising not only 
Religious, but also Moral and Other Relations. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 664, 721. Boston ; 
Congregational Library Association. 1855. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 571 

Government and Communion, Practiced by the Congregational Churches in the 
United States of America, which were Represented by Elders and Messengers in a 
National Council at Boston, A. D. 1865. Boston : Congregational Publishing 
Society. 

Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana ; or, Ecclesiastical History of New 
England, from 1620 to 1698. With Notes and Translations by Robbins and Rob- 
inson. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 626, 682. Hartford: S. Andrus & Son. 1853. 

Minutes of the National Councils of the Congregational Churches of the United 
States, from 1821 to 1883. Boston: Congregational PubUshing Society. 

Morton, Nathaniel. New England Memorial, with Gov. Bradford's History ; an Ap- 
pendix Containing the Views of the Pilgrims and Early Settlers on the Subject of 
Church Polity. 8vo, pp. 536. Boston : Congregational PubHshing Society. 

Palfrey, John G. History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. 4 vols., 8vo, 
pp. xxxi, 636 ; xx, 640 ; xxii, 659 ; xxiv, 604. Boston : Little, Brown, & Co. 
ISSS-'ZY. 

The Congregational Year-Book. 5 vols. 1854-59. New York. Also for Succeeding 
Years. 

Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening : A History of the Revival of Religion in the 
Time of Edwards and Whitefield. 12mo, pp. 433. Boston: Congregational Pub- 
lishing Society. 

Tyler, Bennet. Memoir of Asahel Nettleton, D.D. 12mo, pp. 376. Boston : Con- 
gregational Publishing Society, 

Uhden, H. F. The New England Theocracy ; a History of the Congregationalists in 
New England to the Revivals of 1740. Translated from the German by H, C. 
Conant. 12mo, pp. 303. Boston : Gould & Lincoln. 1858. 

Young, Alexander, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth, 
from 1620 to 1628. Boston. 1841. 

Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, from 1623 

to 1636. Boston, 1846. 

Lutheran. 

Bernheim, G. D. History of the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church in 
North and South Carolina. 12mo, pp. 558. Philadelphia: Lutheran Book 
Store. 

Christian Book of Concord ; or, Symbolical Books of the Evangelical Lutheran 
Church. Translated from the German and Edited by S. Henkel. 2d ed., 8vo. 
New Market, Va. : Henkel & Co. 1854. 

Hazelius, E. L. History of the American Lutheran Church, from its Commencement 
in 1685 to the Year 1842. Pp. 300. Zanesville, 0., 1846. 

Jacobs, Henry E. The Book of Concord ; or, the Symbolical Books of the Evangel- 
ical Lutheran Church. With Historical Introduction, Notes, Appendixes, and 
Indexes. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 429, 424. Philadelphia : G. W. Frederick. 1883. 

Morris, J. G. Bibliotheca Lutherana : List of Publications of Lutheran Ministers in 
the United States. 12mo. Philadelphia : Lutheran Board of Publication, 42 North 
Ninth Street. 1876. (Contains notices of many local histories ) 

Schaffer, C. W. Early History of the Lutheran Church in America to the Middle of 
the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 143. Philadelphia: Lutheran Board of Pub- 
cation. 1857. New ed., 1868. 

Schmucber, S. S. The American Lutheran Church, Historically, Doctrinally, and 
Practically Delineated. 5th ed., 12mo, pp. x, 286. Philadelphia: E. W. Miller. 
1852. 



572 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Schmucher, S. S. Retrospect of Lutheranism in the United States. Baltimore : 

1841. 
Stoever, M. L, Memoir of the Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg, D.D. Pp. 120. 

Philadelphia, 1856. 
Reminiscences of Lutheran Ministers. Evangelical Review, v, 515 ; vi, 1, 261, 

412, 542; vii, 63, 151, 377, 527; viii, 105, 186, 398, 501; ix, 1; xi, 202, 428, 

585 ; xiii, 362, 561 ; xiv, 293 ; xv, 129, 428, 355 ; xvi, 470 ; xvii, 390, 485 ; xviii, 

25, 232 ; xix, 89, 405, 622; xx, 381 ; xxi, 24, 171, 374. 
Lutheran Church in the United States. Congregational Quarterly, 1862. 



Strobel, P. A. The Salzburgers and their Descendants : Being the History of a 
Colony of German Lutheran Protestants, who Emigrated to Georgia in 1734, and 
Settled at Ebenezer. Pp. 308. Baltimore, 1855. 

Mennonite. 

Ellis, Franklin, and Samuel Evans. History of Lancaster County, Pa., with Bio- 
graphical Sketches of many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men. Chap, xxvii. 
Churches of the Mennonites, Dunkers, Reformed Mennonites, River Brethren, and 
Amish. 

Funk, John F. The Mennonite Church and her Accusers. Elkhart, Ind. : Mennonite 
Publishing Co. 1878. 

Martin, E. K. The Mennonites. 8vo, pp. 17. Philadelphia : Everts & Peck. 1883. 

Musser, Daniel. The Reformed Mennonite Church : its Rise and Progress, with its 
Doctrines and Principles. Lancaster, Pa. : Inquirer Printing and Publishing Co. 
1878. 

Methodist. 

Annals of Southern Methodism. 1855, 1 vol., 12mo ; 1857, 1vol., 12mo. Nashville, 
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Arnett, B. W. The Budget : Containing the Annual Reports of the General Officers 
of the African M. E. Church, etc., with Facts and Figures, Historical Data of the 
Colored Methodist Church, etc.. Together with Religious, Educational, and Political 
Information Pertaining to the Colored Race. Pp. 136. Xenia, 0. : Torchlight 
Printing Co. 1881. The same for 1883, pp. 154. Dayton, 0.: Christian Pub- 
lishing House Print. 

Asbury, Francis, Journal of. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 524, 492, 502. New York : Meth- 
odist Book Concern, 805 Broadway. 1852. 

Bangs, Nathan. A History of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 4 vols., 12mo. 
New York : Methodist Book Concern. 

Bascom, Henry B., Life of. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Bascom, H. B., Greene, A. L. P., Parsons, C. B. Brief Appeal to Public Opinion in 
a Series of Exceptions to the Course and Action of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, from 1844 to 1848. 8vo, pp. 202. Louisville, Ky. : Morton and Gris- 
wold. 1848. 

Bassett, Ancel H. A Concise History of the Methodist Protestant Church, from its 
Origin. Introduction by William Collier. 12mo, pp. 424. Pittsburg: James 
Robinson. 1877. 

Bennett, . Methodism in Virginia. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House 

of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Bond, Thomas E. The Economy of Methodism Illustrated and Defended : In a 
Series of Papers. 8vo, pp. 391. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1852. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 573 

Deems, Charles F. Annals of Southern Methodism for 1856. 12mo, pp. 312. Nash- 
ville, Tenn. : Stevenson & Owen. New York : John A. Gray. 

Drew, Samuel. Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 381. New York: 
Methodist Book Concern. 183*7. 

Elliott, Charles. History of the Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church 
in the Year 1845, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled 
"Methodist Episcopal Church, South." Svo, pp. 1143. Cincinnati: Methodist 
Book Concern. 1855. 

Emory, Robert. Life of the Rev. John Emory. "With an Appendix. Svo, pp. 380. 
New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1841. 

Finley, J. B. Sketches of Western Methodism. Cincinnati : Methodist Book 
Concern. 1875. 

Formal Fraternity. Proceedings of the General Conferences of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1872, 1874, and 
1876, and of the Joint Commission of the Two Churches on Fraternal Relations 
at Cape May, N. J., Aug. 16-23, 1876. Svo, pp 87. New York: Methodist 
Book Concern. Nashville, Tenn. : A. H. Bedford. 

Goss, C. C. Statistical History of the First Century of American Methodism. 16mo, 
pp. 188. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866. 

History of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South ; Comprehend- 
ing all the Official Proceedings of the General Conference, etc. Svo, pp. 267. 
Nashville: Published by Order of Louisville Convention. William Cameron, 
Printer. 1845. 

Journal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for 
1854, 1866, 1870, 1874, 1878, 1882. Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Lednum, John. A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing 
Sketches of Methodist Itinerant Preachers from 1736 to 1785, etc., etc. 12mo, 
pp. 434. Philadelphia : John Lednum. 1859. 

Lee, L. M. Life and Times of the Rev. Jesse M. Lee. Svo, pp. 517. Nashville, 
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

M'Clintock, J. Biographical Sketches of Methodist Ministers. Cincinnati : Western 
Methodist Book Concern. 

M'Ferrm, John B. Methodism in Tennessee. 3 vols., 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : 
Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Methodist Church Property Case. Reported by R. Sutton. Svo, pp. 372. Richmond 
and Louisville : John Early. 1851. 

Mood, F. A. Methodism in Charleston. Edited by T. 0. Summers. ISmo. Nash- 
ville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Myers, Edward H. The Disruption of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1844-1846. 
Comprising a Thirty Years' History of the Relations of the two Methodisms. 
With an Introduction by T. 0. Summers. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing 
House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Orwig, W. W. History of the Evangelical Association, from its Origin to the Year 
1845. 12mo. Cleveland, 0., Publishing House. Lauer & Yost, Agents. 

Paine, Robert. Life and Times of William M'Kendree. 2 vols., 12mo. Nashville, 
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Redford, A. H. History of Methodism in Kentucky. 3d ed. Nashville, Tenn. : Pub- 
lishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Sherman, David. History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church. 12mo, pp. 422. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1874. 



574 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Simpson, Matthew. A Hundred Years of Methodism, 12mo, pp. 369. New York; 

Methodist Book Concern, 1876. 
Cyclopaedia of Methodism. Revised ed., 4to, pp. 1031. Philadelphia ; L. H. 

Everts. 1880. 
Stevens, Abel. Centenary of American Methodism ; with an Introduction by John 

M'Clintock. 12mo, pp. 287. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866. 
History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of America. 

4 vols., 12mo, pp. 423, 511, 510, 522. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1867. 
Life and Times of Nathan Bangs. 12mo, pp. 426. New York: Methodist 



Book Concern. 

Summers, T. 0. Biographical Sketches of Itinerant Ministers, Pioneers Within the 
Bounds of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Sd ed., pp. 176. Nashville, 
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Thrall, H. S. Methodism in Texas. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn.: Pubhshing House of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 

Travis, Joseph, Autobiography of. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 12mo, pp. 331. 
Nashville, Tenn, : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 

Wightman, Bishop. Life of William Capers, Including an Autobiography. Nash- 
ville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 

Wood, E. M. Methodism and the Centennial of American Independence ; with a 
Brief History of the Various Branches of Methodism, and Full Statistical Tables, 
12mo, pp. 412. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1876. 

Moravian. 

Moravian Historical Society, Transactions of. Yol, I. Containing all the important 
and interesting papers published by the Society, from 1857 to 1876. 8vo, Beth- 
lehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. E. G. Klose, Manager. 

Ritter, Abraham. History of the Moravian Church in Philadelphia from its founda- 
tion in 1742. 8vo, pp. 281, Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. 1857, 

Pond thaler, Edward, Life of John Hecke welder. Edited by B. H. Coates. 1847. 
8vo, pp. 150. Bethlehem, Pa.: Moravian Publication Office. 

Schweinitz, Edmund de. The Moravian Manual, containing an account of the Mo- 
ravian Church or Unitas Fratrum. Second enlarged ed., with historical tables, 
extending from the foundation of the ancient Church to the present day. 8vo, 
pp. 208. Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office, 

The Provincial Digest. Supplementary to the Results of the General Synod of 1879. 
Ordered by the Provincial Synod of the Northern District of the Province of the 
Moravians, held at Bethlehem, Pa., May 18-30, 1881. Bethlehem, Pa. : Mora- 
vian Publication Office. 

The Text-Book for 1884, English and German editions, Bethlehem, Pa, : Moravian 
Publication Office. 

Presbyterian. 

Alexander, Archibald, Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni 
of the Log College. Together with an Account of the Revivals of Religion 
under their Ministry. 12mo, pp. 279. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of 
Publication, 1334 Chestnut Street. 

Baird, Samuel J. A History of the New School, and of the Questions involved in the 
Disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1838. 8vo, pp. xii, 564. Philadelphia : 
Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelfinger. 1868. 

Beard, Richard. Why am I a Cumberland Presbyterian? Nashville, Tenn. 1872. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 575 

Breed, Wm. P. Presbj'terians and the Revolution. 1 6mo, pp. 205. Philadelphia : 
Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1872. 

Brown, I. N. An Historical Vindication of the Abrogation of the Plan of Union by 
the Presbyterian Church. 8vo. Philadelphia: W. S. Martien. 1855. 

Centennial Historical Discourses dehvered in the City of Philadelphia, June, 18*76, by 
Appointment of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United 
States of America. 12mo, pp. 300. Philadelphia : Presbyterian Board of Pub- 
lication. 1876. 

Crisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 2 
parts, l2mo, pp. iv, 150. St. Louis : Perrin & Smith. 1877. 

Division of the Presbyterian Church (A History of) in the United States, by a Com- 
mittee of the Synod of New York and New Jersey. 12mo, pp. vii, 278. New York, 
1852. 

Gillett, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. 
2 vols., 12mo, pp. 576, 605. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Publication Board. 

Hodge, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United 
States. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. xxiv, 576; xii, 605. Philadelphia: W. S. Martien. 
1839-40. 

Moore, William E. The Presbyterian Digest of the Acts and Deliverances of the Gen- 
eral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. 8vo, 
pp.718. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 

Presbyterian Reunion: A Memorial Volume, 1837-1871, with Map in separate vol., 
originally published in New York Evangelut. 8vo, pp. viii, 568. New York : 
D. C. Lent & Co. 1870. 

Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit. Vols. Ill and IV. Svo, pp. 
632, 836. Presbyterian. New York: Robert Carter & Brothers. 1859. 

The Confession of Faith of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in the United 
States of America. Pp. 286. Nashville, Tenn. : Board of Publication of the 
Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 1875. 

Webster, Richard. A History of the Presbyterian Church in America, from its 
origin until the year 1760; wdth Biographical Sketches of its Early Ministers. 
Svo. Philadelphia: J. M. Wilson. 1858. 

Protestant Episcopal. 

Beardsley, E. E. The History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut, from the 
Settlement of the Colony to the Present Time. 2 vols., 8vo. New York : Hurd 
& Houghton. 1865. 

Caswell, H. America and the American Church. 2d ed., Svo. London : Mozley. 
1851. 

Hawks, Francis L. Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States 
of America. Vol. I. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and Prog- 
ress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. Also an Appendix. 8vo, 
pp. xvi, 17, 286, 332. Vol. II. History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
Maryland. Svo, pp. 524. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1836-39. 

Lord, Samuel. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. 12mo, 
pp. 357. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1849. 

Meade, William. Old Churches, Ministers, and Families of Virginia. 2d ed., revised. 
2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1858. 

Perry, William S. A Hand-Book of the General Convention of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, giving its History and Constitution, 1785-1880. 12mo, pp. 366, 
New York : Whittaker. 1881. 



576 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Perry, "William S. Papers Relating to the History of the Church in Virginia. 
A. D. leSO-lYVe. 4to. New York: Protestant Episcopal Sunday- School Union. 
1870. 

^ Same, in Pennsylvania, A. D. 1&80-1118. 4to. New York : Protestant Epis- 
copal Sunday-School Union. 1871. 

White, William. Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States 
of America. Svo, pp. xiv, 474. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1836. 

Reformed Church in America (Dutch.) 

Anderson, James. Appeal to General Synod of the Reformed Protestant Dutch 
Church on the Change of Name, November, 1867. Svo, pp. 15. New York: 
Board of Publication, 34 Vesey Street. 

Bentley, E. W. " The Classis of Orange." An Historical Discourse. 8vo, pp. 80* 
New York : Board of Publication. 

Brinkerhoff, Jacob. History of the True Dutch Reformed Church of the United 
States of America. 12mo, pp. 139. New York : Board of Publication. 

Brownlee, Wm. C, Editor. Reformed Dutch Church Magazine. 4 vols., 8vo. New 
York : Board of Publication. 

Centennial Discourses. A Series of Sermons Delivered in the Year 1876 by order of 
the General Synod of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. Svo, pp. 601. 
New York : Reformed Church Board of Publication. 1877. 

Collegiate Dutch Church. Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedica- 
tion of the North Dutch Church, May 25, 1869, etc. Illustrated. Svo, pp. 76. 
New York : Board of Publication. 

Collegiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. Quarter Millennial Anniversary, 
Nov. 21, 1878. Svo, pp. 104. New York: Board of Publication. 

Demarest, David D. History and Characteristics of the Reformed Protestant Dutch 
Church. l2mo. New York : Reformed Church Board of Publication. 1856. 

Ferris, Isaac. Memorial Discourse ; or, Fifty Years' Ministry in the Reformed Church 
of America. February 26, 1871. Svo, pp. 38. New York: Board of Publi- 
cation. 

First Reformed Church Memorial; Schenectady, New York. Two Hundredth Anni- 
versary, 1680-1880. Svo. New York: Board of Publication. 

Hartley, J. S. Reformed Church, Utica, New York. Semi- Centennial Discourse. 
Svo. New York : Board of Publication. 

Matthews, J. M. " Fifty Years in New York." A Semi-Centennial Sermon. Svo, 
pp. 44. New York : Board of Publication. 

Minutes of General Synod. Vol. I, 1771-1812. Svo. New York : Board of Publi- 
cation. 

Stryker, Peter. Historical Discourse at the Last Service in the Reformed Protestant 
Dutch Church, corner Broome and Greene Streets, New York, April 15, 1860. 
12mo. New York: Board of Publication. 

Taylor, B. C. Annals of the Classis and Township of Bergen. 12mo. New York: 
Board of Publication. 

Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Peapack, New Jersey. Svo, 
pp. 68. New York : Board of Publication. 

' History of the Reformed Church of Readington, New Jersey, 1719-1881. Svo. 

New York : Board of Publication. 

Wells, Theo. W. Brick Church Memorial, 1699-1877. Svo, pp. 96. New York : 
Board of Publication. 



APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 577 

Wells, Theo. W. The Classis of Monmouth, its Members, its Churches, and its Work 
for Twenty-five Years. A Statistical History, with a Review of the Past, by Rev. 
Wm. Reiley. 8vo, pp. 30. New York : Board of Publication. 

The Reformed Church in the United States (German). 

Gerhart, E. Y. Bibliotheca Sacra, Yol. XX, 1863. " The German Reformed Church." 
Andover : Warren F. Draper. 

Harbaugh, H. Fathers of the German Reformed Church. 4 volumes, 12mo. Yol. I, 
pp. 394. Philadelphia: Reformed Church Publication Board, 907 Arch Street. 
1857. 

Mayer, Lewis. The History of the German Reformed Church. To which is prefixed 
a Memoir of the Life of the Author, by Elias Heiner. Yol. I, 8vo, pp. 477. 
Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1851. 

Russell, George B. Creeds and Customs : A Popular Handbook treating of the Doc- 
trines and Practices of the Reformed Clyirch in the United States. 1 2mo. Phila- 
delphia : Reformed Church Board of Publication. 

Roman Catholic. 

Bayley, J. R. Early History of the Catholic Church in the Island of New York. 

12mo, 2d ed., 1870. New York: Catholic Publication Society, 9 Barclay Street, 

New York. Lawrence Kehoe, Manager. 
Memoirs of the Rt. Rev. Simon Wm. Gabriel Brute, D.D., first Bishop of Yin- 

cennes. 12mo. 1876. NeAvYork: Catholic Publication Society. 
Clarke, R. H. Lives of Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church in the United States. 

2 vols., 8vo. New York : O'Shea, 37 Barclay Street. 
Finnotti, Joseph M. Bibliographia Catholica Americana. A List of Works written 

by Catholic Authors, and published in the United States. 8vo, pp. 318. New 

York: Catholic Publication Society. 1872. 
Grants of Land and Gifts of Money to Catholic and Non-Catholic Institutions in New 

York Compared. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 
Hewit, F. A. The Life and Sermons of the Rev. Francis A. Baker. 8vo, pp. 504. 

New York : Catholic Publication Society. 
Kehoe, Lawrence. The Works of the Most Reverend John Hughes, First Archbishop 

of New York, containing Biography, Sermons, etc. 2 vols., 8vo. New York : 

Catholic Publication Society. 
Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century. 13th 

ed., pp. Ixxxix, 463. Boston : Little, Brown, & Co. 1879. 
Shea, J. G. History of Catholic Missions Among the Indian Tribes of the United 

States, from A. D. 1529 to A.D. 1854. 12mo. New York: T. W. Strong. 18^4. 
Spalding, J. L Life of the Most Rev. M. J. Spalding, Archbishop of Baltimore. 

8vo, pp. 465. New York: Catholic Publication Society, 1874. 
The Religious Mission of the Irish People, and Catholic Colonization. 1 2mo. 

New York : Catholic Publication Society. 

Quakers (Friends.) , 

Biographies of William Penn, by Marsiliac, (1791,) Clarkson, (1813,) Ellis, (1852,) 

Hepworth Dixon, (1856.) 
Janney, S. M. History of the Friends to 1828. 4 vols,, 12mo. Philadelphia: C. H. 

Davis & Co. 1859-67. 
37 



578 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 

Janney, S. M. Life of William Penn : With Selections from his Correspondence 
and Autobiography. 12mo. Philadelphia; Friends Book Association, '706 Arcii 
Street, 

Wagstaff, W. K. A History of the Society of Friends, complied from its Standard 
Records, and other Authentic Sources. 8vo, pp. 400. New York : Wiley & Put- 
nam. 1845. 

Shakers. 

Evans, F. W. Shakers. Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and 
Regulations, Government, and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in 
Christ's Second Coming, 16mo. New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1859, 

Millennial Church, A Summary Yiew of ; or, the United Society of Believers, com- 
m<»nly called Shakers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of the 
Society. 12mo, pp. 320, Albany: Packard & Van Benthuysen. 1823. 

Universalis!, 

Adams, John Gr, Fifty Notable Years. One Hundred Biographical Sketches of Well- 
known and Distinguished Universalist Ministers, (It also contains the rise and 
progress of the Universalist Church in America,) Pp, 336, Boston, Mass. : 
Universalist Publishing House, 16 Bromfield Street, 

Murray, John, Life of. Written by himself, with a continuation by Mrs. J, S. 
Murray. A new edition, with an Introduction and Notes, by Gr. L, Demarest. 
Boston, Mass, : Universalist Publishing House. 

Proceedings of the Universalist Centennial held in Gloucester, Mass., September 20, 
21, 22, 1870, 8vo. Boston, Mass. : Universalist Publishing House. 

Thomas, Abel C, A Century of Universalism. Boston, Mass, : Universalist Publish- 
ing House, 

Unitarian. 

Channing, W, E., Memoirs of. 3 vols., 12mo, pp. 1400. Boston, Mass. : American 
Unitarian Association, 7 Tremont Place, 

Ellis, George E, Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with particular refer- 
ence to its Origin, its Course, etc. 8vo, pp. 536. Boston, Mass. : American Uni- 
tarian Association. 

Frothingham, O. B, Transcendentalism in New England : a History. 8vo, pp. ix, 
395. New York : G, P, Putnam's Sons, 18*76, 

Gannett, William C. Memoir of Ezra Stiles Gannett. Boston, Mass. : American Uni- 
tarian Association. 

Ware, William, American Biography. Memoirs of Individuals who have been Dis- 
tinguished in the Cause of Liberal Christianity. 2 vols,, 12mo, pp, 396, 452. 
Boston: J. Munroe & Co, 1850-51. 

United Brethren in Christ. 

Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Svo, 
2 vols, in one. Dayton, Ohio : United Brethren Publishing House. (The same in 
German. Pp. 283.) 

Spayth, Henry G. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. 12mo, 
pp. 344. Circleville, Ohio : Conference Office. 1851. 



INDEX. 



Adhortatio, the, of Theobald Thamer, 

122. 
^Esthetic feehng not the same as religious 

feeling, 34. 
^Esthetic religion as deficient as a merely 

legal religion, 21. 
Alexandrian classification of the Old Test- 
ament books, 155. 
Allegorical interpreters, Origen the first 

of the, 246. 
Allegorical method of interpretation, rise 

of the, 246. 
Alsted, John Henrv, the Methodus of, 

124. 
America, philosophical speculation in, 78. 

theological encyclopaedia in, 133. 
American Presbyterians, alliance of 
Churches of the Reformed faith 
with, 106. 
Angelology and demonology, 426. 
Anthropology, 427. 

the doctrine of sin, 428. 
Antiquities, Hebrew, German and English 

works on, 183. 
Apologetics, 403. 

an introduction to dogmatics, 405. 
Clement and Origen, 408. 
divinity and truth of Scripture in- 
volved in each other, 407. 
earliest apologetics, the field of, 408. 
German apologies, 410. 
Grotius and Limborch, 409. 
history of, 408. 
literature of, 411. 

must precede dogmatic science, 404. 
philosophy and Christianity, conflict 

between, 409. 
relation of, to dogmatics, 403. 
relation of polemics and apologetics 

to dogmatics, 404. 
remote beginning of all departments 

in theology, 405. 
separate science, not yet a, 411. 
task of, a twofold one, 406. 
Apologetics and polemics, Schleiermach- 
er's definition of the relations 
of, 417. 
Apostles, the, 283. 

literature on, 284. 
Apostolic age requires separate treatment, 
284. 
Vol. III. 



Apostolo,% meaning of the term, 283. 
Arabic, a knowledge of, useful to the 

theologian, 168. 
Archaeology, ancient writers on, 180. 

classification of the material of, 176. 
historical sketch of, 179. 
includes more than Hebrew antiqui- 
ties, 176. 
narrowness of the term, 175. 
works on, of a general character, 
182. 
Archaeology, biblical, 175. 

related to exegesis and Church his- 
tory, 262. 
scope of, 175. 
Archaeology, ecclesiastical, 388. 
a history of worship, 389. 
history of, 390. 

necessarily related to the present, 389. 
Architecture, sacred, as related to Prot- 
estant worship, 509. 
Aristides, apology by, 408. 
Art, Law, and Doctrine co-related, 23. 
Artists and legislators the teachers of 

mankind, 19. 
Arts and sciences among the Hellenes and 

kindred peoples, 178. 
Asceticism and pedagogics, 461. 
Astronomy not necessarily related to the- 
ology, 71. 
Augustine, his instructions respecting the 
proper mode of presenting Scrip- 
ture doctrines, 441. 
qualifications of the minister accord- 
ing to, 118. 
Auxiliary sciences, the five, 159. 
Auxiliary sciences to Church history, 343. 

Bacon, Lord, strongly against confounding 

theology and philosophy, 82. 
Baden and the Palatinate, liturgical con- 
troversy in, 517. 
Basle and Saumur, the theologians of, 125. 
Bible, The : 

constitutes a sacred literature, 149. 

ethnography of, 177. 

evervwhere teaches a God for man, 

424. 
geography of, 176. 

hermeneutics furnishes the key to, 
230. 



580 



INDEX. 



Bible, The : 

historical form and development of 
the doctrine of, 286. 

its first exposition wholly practical, 
245. 

narratives of, are God's word to man- 
kind, 149. 

natural science of, 177. 

nature of Biblical narrative, 266. 

the object of exegetical theology, 146. 

original languages of, 160. 

presents only a single body of truth, 
148. 

providentially guarded, yet subject to 
human vicissitudes, 203. 

reasons why it needs care in its in- 
terpretation, 229. 

reverence for the letter and style of, 
observable in English literature, 
149. 

study of the Bible, relation of ency- 
clopaedia to, 147. 

the standard of judgment in Church 
history, 305. 

tie which binds the books of the Bi- 
ble together, 148. 
Biblical archaeology, 175. 

history of, 179. 

related to exegesis and Church his- 
tory, 262. 

scope bf, 175. 

the Old Testament, always its princi- 
pal source, 176. 
Biblical characters, English and American 

literature on, 270. 
Biblical criticism : 

historical sketch of, 213. 

in the Middle Ages, 214. 

no one need be startled by the phrase, 
202. 

objects contemplated by, 202. 

often paltry, 204. 

revival of, in the eighteenth century, 
215. 
Biblical dogmatics, the natural point of 
transition from historical to sys- 
tematic theology, 144. 
Biography of Christ, history of the, 276. 
Briefe, defects of Herder's, 130. 

Oalixtus, separates ethics from dogmatics, 

397. 
Canon, changes in the, unlikely, 207. 

New Testament canon in the early 

Church, 194. 
New Testament canon not formed at 

one time, 159. 
object of a history of the, 191. 
period of the first form ation of the, 1 94. 
Oanonicity, conditions of, 204. 

should criticism consider the question 
of? 206. 
Vol. III. ^ 



Canonics, the name proposed as a substi- 
tute for Introduction, 192. 
Biblical, 191. ' 

Casuistry, 461. 
Catechetical methods, 488. 
Catechetics a part of pastoral work, 
491. 
demands a love for childhood, 492. 
endowment for, mental and spiritual, 

492. 
function of catechetics, 489. 
real art of the catechist, the, 490. 
religious nature of youth should be 

studied, 490. 
Socratic method of, 489. 
work of the catechist, 488. 
Catechetics, 486. 

literature of, 497. 
scope of, 487. 

difference between ethics and cate- 
chetics, 488. 
Catechetics, history of, 493. 

affected by sceptical pedagogics, 496. 
authors, leading, between Luther and 

Spener, 495. 
catechisms, the first, 494. 
early catechetical works, 494, 
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 495. 
Luther's two catechisms, 494. 
" Philanthropic " method of, 496. 
Boman Catholic catechetics, 497. 
Schleiermacher, services of, to cate- 
chetics, 497. 
Catechists, the older, did but little theo- 
rizing, 495. 
Catechumens in the ancient Church, 493. 
Categories of Practical Theology, 478. 
Causality, twofold law of, in Church his- 
tory, 303. 
Centurial division of Historical Theology 

wrong, 299. 
Chaldee, certain portions of the Old Testa- 
ment written in, 160. 
knowledge of, useful to the theolo- 
gian, 168. 
Character, formation of, 55. 

importance of, to the theologian, 55. 
Characteristics of Hebrew, 161. 
Characters, Biblical, English and American 

literature on, 270. 
Christian Ethics, 355. 
Christianity : 

Church, the idea of a, eminently pe- 
culiar to, 499. 
destined to develop into a system, 

394. 
expansion and limitation of, 297. 
moral power of, the universal, 458. 
not chargeable with narrow Church 

history, 308. 
Wolfenbiittel assault on historical 
Christianity, 65. 



INDEX. 



581 



Christian language, the New Testament 

obliged to create a, 170. 
Christian philosophy, conditions of a, 86. 

the only possible, theistic, 86. 
Christian sermon, history of the, 535. 
Christian teaching : has superseded the old 

conditions, 298. 
Christian theologians should study the Old 

Testament, and why, 151. 
Christian theology conditioned by the his- 
tory of Christianity, 62. 
Deism and Pantheism antagonistic to, 

84. 
origin of formal, 64. 
Christology, 429. 

center of dogmatics, the, 429. 
doctrine of the Church on, improperly 

defined, 430. 
life of Christ the basis of Christology, 
429. 
Chronology, ecclesiastical, 353, 
Chrysostom, beginnings of theological en- 
cyclopaedia in, 118. 
Church, the : 

advantage of groupings in Church life, 

298. 
both external and internal, 296. 
constitution of the, 297. 
guidance of the Church the object of 

theology, 59. 
historical development of the, 296. 
must not be excluded from the 

school, 47. 
not alone social or theocratic, 296. 
not merely a society, 295. 
Pentecost the beginning of the, 295. 
philosophy in, after the Reformation, 

75. 
sacraments, the Church and the, 

434. 
soul-life of the, 297. 
the early theological science in, 63. 
theological tendencies in the early 

Church, 98. 
theology and the Church, 44. 
Church Fathers, the, 370. 
Church History: 

acquaintance necessary with Church 
history of our own country, 
311. 
atomistic mode of treating, .303. 
cannot be understood without a 
knowledge of ancient and oriental 
history, 70, 
causality, twofold law of, 303. 
central point of historical theology, 

294. 
centurial division of, wrong, 29*9, 
Council of Trent, the, an epoch in 
Church history from the Roman 
Catholic standpoint, 301, 
denominational character of, 315. 
Vol. III. 



Church IJistory: 

extremes to be avoided in, 304, 

God's word the standard of judg- 
ment in, 305. 

great and exciting events in, demand a 
separate treatment, 299. 

great epochs in, 300. 

historian, the best, in sympathy with 
the people, 307. 

history of Church history, 313. 

individual Churches demand a sepa- 
rate treatment, 299. 

in Middle Ages, necessity of under- 
standing the, 311. 

intimate relations of general and 
Church history, 343. 

Latin Church historians, the, 314. 

literature of, general and special, 
316. 

Lutheran writers on, 314. 

method of, 309. 

moral and religious disposition of the 
historian, 307. 

Mosheim the reformer of, 315, 

Neander, the work of, 315. 

obscure causes, true value of, 304. 

parallels, necessity of, 312. 

prejudice in, damage from, 307. 

principle of Christianity must be ever 
present in, 306. 

proper treatment of, 302. 

Protestant emphasis on the history 
of teaching, 312. 

reciprocal influences in, 303. 

requires a knowledge of the ancient 
world and its faiths, 344. 

Reformation, effect of, upon, 314. 

Reformed writers on, 314. 

reports, difference in, 302. 

sciences auxiliary to, 343. 

sixteenth century, the division of the 
Church in the, an epoch in 
Church history, 301. 

twofold criticism of sources, 302. 

whole field of, must be understood, 
309. 
Church symbols, the three principal, 

381. 
Classic languages, value of the ancient, 

69. 
Clergy, various designations of the, 48. 
Commentaries not to be too much relied 

on, 243. 
Commentator and interpreter, their func- 
tions distinguished, 239. 
Commonwealth, structure of the, 178. 
Community, the religious, 42. 
Concordances and lexicons of the Xew 

Testament, 172. 
Confessionalism, ecclesiastical, 104. 
Conscience, religious feeling becomes a 
steadfast disposition through, 40. 



583 



IKDEX. 



Conscience, religious feeling not resolva- 
ble into, 40. 
Constitution, the, of the Church, 29Y. 
Critical methods, 208. 
Criticism, Biblical : 

carefully defined limits to be fixed to 
internal criticism, 210. 

conjectural attempts not forbidden in 
needful cases, 211, 

critical and exegetical skill the result 
of practice, 212. 

critical hypotheses, frequent fallacies 
in, 211. 
Criticism and exegesis act on each other, 
213. 

destructive criticism as applied to 
New Testament not yet success- 
ful, 205. 

external criticism defined, 209. 

first critical edition of the New Test- 
ament, 215, 

higher and lower criticism, 208. 

historical criticism, the place for, 262. 

history of, 213. 

hypotheses, critical, frequent fallacies 
in, 211, 

leadership in criticism maintained by 
English scholars in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, 
216. 

Middle Ages, criticism in the, 214. 

mischief done by dabblers in, 212. 

necessary for understanding of the 
Gospels, 273. 

negative and positive criticism, func- 
tions of, 210. 

negative criticism no ground for 
alarm, 272. 

objects contemplated by, 202. 

office of internal criticism, 209 

often paltry, 204. 

positive and negative, 210. 

prejudice, necessity of freedom from, 
in criticism, 264. 

relation of criticism to exegesis, 212. 

revival of, in the eighteenth centurv, 
215. 

should criticism consider the question 
of canonicity ? 206. 

sometimes employed for perverse and 
frivolous ends, 203. 

spiritual sympathy necessary to a cor- 
rect view of the life of Christ, 
274. 

though often perverted, yet of great 
value, 203. 

Tubingen tendency critics, the, 216. 
Culture, uses of aesthetic, 72. 

Danz's division of theology,' 140. 
Deism : 

application of the terra, 84. 
Vol. in. 



Deism : 

incapable of Christian ideas, 84. 

in England in the time of Charles 

First, 76. 
pantheism and deism antagonistic to 
Christian theology, 84. 
Demonology, 426. 

Denominational character of Church his- 
tory, 315, 
DeWette and Grotius, rise of the school 

of, 249. 
Didascalion, the, of Hugo St. Victor, 

119. 
Discussion, utility of oral, 54. 
Disputes, disorderly, antidote against, 54, 
Divine training of humanity, the notion 

of, 153, 
Division of Historical Theology into pe- 
riods, 299, 
Divisions of knowledge — philosophy, na- 
ture, history, 67. 
Doctrine, development of, in the Protes- 
tant Churches, 65. 
no cessation in the development of, 

394. 
relation of life and doctrine, 288. 
Doctrine, Christian, ethical character of, 
396. 
Christian doctrine a unit, 361. 
Doctrine, Law, and Art co-related, 23. 
Doctrine of the Bible, historical form and 

development of the, 286. 
Doctrines, history of, 358. 

arrangement controlled by dogmatic 

character, 362. 
Baur's division of, 364. 
changes in, necessity of recognizing, 

365. 
definition of, 359. 
difficulty of discovery of beginnings 

of change, 363. 
division of, into periods, 363. 
dynamic principle, in, important. 635. 
relation of history of Doctrines to 

symbolics, 382. 
task of doctrinal history, the, 359. 
Dogma, inability of philosophy to orig- 
inate, illustrated, 81. 
Dogmatical systems, interpretation should 

be independent of, 239, 
Dogmatics : 

biblical, 286. 

apologetics an introduction to, 405. 

apologetics and polemics, relation of 

to, 403. 
a progressive science, 400, 
began with the Reformation, 289, 
both biblical and ecclesiastical, 414, 
central point, the, of all theology, 

399, 
Christology the center of, 429. 
defined, 399. 



INDEX. 



583 



Dogmatics : 

difference between dogmatics and 
ethics, 397. 

ecclesiastical dogmatics, 395. 

ethics depends upon doctrine in the 
last analysis, 399. 

flexible treatment of, 288. 

history of Biblical, 289. 

history of doctrines presumes ac- 
quaintance with dogmatics, 359. 

method of, 420. 

objection to Schleiermacher's defini- 
tion of, 401. 

object of, 395. 

outline of dogmatical system, 423. 

Schleierm.acher's method in, 421. 

Schweizer's method in, 424, 
Dogmatics, history of: 

Augustine's works, 442, 

Calvin and his successors, 444, 

degeneration of dogmatics, 443. 

dogmatic literature in the Reformed 
Church, 444. 

literature of the history of, 448. 

local or topical method, in, 421. 

Lutheran dogmatic writers, 444. 

Melanchthon the founder of Protest- 
ant dogmatics, 443. 

progress of most recent dogmatics, 
446. 

reactionary tendency of dogmatics, 
445. 

Roman Catholic dogmatists, 447. 

Schleiermacher's dogmatics, 445. 

Scholasticism and mysticism, 442. 

summaries, 443. 

transition to rationalism, 445. 

Twesten and Nitzsch, 446. 
Dogmatizer, every judicious, a harmonizer, 

415. 
Doubt, temper in which it should be met, 

56. 
Doubt, true method of dealing with, 107. 

Early history of the Israelites, 267. 
Ecclesiastical confessionalism, 104. 
Eighteenth century, theology in the, 100. 
Eloquence, the limit of sacred, 525. 
Empirics theological, 12. 
Encyclopaedia, Theological : 

as treated by Harless, Lange, and 

Pelt, 134. 
as treated by Pfaff and BuddtBus, 

128. 
contributions of Semler and Mo- 

sheim to, 128. 
Gerhard, John, the Encvclopsedia of, 

123, 
in the early part of the eighteenih 

century, 132, 
in the Lutheran Church, 126, 
Isidore, the Encyclopcedia of, 119. 
Vol, in. 



Encyclopaedia, Theological : 

keeps pace with science, 11. 

made independent by Schleiermacher, 

132. 
natui^e of, 9. 
relation of encyclopaedia to the study 

of the Bible, 147. 
Roman Catholic encyclopaedia, 136. 
study of encyclopaedia can never be 

exhausted, 11. • 

study of encyclopaedia necessary to the 
theologian, 15. 
England, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
England, theological tendencies in, in the 

eighteenth century, 105. 
English Deism and Gibbon and Paine, 

105. 
Episcopos and Preshuteros in the Apostolic 

Church, 47. 
Epoch, the Reformation a universal, 301. 

what constitutes an epoch, 301. 
Erasmus determines the proper aim of 
theological study, 120. 
merits of the work of, 121. 
preface of Erasmus to the New Test- 
ament, 120. 
rationalistic tendencies manifested by, 
99. 
Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 553. 
Ernesti the restorer of sound exegesis, 

248. 
Eschatology, 436. 

Christian hope to be realized onlv m 

Christ, 438. 
immortality not to be confounded 
with, 437. 
Eschenburg the first to employ the title 

Wissenschaftskunde, 8. 
Ethics, Christian, 453. 

analytical, philosophical, sjnthetical, 

454. 
based on dogmatics, 454. 
casuistry, 461. 
Christ not a mere moral and statutory 

teacher, 458. 
Christianity the universal moral pow- 
er, 458. 
Christ's work the basis of ethics, 

457. 
division of ethics, 459. 
ethical labors of the Fathers, 462. 
ethical reaction in the Church, 463. 
first separate treatment of, 464. 
general and special ethics, 459. 
harmony of philosophical and Christ- 
ian ethics, 455. 
history of ethics, 462. 
Humanism and ethics, 463. 
includes duties which men owe to the 

State, 456. 
Kant's treatment of, 465. 
literature of, 466. 



584 



INDEX. 



Ethics, Christian: 

distinguished from philosophical, 455. 

liturgies, relation of, to ethics, 504. 

place of Christian ethics, 453. 

positive element of, 45*7. 

Protestant ethical writers, 464. 

Reformers, the, and ethics, 463. 

Roman Catholic ethics, 464. 

Rosenkranz's system, 460. 

Schleiermacher's method, 460. 

transcends philosophical ethics, 457. 

views of Rothe, Harless, and others, 
459. 

works of early writers, 462. 
Ethnography, Biblical, IV?. 
Eusebius the first of Bible geographers, 

180. 
Eusebius, work of, 313. 
Evangelical Union of Prussia, 415. 
Ewald's Life of Christ, 278. 
Exegete, the New Testament, should be 
familiar with the Semitic lan- 
guages, 168. 
Exegesis : 

additional reasons for making it a 
separate department, 142. 

application of exegesis, the, 241. 

as much an ecclesiastical as a relig- 
ious science, 140. 

complete exegesis dependent on re- 
ligious growth, 241. 

critical and exegetical skill the result 
of practice, 212. 

criticism and exegesis act on each 
other, 213. 

definition of, 238. 

distinguished from hermeneutics, 238. 

effect of the Reformation on, 248. 

Ernesti the restorer of sound exege- 
sis, 248. 

includes both interpretation and expli- 
cation, 238. 

influence of the Reformation on, 314. 

Kant's separation of dogmatical from 
ethical exegesis, 249, 

Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 247, 

method of applying, 243. 

Middle Ages, exegesis in the, 247. 

neological exegesis, rise of, 249. 

New Testament, a knowledge of He- 
brew necessary to the exegesis 
of the, 162. 

practical exegesis the result of the 
scientific, 241. 

process by which exegesis is made 
practical, 242. 

Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 248. 

relation of criticism to exegesis, 212. 

sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159. 

should not be studied alone with a 
view to the pulpit, 532. 

student's self -training in, 244, 
Vol. III. 



Exegete, spirit of the true, 240. 
Exegetical theology, definition of, 146. 
first in order, 143. 
practical sciences auxiliary to, 175. 
reasons why exegetical theology 
should be a separate depart- 
ment, 141. 
relations of exegetical theology with 

historical theology, 261. 
the Bible the object of, 146. 
Exposition of the Bible at first wholly 
practical, 245. 

Ealse readings, how originated, shown by 

internal criticism, 210. 
Fathers, the Church, 370. 

ethical labors of the, 462. 

exegesis of the Latin Fathers, 247. 
Feeling, in what sense religion is rooted 

in, 33. 
Feeling, the theory of, 37. 
Five auxiliary sciences, the, 159. 
Founders of religions, 43. 
France, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
French pulpit, the, 537. 

General history, importance of familiarity 
with, to the Church historian, 
343. 

Genuineness of books and passages to be 
determined by Biblical criticism, 
204. 

Geography, Biblical, 176. 

writers on, in the eighteenth and nine- 
teenth centuries, 180. 

Geography, ecclesiastical, 352. 

Gerhard, Andrew, the Theologus of, 123. 

Gerhard, John, the Encyclopaedia of, 123. 

German Catholic works on theological 
encyclopaedia, 137. 

Gesenius and DeWette, rise of the school 
of, 249. 

Gesticulation, pulpit, 531. 

Glassius, Solomon, the first to bring to- 
gether the grammatical peculiari- 
ties of New Testament diction, 
171. 

God. See Theology. 

God-man, objections to the term, 430. 

Gospel, the : 

does not contradict itself, 272. 
spoken first, then written, 158. 

Gospels, the : 

criticism necessary for understand- 
ing, 273. 
discrepancies in the Gospels may be 

admitted, 272. 
exposition of the Gospels an exeget- 
ical, not an historical, task, 
261. 

Grammars, Hebrew, 165. 

Grammars of the New Testament, 172. 



INDEX. 



585 



Greek, history of the exposition of the 
character of Xew Testament, 171. 

Greek words, new meaning given to some 
current in the New Testament, 
171. 

Growth of Biblical Hermeneutics, 231. 

Gymnastic exercises for students, advan- 
tages of, 57. 

Halieutics and Kervktics, 486. 

Harless, definition of encyclopEedia by, 10. 

Harless, Lange, and Pelt, their treatment 

of encyclopaedia, 134. 
Harms's scheme of practical theology, 481. 
Harmonies on the Ufe of Christ, 282. 
Hase, his definition of religion, 25. 
Heads, theological, 420. 
Hebraistic character of the language of 
the New Testament, recognition 
of, 170. 
Hebrew language, a knowledge of, indis- 
pensable to the exegesis of the 
Xew Testament, 162. 
characteristics of Hebrew, 161. 
derivation of the word Hebrew. 161. 
historical sketch of the studv of, 

163. 
included in school curriculum solely 

for the sake of theology, 66. 
necessity of a knowledge of, 161. 
not perfected before the time of Da- 
vid, 163. 
study of Hebrew in several ages of 
"the Church, 163. 
Hebrew antiquities, German and English 

works on, 183. 
Hebrew commonwealth, structure of the, 

178. 
Hebrew grammars and chrestomathies. 

165. 
Hebrew learninsc, Reuchlin the restorer of, 

164. 
Hebrew lexicons, 166, 168. 
Hebrews, art and science among the, 178. 

religious institutions of the, 178. 
Hegelianism, theological encyclopasdia 

treated in the spirit of, 133. 
Hegelian school, divisions of the, 76. 
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 495. 
Hellenistic-Greek the original language of 
the New Testament Scriptures, 
169. 
Herder, great influence on theology of, 

129. 
Herder and Schleiermacher, new direction 

given to theology by, 101. 
Hermeneutics : 

Biblical Hermeneutics a branch of 

general hermeneutics, 230. 
causes which make hermeneutics nec- 
essary, 229. 
definition of, 228. 
Vol. ni. ' 



Hermeneutics : 

distinguished from exegesis, 238. 
distinguished from rhetoric, 228. 
furnishes the key to the Bible, 230. 
gradual growth of, 231. 
has the right to require unconditional 
surrender to its rules by the ex- 
positor, 231. 
literature of, 232. 
Heterodoxy, 440. 
Historian, the best, in sympathy with the 

people, 307. 
Historian, the, should be superior to the 

appeals of party interest, 307. 
Historical sketch of the study of Hebrew, 

163. 
Historical Theology, 261. 
History and literature of theological en- 
cyclopaedia, 118. 
History, biblical : 

diflScultv connected with earlv periods 

of,"263. 
early history of the Israelites, 267. 
general and special, 361. 
must precede doctrine, 295. 
Christ's Hfe the center of, 271. 
should precede dogmatics, reasons 

why, 144. 
study of, should follow philology, 69. 
History of the exposition of the character 

of New Testament Greek, 171. 
History, sacred, place of, 262. 
Hobbes, atheistic opinions of, attacked by 

Cudworth, 77. 
Holland, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
Homiletics : 

arrangement and material, 525. 
artistic division of the sermon, 528. 
art of preaching, the, a part of theo- 
logical science, 540. 
Christian sermon, history of the, 535. 
defects of first sermons, 533. 
delivery, 528. 

division of homiletics, 525. 
early homilies, the, 535. 
effect of a sermon to be studied by 

the preacher, 530. 
fanciful divisions, 537. 
French pulpit, the, 537. 
gesticulation, pulpit, 531. 
history of homiletics, 535. 
invention, 526. 
lay preaching, 524. 
lesson, every sermon may be a, 534. 
literature of, 543. 
mediaeval preaching, 535. 
method of homiletics, 532. 
Mystic preachers, the, 536. 
not a theory of sacred eloquence, 

519. 
oratory a conversation, 523. 
Pietists, sermons of the, 537. 



586 



INDEX 



Homiletics : 

preaching, history of the theory of, 
540. 

pulpit, preparations for, 532. 

pulpit, the, should be always before 
the mind, 533. 

pulpit, the, has its own peculiar style, 
528. 

Reformed writers on homiletics, 542. 

Reformers, preaching by, 536. 

relation of the sermon to the congre- 
gation, 523. 

relation of, to liturgies, 519. 

repentance, necessity of a continual 
preaching of, 520. 

Roman Catholic writers on, 543. 

sacred eloquence, the hmits of, 525. 

secret of homiletical invention, the, 
526. 

sermon, the, not a lecture, 522. 

sermon, the, should be mentally con- 
structed, 529. 

sermonic division, 528. 

synthetic and analytical methods, 
527. 

testimony to Christ, the sermon a, 
523. 

text, the, 521. 

texts, conditions necessary for proper, 
526. 

useless ornament to be avoided, 529. 
HomiUst, the, needs to be an exegete, 

474. 
Hugo St. Victor, the Didascalion of, 119. 
Humanism and ethics, 463. 
Humanity, notion of the divine training 

of, 153. 
Hymnology : 

existing treasures gladly used by lit- 
urgies, 511. 

new hymns to receive recognition, 
511. 

old hymns not necessarily good, 511. 

poetry of Protestantism culminates in 
the Church hymn, 511. 

Idealism and sensationalism both unchris- 
tian, 83. 

Idiom, the New Testament, based on the 
later Greek, 170. 

Individual, the, and his relations to 
science, 16. 

Industry, private, the supplement to pub- 
lic instruction, 53. 

Institutions, the religious, of the Hebrews, 
178. 

Instruction, public, should be supplement- 
ed by private industry, 63. 

Interpretation of the Scriptures : 

a religious disposition essential to the 

right, 240. 
need for care in the, 229. 
Vol. III. 



Interpretation of the Scriptures : 

rise of the allegorical method of, 

246. 
should be independent of dogmatic 

systems, 239. 
sketch of the history of, 245. 
Interpreter and commentator, their func- 
tions distinguished, 239. 
Interpreters, the allegorical, Origen the 

first of the, 246. 
Introduction, Biblical : 

either general or special, 191. 
German and English literature on, 

195. 
properly limited to history of the 

canon and criticism, 193. 
relation of general to special, 193. 
scope and limits of not, precisely de- 
fined, 191. 
Isagogics, Biblical, 191. 
Isidore, the Encyclopsedia of, 119. 
Israelites, early history of the, 267. 
nation, history of the, 263. 
people of God, the, 265. 
people under the law, a, 21. 
sources" for history of, 267. 
Israelites, history of : 

begins with the head of the race, 

263. 
literature on the, 267. 
non-Jewish writers on, 267. 
writers on, among Christian Fathers, 
267. 

Jansenists, the, opposed philosophy, 75. 
Jesuits, the, favored philosophy, 75. 
Jesus Christ: 

different views of, 275. 

his life the center of history, 271. 

his person the center of dogmatics, 

422. 
his walk the basis of ethics, 457. 
life of, the basis of Christology, 429. 
not a mere moral and statutory 

teacher, 458. 
parallels between Christ and Socrates, 

277. 
worship of, in hymns and prayers, 

early manifestation of, 276. 
Jesus Christ, life of : 

absurdity of the mythical theory, 275. 
diverse views of different writers on, 

275. 
does not come within the range of 

Church history, 295. 
eiforts to eliminate the miraculous 

from the, 277. 
English and American literature on, 

282. 
Ewald's Life of Christ, 278. 
harmonies of the, 282. 
history of the biographies of, 276. 



INDEX. 



587 



Jesus Christ, life of: 

importance of attaining to a satisfac- 
tory view of, 271. 
is matter for history only so far as it 

is definitely human, 273. 
its own explanation, 274. 
Keim's work on the, 279. 
literature of the, 279. 
negative criticism of, no ground for 

alarm, 272. 
Kenan's Life of Christ, 278. 
separate historical study, a, 276. 
spiritual sympathy necessary for cor- 
rect criticism of, 274. 
Strauss's Life of Christ, 277. 
Jewish Old Testament expositors in Mid- 
dle Ages, importance of, 247. 
Jews. See Israelites. 
Justification and Sanctification, 433. 

Kant, categorical imperative of, 31. 

his separation of dogmatical from 

ethical exegesis, 249. 
his treatment of ethics, 465. 
influence of Kant on philosophy, 76. 
Keim, his work on the life of Christ, 

279. 
Keryktics, 486. 
Kliefoth, his division of doctrinal history, 

364. 
Knowledge, divisions of — philosophy, na- 
ture, and history, 67. 
Knowledge of Hebrew a necessity, and 
why, 161. 

Lange, Harless, and Pelt, their treatment 

of encyclopfedia, 134. 
Language of the Xew Testament, not pure 

Greek, 169. 
Languages of the Bible, the original, 160. 
Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 247. 
Latin writers of Church history, 314. 
Xaw and medicine, relations of theology 

with, 60. 
Law, art, and doctrine co-related, 23. 
Lay preaching, 524. 
Learning and religion, a desire for both 

needful to the study of theologv, 

17. 
Lecture, preparation and repetition to be 

added to the, 54. 
Lectures, attendance on too many, works 

injury and confusion, 54. 
Lectures, true method of profiting by, 53. 
Legend and myth, difference between, 

265. 
Letter, the, is not science, 14. 
Lexicons and concordances of the New 

Testament, 172. 
Lexicons, Hebrew, 166. 
Life the object of all study, 12. 
Liturgies, 498. 
Vol, III. 



Liturgies : 

based on dogmatics, 435. 

contrast between Protestant and Ro- 
man Catholic liturgies, 502. 

ethics and ecclesiastical law, liturgies 
in relation to, 504. 

field of, 498. 

homiletical and liturgical elements, 
distinction between, 504. 

limitations of, 510. 

literature of, 517. 

living worship, need of a, 501. 

mechanical liturgy in Roman Catholi- 
cism, 502. 

Protestant recognition of, 505. 

Protestant liturgies, 503. 

relation of worship to art, 499. 

religious feeling, necessity of in litur- 
gies, 503. 

Roman Catholic and Protestant litur- 
gists, difference between, 503. 

sermon, place of the, defined by, 
500. 

worship defined, 499. 
Liturgies, history of : 

Christian worship developed from the 
Jewish, 515. 

hymn-book controversy, the, in Baden 
and the Palatinate, 517. 

methodology of, 513. 

rationalistic works, 516. 

propriety, every thing depends upon 
a sense of, 514. 

Scripture lessons, proper reading of 
the, highly essential, 514. 

service, every part of the, must be 
minutely studied, 513. 

singing, the preacher's relation to the, 
514. 
Logographs and mythographs, 264. 
Lord's Prayer, the : 

prayer should conclude with, 508. 
Lutheran Church, encyclopaedia in the, 

126. 
Lutheran dogmatic writers, 444. 
Lutheran exegesis, 248. 
Lutheran writers on Church history, 314. 
Luther, Martin: 

catechisms, his two, 494. 

his opposition to philosophy, 75. 

more practical than theoretical, 541. 

Maccabees, First Book of, importance of, 
to the post-exilian period, 267. 

Manuscripts, most important, of the New 
Testament, 214. 

Marheineke's method of practical theolo- 
gy, 480. 

Mathematical knowledge, uses of, to the 
theologian, 70. 

Mathematics, has to do with form and 
numbers, 70. 



588 



INDEX. 



Mary Magdalene, her conduct incompre- 
hensible to the banqueters, 32. 
Mass, the : 

Reformed theologians rejected the 

name and the thing, 515. 
transformed by Luther into a simple 
observance of the Lord's Supper, 
515. 
Mediaeval preaching, 535. 
Medicine and law, relations of theology 

with, 60. 
Melanchthon, Apology of, 416. 

founder of Protestant dogmatics, the, 

443. 
little tract of, the, 121. 
recommends the study of the Fathers 
with that of the Bible, 121. 
Methodology, dangers in the treatment of, 
11. 
definition of, 11. 
Methodology of missions, 486. 
Methodologv of systematic theology, the, 
468. 
moral growth needed for the study of 

ethics, 4Y1. 
of dogmatics both historical and phil- 
osophical, 469. 
religious experience necessary for the 
understanding of dogmatics and 
ethics, 4*70. 
Methodus, the, of John Henry Alsted, 

124. 
Middle Age sense of the word theology, 

63. 
Middle Ages, biblical criticism in the, 
214. 
biography of Jesus Christ in the, 

276. 
dogmatic tone of the, 64. 
exegesis in the, 247. 
necessary for Church historian to un- 
derstand the, 311. 
theological tendencies in the, 99. 
Ministerial training, sketch of the history 

of, 51. 
Ministry, an undoubted religious impulse 
to the, has enabled many to sur- 
mount great difficulties, 17. 
Missions, history of, 355. 
Missions in Theological Encyclopasdia, 50. 
Missions, methodology of, 486. 
Moabite Stone, works concerning, 182. 
Mohammed, appearance of, an epoch in 

secular history, 300. 
Mohammedanism, history of, important to 

Church historian, 344. 
Modern rationalism, the, 106. 
Moll's method of practical theology, 481. 
Moral action determined by outward con- 
ditions, 32. 
Moral feeling not identical with religious 
feeling, 35. 
Vol, III. 



Morality and religion have been found 
separated, 31. 

Morality based on independence, 33. 

Mosheim and Semler, contributions of, to 
encyclopaedia, 128. 

Mosheim the reformer of Church history, 
315. 

Music in worship, 509. 

Myth : 

difference between myth and legend, 

265. 
meaning of the term, 264. 

Mysticism, 442. 

the preparation for the Reformation, 
64. 

Mystic preachers, the, 536. 

Mystic tendency, the, in theology, 104. 

Mystics unconsciously borne in the direc- 
tion of rationalism, 99. 

Mystics, the, their understanding of the 
term theology, 63. 

Mythical theory of Strauss, 277. 

Mythical theory of the life of Christ, ab- 
surdity of, 275. 

Narrative, the Bible, nature of, 266. 

sacred narrative as compared with pro- 
fane, 266. 
Natural science of the Bible, 177. 
Natural sciences, acquaintance with the, 

important, 71. 
Neander, work of, as a Church historian, 

315. 
Negative criticism of Christ's life no 

ground for alarm, 272. 
Neological exegesis, rise of, 249. 
Nestorius and the school of Antioch, 98. 
New Covenant, revelations of the, 266. 
New Testament, a knowledge of Hebrew 
necessary to the exegesis of the, 
162. 
concordances and lexicons of the, 

172. 
covers only a single generation of 

men, 156. 
embraces but few nations, 157. 
Erasmus's preface to his Greek, 120. 
first critical edition of the, 215. 
grammars of the language of the, 

172. 
Greek of the, varies with the writers, 

17L 
Greek synonymes of the, 175. 
Greek text-books on the, 174. 
Hellenistic-Greek the original lan- 
guage of the, 169. 
history of the exposition of the Greek 

of the, 171. 
its sub-divisions — history, doctrine, 

and prophecy, 158. 
most important manusciupts of the, 
214. 



INDEX. 



589 



New Testament, new meaning given in the, 
to some current Greek words, 
171. 
Scrivener's introduction to the, 21*7. 
Tregelles, text of, 217. 
various editions of the, 219. 
Westcott and Hort's text of the, 217. 
New Testament canon, the : 
in the early Church, 194. 
not formed at one time, 159. 
New Testament thought, form of, derived 

from the Old, 153. 
Nosselt's Introduction to Theology, 130. 

Old Catholic Party, the, 46. 
Old Testament : 

Alexandrian classification of the 

books of the, 155. 
always the principal source for Bib- 
lical archaeology, 176. 
contents of the, 154. 
covers a period of several thousand 

years, 156. 
critically revised portable editions of 

the, 217. 
different views as to the value of 

the, 152. 
its leading object visible throughout 

its contents, 156. 
Schleiermacher's treatmerft of the, 

152. 
written mainly in Hebrew, 160. 
Oral discussion, utility of, 54. 
Oratory a conversation, 523. 
Origen : 

chief of the allegorical interpreters, 

246. 
his threefold sense of Scripture, 247. 
Origin of formal Christian theology, 64. 
Origin of the term Theology, 62.' 
Original languages of the Bible, the, 160. 
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy : 

orthodoxy not to be confounded with 

supernaturalism, 440. 
rationalism a heterodox phenomenon, 
441. 

Palatinate, liturgical controversy in the, 

517. 
Pantheism and Deism antagonistic to 

Christian theology, 84. 
Pantheism, theological and moral outcome 

of, 85. 
Pantheistic spirit has often donned the 
garb of superior orthodoxy, 102. 
Parallels in Church history, necessity of, 

312. 
Patristic polemics, 217. 
Patristics : 

Church Fathers, 370. 
Classic, the term, 372. 
history of, 373. 
Vol ill. 



Patristics : 

limits of, in time, 371. 
literature of. 374. 

other terms for Church Fathers, 371. 
relation of, to doctrinal history, 372. 
the best works of the Fathers, 372. 
Patrology, 371. 

Pauline epistles, exposition of the, 284. 
Passion-plays, the, 276. 
Pastoral Theology, 544. 
Pastoi'S, terms by which they are known, 

47. 
Paul the apostle, 283. 

the founder of a body of doctrine, 
283. 
Pedagogics, 461. 
Pelt, Lange, and Harless, their treatment 

of encyclopaedia, 134. 
Pentecost the beginning of the Church, 

295. 
People of God, Israelites the, 265. 
Philology, ecclesiastical, 353. 
Philology the first of the preparatory stud- 
ies, 68. 
Philosophic speculation in America, 78. 
Philosophic thought in England much in- 
fluenced by Mill and Coleridge, 
77. 
Philosophy : 

branches of, important to theology, 

87. 
cannot originate theological doctrine, 

81. 
divisible into that of nature and that 

of mind, 88. 
hard terms of, should not be feared, 

80. 
history of, 348. 
importance of a sound psychology to, 

88. 
inability of philosophy to originate 

dogma illustrated, 81. 
influence of Kant on, 76. 
in the Church after the Reformation, 

75. 
leading object in the study of, 80. 
literature of, 348. 
Luther's opposition to, 75. 
no sound objection to philosophy 
from the variety of systems, S3. 
philosophy, object of all, 79. 
Platonic and Aristotelian division of, 

88. 
Schleiermacher's division as to. 76. 
sense in which it must be Christian, 

86. 
should be pursued in connexion with 

other studies, 80. 
theology not bound to any one philos- 
ophy, 82. 
value of the several branches of phi- 
losophy, 87. 



590 



INDEX. 



Philosophy and Christianity, conflict be- 
tween, 409. 
Philosophy and theology, early relations 
of, 64. 
their relations traced historically, 74. 
Philosophy of religion — German literature 

on, 89. 
Physical qualifications demanded of the 

future servant of God, 5Y. 
Pietism : 

fondness of, for dabbling with philoso- 
phy and natural science, 103. 
joins the older supernaturalism, 103. 
position of, in the current conflict, 

103. 
Spener's pietism, 290. 
Pietists, sermons of the, 537. 
Piety cannot take the place of learning, 

18. 
Polemics, zeal for, diminished after the 
middle of the eighteenth century, 
418. 
Polemics and Irenics : 

every judicious dogmatizer a harmo- 

nizer, 415. 
history of, 417. 
literature of, 419. 
not separate departments, 414. 
Eeformed writers on, 218. 
Koman Catholic and Protestant po- 
lemics, modification of, 416. 
Positive science, theology as a, 58. 
Positive Theology : 

all divisions of, relative only, 144. 

departments of, 139. 

Kosenkranz's threefold division of, 

140. 
Schleiermacher's division of, 140. 
Practical Theology, 472. 
Prayer : 

closing prayer, the, should have di- 
rect bearing on the sermon, 
508. 
effeminacy and insipidity to be ex- 
cluded from prayer, 512. 
public prayer, 512. 

should conclude with the Lord's 
Prayer, 508. 
Prayer and singing : 

as forms of worship, 508. 
should precede and follow the ser- 
mon, 508. 
Preacher, the: 

should never cease to be a teacher, 

24. 
should study the possible effect of a 
sermon, 530. 
Preaching : 

art of preaching, the, a part of theo- 
logical science, 540. 
history of the theory of, 540. 
Predestination, 428. . 
Vol. IIL 



Predisposition, the so-called avoidance of 
a prejudice, 239. 

Preparation and repetition to be added to 
the lecture, 54. 

Preparatory and auxiliary sciences, dis- 
tinction betw^een, 66. 

Preparatory sciences, the, 66. 

Preparatory studies, philology the first of 
the, 68. 

Presbyterians, American, 106. 

Prevailing tendencies of theological 
thought, 98. 

Priest, the title of, cannot be entirely ap- 
propriated by Protestant clergy, 
48. 

Propaedeutics, theology as related to, 66. 

Protestant Churches, development of doc- 
trine in the, 65. 

Protestant emphasis on the history of 
teaching, 312. 

Protestant student, the, during his aca- 
demical studies, 50. 

Prussia, Evangelical Union of, 415. 

Psychology, importance of a sound, to 
philosophy, 88. 

Pulpit, the : 

has its own peculiar style, 528. 
preparations for, 532. 

Qualities which should be united in the 

theologian, 61. 
Quadratus, Apology of, 408. 

Rational criticism, beginning of the, with 

Semler, 215. 
Rationalism : 

a heterodox phenomenon, 441. 
chief traits of modern rationalism, 

100. 
has ceased to dispose of miracles, 

239. 
largely a question of method, 109. 
modern Rationalism, 106. 
Rationalism and Supernaturalism : 

approaches of, to each other, 101. 
literature of the conflict, 109. 
Reason co-operative with religious feeling, 

38. 
Recent theology, latest representatives of, 

102. 
Rector, proper meaning of the term, 49. 
Reformation, the : 

a universal epoch, 301. 
effect of, on Church history, 314. 
effect of, on exegesis, 248. 
mysticism the preparation for the, 

64. 
sprang from moral, not doctrinal, 
causes, 396. 
Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 248. 
Reformed Church, dogmatic literature in 
the, 444. 



INDEX. 



531 



Reformed writers on Church history, 314. 

on homiletics, 542. 
Reformers, the, and ethics, 463. 
preaching by the, 536. 
theological spirit of the, 99. 
Relation of life and doctrine, 288. 
Relations of philosophy and theology 

traced historically, 74. 
Religion a feeling of dependence upon 

God, 36. 
Religion and learning, a desire for both, 
needful to the study of theology, 
IV. 
Religion and morality, reasons for distin- 
guishing, 30. 
Religion : 

a religion of reason impossible, 39. 
a subject in which the whole inner 

man is engaged, 41, 
based on dependence, 33. 
definition of, 25. 
evidence that it is not exclusively the 

product of the intellect, 28. 
in what sense is religion rooted in 

feeling, 33. 
is original spiritual power, 31. 
not a transcendental knowledge of 

the absolute, 2Y. 
not bare knowledge as grounded in 

the memory, 27. 
not bare knowledge as grounded in 

the understanding, 27. 
not identical with morality, 30. 
not identical with a supposed spirit- 
ual activity, 30. 
not merely action, 29. 
not merely knowledge, 26. 
requires more than action for its ex- 
pression, 32. 
scope of the word, and distinction 

between it and other terms, 25. 
seeks to manifest itself symbolically 
in terms and imagery, 32. 
Religion, Philosophy of, German litera- 
ture, 89. 
Religious disposition essential to the right 
interpretation of the Bible, 240. 
Religious disposition the only one that 
can apprehend a religious writer, 
240. 
Religious doctrine, superiority of the teach- 
ing of, to law and art, 20. 
Religious feeling : 

becomes a steadfast disposition 

through conscience, 40. 
connects itself with the understand- 
ing and the will, 38. 
common to a community, 43. 
is aided by the imagination, 38. 
not identical with moral feeling, 35. 
not mere sensibility, 34. 
not resolvable into conscience, 40. 
Vol. III. 



Religious feeling : 

not the same as aesthetic feeling, 34. 
school and home culture of, 73. 
synthesis of, with our other faculties, 

37. 
the root of the religious life, 39. 
twofold character in, 36. 
Religious teacher, the : 

position as to other teachers, 24. 
threefold task of the, 42. 
Remonstrants, the, 248. 
Renaissance of learning prepared the way 

for the Reformation, 28. 
Renan's Life of Christ, 278. 
Reuchlin the restorer of Hebrew learning, 

164. 
Revelation, a belief in, requires criticism 
of the historical books of the 
Bible, 263. 
Roman Catholicism, mechanical liturgy of, 

502. 
Roman Catholic dogmatists, 447. 
Roman Catholic encyclopaedia, 136. 
Roman Cathohc ethics, 464. 
Roman Catholic theologians, scientific 

character of, 46. 
Roman Catholic writers on homiletics, 

* 543. 

Roman Empire, overthrow of the Western, 
forms an epoch in secular his- 
tory, 300. 
Rosenkranz's threefold division of positive 

theology, 140. 
Rubrics, 298. 

Sacraments, the Church and the, 434. 

doctrine of the Church can only be 
understood through the doctrine 
of Christ, 435. 
faith the connecting medium, 436. 
Sacred history, place of, 262. 
Sacred writings : 

integrity of, necessary to their canon- 
ical reception, 207. 
not the exclusive property of a priest- 
ly order, 45. 
Salvation not dependent on subtleties, 

439. 
Sanctification, 433. 

Saumur and Basle, the theologians of, 125. 
Schleiermacher : 

desired that philosophy and theology 

should remain distinct, 76. 
did not advocate mere sensibility, 34. 
division of positive theology by, 140. 
dogmatics of, 445. 
definition of dogmatics by, 400. 
early life nourished in piety, 17. 
his aim as to philosophy, 76. 
his definition of the term religion. 

26. 
his system of ethics, 460. 



5n 



INDEX. 



Schleiermacher : 

his preaching, introduced new life into 

the method of, 539. 
his treatment of Old Testament, 

152. 
made encyclopaedia independent, 132. 
objection to his definition of dogmat- 
ics, 401. 
relations of apologetics and polemics, 

his definition of the, 417. 
reserved for him to allay the conflict 
between rationalism and super- 
naturalism, 101. 
services of, to catechetics, 49Y. 
the whole of theology greatly indebt- 
ed to, 10. 
Schleiermacher and Herder, new direction 

given to theology by, 101. 
Scholar, every, should be familiar Avith the 
histoi\v of the Church, the Ref- 
ormation, and Protestantism in 
his country, 310. 
School and home culture of religious feel- 
ing, 73. 
Scholasticism and mysticism, 442. 
Schoolmen and positive theologians, the 

quarrel between, 74. 
School, the, must not be bolted out of the 

Church, 47. 
Schweizer : 

arrangement of practical theology bv, 

479. 
defect of his division of practical 

theology, 480. 
dogmatical system of, 424. 
Science and learned pedantry, difference 

between, 11. 
Sciences auxiliary to Church historv, 

343. 
Sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159. 
Sciences, the natural, acquaintance with 

important, 71. 
Science's, the practical, auxiliary to exe- 

getical theology, 175. 
Scientific instruction can only be conveyed 

in connected discourse, 52. 
Scientific spirit, dangers of the excess of 

the, 59. 
Scripture historv, Christ's life the center 

of, 271. 
Scripture lessons, proper reading of, highly 

essential, 514. 
Scriptures, the : 

considered as the object of exegesis, 

147. 
Origen's threefold sense of, 247. 
when interpreted to be practically ap- 
plied, 241. 
Self- training, helps to, 244i 
Semitic languages, 161. 
Semler, beginning with, of the rational 
criticism, 215. 
Vol. III. 



Semler and Mosheim, contributions of, to 

encyclopaedia, 128. 
Sensationalism and Idealism, both un- 
christian, 83. 
Sensibility, religious feeling not mere, 34. 
Sermon, the: 

a testimony to Christ, 523. 

defects of first sermons, 533. 

effect of a sermon should be studied 

by the preacher, 530. 
essential element of Protestant wor- 
ship, an, 506. 
fanciful divisions of, 537. 
history of the Christian sermon, 535. 
not a lecture, 522. 

not to become a mere intellectual dis- 
course, 24. 
place of the sermon in worship, 507. 
prayer and singing should precede 

and follow the, 508. 
relation of the sermon to the congre- 
gation, 523. 
sermonic division, 528. 
should be mentally constructed, 529. 
should be sustained by the whole 

economy of the worship, 504. 
the delivery of, 528. 
useless ornament in to be avoided, 
529. 
Seventeenth century, theology in the, 100. 
Sin and repentance religious-ethical ideas, 

31. 
Sin, the doctrine of, 428. 
Singing and prayer as forms of worship, 

508. 
Singing, the preacher's relation to the, 514. 
Society, the Church not merely a, 295. 
Socrates and Christ, parallels between, 

277. 
Soteriology, 431. 

Christ the mediator, 432. 
justification and sanctification, 433. 
subjective soter-iology, 432. 
Spanish Jews, grammatical studies revived 

by, 163. 
Special Theological Encyclopaedia, 146. 
Specialty, devotion to a, should not begin 

too early, 15. 
Spener : 

contributions to theological encyclo- 
paedia, 126. 
pietism of, 290. 
value of the work of, 127. 
Spurious works in the early Church, 204. 
Statistics, ecclesiastical, 390. 
best source for, 391. 
history must furnish statistics, 391. 
text-books in, 392. 
travel, shallow books of, 392. 
Strauss : 

mythical theory of the life of Christ, 
277. 



INDEX. 



5&S 



Strauss : 

numberless works issued in reply to, 
278. 
Strife, the old, in its newer forms, 102. 
Student, the : 

relation of, to rationalistic tendencies, 

107. 
self-training of the student in exege- 
sis, 244. 
teacher and student, relations of, 55. 
Supernaturalism, orthodoxy not to be con- 
founded with, 440. 
Supernaturalism and Rationalism : 

approaches of, to each other, 101. 
literature of the conflict, 109. 
Sweden, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. 
Symbolics : 

a broad science to-day, 383. 
definition of, 380. 

integral part of the history of doc- 
trines, an, 380. 
literature, 384. 

Lutheran and Reformed views, oppo- 
sition between, 384. 
Lutheran symbols, 381. 
origin of modern symbols, 383. 
pragmatic method of discussing, 383. 
pi'incipal symbols, the three, of the 

Church, 381. 
relation of symbolics to the history of 

doctrines, 382. 
symbol, first and later office of, 380. 
Synonymes, Greek, of the New Testament, 

175. 
Synthesis of religious feeling with our 

other faculties, 37. 
Syriac, knowledge of, useful to the theo- 
logian, 168. 
Systematic and historical theology, relative 

positions of, 144. 
Systematic Theology, 394. 

Teacher, the : 

qualifications of the religious, 44. 
religious teacher, the, must be pene- 
trated by religious principle, 42. 
student and teacher, relations of, 55. 
Teachers : 

an order of, necessary to the culture 

of mankind, 20. 
not an isolated order of society, 19. 
order of teachers, the, highest in so- 
ciety, 18. 
Teaching function, the : 

superiority of, to law and art illus- 
trated, 22. 
more prominent in Protestantism than 
in Romanism, 23. 
Teaching, relation of, to art and legisla- 
tion, 19. 
Testaments, the Old and the New : 
differences in the scope of, 157. 
Vol. III. 
38 



Testaments, the Old and the New : 

relations of, 151. 
Text, a pure, indispensable, 208. 
Text-books, elementary, 166. 
Texts, the, conditions necessary for proper, 

526. 
Thamer, Theobald, the Adhortatio of, 122. 
Theistic method, the, in Church history, 

305. 
Theologian, the: 

a knowledge of Chaldee, Syriac, and 

Arabic useful to, 168. 
Hebrew, a knowledge of, indispensa- 
ble to, 163. 
qualities which should be united in 

the, 61. 
relation of the theologian to school 

and Church, 50. 
uses of mathematical knowledge to 

the, 70. 
obliged to give attention to human 

matters, 62. 
personal character in, necessity of a 

pure and well-endowed, 403. 
should be thoroughly familiar with 
the Scriptures, 121, 
Theologians and practical Church teachers, 

how distinguished, 46. 
Theologians, scientific, and pastors co- 
related, 46. 
Theologians, testimonies of great, 108. 
Theologians, the, of Saumur and Basle, 

126. 
Theological doctrine, philosophy cannot 

originate, 81, 
Theological empiricism, 12. 
Theological Encyclopaedia : 

both general and special aim to con- 
centrate the mental faculties, 8. 
definition of, 7. 

demand for a proper science of, 8. 
differs from the Real Encyclopaedia, 

or Dictionary, 9. 
German Catholic works on, 137. 
history and literature of, 118. 
history of, noticed, 8. 
in Holland, France, Sweden, England, 

and America, 134. 
its position, 7. 
missions as treated in, 50. 
relation of, to the body of theological 

science twofold, 10. 
separate contributions to, 138. 
Spener's contributions to, 126. 
treated in the spirit of Hegelianism, 
133. 
Theological heads, 420. 
Theological leai'ning rests on a classical 

basis, 67. 
Theological school, the, and the clergy, 46. 
Theological Science : 

in the early Christian Church, 63. 



594 



INDEX. 



Theological Science : 

must achieve its results through the 
Word, 14. 

true method of making it practical, 
14. 
Theological spirit of the reformers, 99. 
Theological student, true spirit of the, 

44. 
Theological study will increase faith, 108. 
Theological tendencies : 

in England in the eighteenth century, 
105. 

in the early Chui'ch, 98. 

in the Middle Ages, 99. 

in the seventeenth century, 100. 
Theological thought, bias of, 98. 
Theologus, the, of Andrew Gerhard, 123. 
Theology : 

angelology and demonology, 426. 

approached by many with false ex- 
pectations, 107. 

as a positive science, 58. 

as a practical art, 61. 

as related to the preparatory sciences, 
66. 

centurial division of, wrong, 299. 

conditions of a fully developed the- 
ology, 45. 

Danz's division of, into a religious 
and a Churchly science, 140. 

departments in theology, remote be- 
ginning of, 405. 

departments of theology, and their 
relation to each other, 139. 

does not stand or fall with any one 
system of philosophy, 83. 

great influence of Herder upon, 129. 

has never been able to separate itself 
from philosophy, TS. 

historical development, 62. 

historical and exegetical theology, re- 
lations of, 261. 

influence of the Wolfian philosophy 
on, 65. 

Middle Age sense of the word, 63. 

Nosselt's Introduction to, 130. 

not bound to any one philosophy, 
82. 

origin of formal Christian theology, 
64. 

origin of the term, 62. 

premonitions of a vocation to, 18. 

relation of to the arts and general 
culture, 72. 

relations of, with law and medicine, 
60. 

relations of, to philosophy, 74. 

religious element of a doctrine should 
be prominent, 426. 

representatives of the recent theolo- 
gy, 102. 

the Mystic tendency in, 104. 
Vol. in. 



Theology, Historical: 

worldly motives for the study of, not 
sufficient, 16, 

archaeology, 388. 

doctrines, history of, 358. 

doctrinal history, province of, 360. 

general history, elastic treatment of, 
necessary, 362. 

history and revelation, problem of, 
360. 

missions, literature of, 356. 

missions, history of, 355. 
Theology, Pastoral : ' 

biographies, value of religious, to the 
student, 553. 

business forms, the pastor should 
have acquaintance with, 551. 

charities, the pastor as related to, 
547. 

Christ the first instructor in, 553. 

congregation as a whole, relation of 
the pastor to the, 547. 

English and American literature of, 
554. 

Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 
553. 

experience, how it may be utilized by 
the pastor, 546. 

family, relation of the pastor to the, 
548. 

history of, 553, 

indefiniteness of the term, 545. 

irreligious masses, problem of reach- 
ing the, 548. 

literature of Pastoral Theology, 536. 

method of, 551. 

objects of pastoral theology, 544. 

pastor, the, the head of the congre- 
gation, 547. 

pastoral duties best learned from ex- 
perience, 545. 

pastoral duties divided into three de- 
partments, 546. 

pastorate, aids to a preparation for 
the, 551. 

pedagogics in relation to, 550. 

people, personal relation of the pastor 
to the, 547. 

practical sciences auxiliary to, 550. 

practical training, what shall be done 
to furnish a, 552. 

preacher distinguished from pastor 
by Harms, 545. 

scientific pursuits among the clergy, 
best means of preserving, 556. 

special events — Marriage, Baptism, 
and Death — position of the pas- 
tor in relation to, 548. 

wasteful occupations of pastors, 555. 
Theology, Practical : 

all modes of division important, 478. 

catechetical methods, 488. 



INDEX. 



595 



Theology, Practical : 

catechetics, 486. 

categories of, 478. 

clerical life, practical side of, 475. 

completes the theological course, 474. 

definition of, 472. 

former restriction of, 475. 

Harms's scheme of, 481. 

historical basis, of, 474. 

history of, 482. 

homiletics, 519. 

literature of, 484. 

liturgies, 498. 

Marheineke's distribution of, 480. 

method of treatment, 478. 

methodology of, 513. 

Moll's method, 481. 

necessity of emphasis on the prac- 
tical side of clerical duties, 
477. 

rationalistic teaching of, 483. 

Reformers, works of the, 482. 

relation of the preacher to practical 
theology and other departments, 
478. 

Schweizer's division of, 480. 

scientific character of, 473. 

systems of Nitzsch and others, 479. 

universities. Practical Theology in the, 
483. 

worship, forms of, and their relation 
to art, 506. 

worship, the theory of, — liturgies, 
498. 
Theology, Systematic : 

anthropology, 427. 

apologetics, 403. 

Calixtus emancipated ethics from dog- 
matics, 397. 

Christian ethics as a part of, 453. 

Christianity destined to develop into 
a system, 394. 

Christology, 429. 

Christ's work the basis of ethics, 
457. 

Church and the sacraments, the, 435. 

dogmatics, 399. 

dogmatics and ethics, difference be- 
tween, 397. 

dogmatics, history of, 442. 

dogmatic interest, predominance of 
the, 396. 

dogmatics, method of, 420. 

dogmatics, object of, 395. 

ecclesiastical dogmatics, 395. 

eschatology, 436. 

methodology of, 468. 

orthodoxy and heterodoxy, 440. 

polemics and irenics, 413. 

soteriology, 431. 

theology, meaning of, 424. 

Trinitv, the, and predestination, 438. 
Vol. ill. 



Theology and Astronomy, not necessarily 

related, 71. 
Theology and Philosophy, early relations 

of, 64. 
Theology, Pastoral : 
literature, 544. 
Thirty Years' War, the, 301. 
Threefold sense of Scripture, Origen's, 

247. 
Tractarian movement in the United States, 

106. 
Tractarian movement, the, 106. 
" Tracts for the Times," the, 105. 
Training, general, must precede special, 

15. 
Tregelles, basis of his text, 217. 
Trinity and Predestination: 

salvation not dependent on subtleties, 

439. 
Trinity less emphasized than God's 

relation to man, 439. 
Tiibingen School, the : 

destructive efforts of, 284. 
elder, the, 290. 
Tiibingen tendency critics, 216. 

United States, the Wesleyan revival in 

the, 106. 
Universities, the rise of, 51. 
University, the, 52. 
University lecture system, the, 52. 
Utility of oral discussion, 54. 

Value of Spener's work, 127. 
Vocation, choice of the theological, 15. 
Vocation to theology, premonitions of a, 

18. 
Wesleyan, revival, the, 105. 

in the United States, 106. 
Westphalia, peace of, 300. 
Wissenschaftskunde, Eschenburg the first 

to employ the title, 8. 
Wolf opposed by the Pietists, 75. 
Wolfenbiittel assault, the, on historical 

Christianity, 65. 
Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, the, 276, 
Wolfian philosophy, influence of, on The- 
ology, 65. 
Wolfian school, the : 

homiletical writers, 542. 
Works, a mechanical doing of, no« relig- 
ion, 30. 
Worldly motives for the study of theolo 

gy not sufficient, 16. 
Worship altogether an expression of the 
feelings, 40. 
architecture, sacred, as related to 

Protestant worship, 509. 
Christian worship developed from the 

Jewish, 515. 
elements of worship, 506. 
eucharistic element, the, 506. 



596 



INDEX. 



Worship : 

forms of worship and their relation 
to art, 506. 

music in worship, 509. 

opportunity for attending public wor- 
ship when traveling should never 
be neglected, 514, 

prayer and singing, 508. 

service, the order of, 508. 
Vol. m. 



Worship : 

sermon, place of, in the, 507. 

singing and prayer, 508. 

theory of worship, 498. 
Writing both profitable and improving, 55. 
Writings, the sacred, accessible to all, 45. 

Zwingle more nearly related to rationalism 
than Calvin, 99. 



THE END. 



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